Mouse gammadelta T cells are capable of expressing MHC class II molecules, and of functioning as antigen-presenting cells

Histological characterization of γδ T cells in cutaneous wound healing in Fraser's dolphins (Lagenodelphis hosei)

Cetaceans exhibit remarkable wound healing capabilities. However, the specific immune mechanisms underlying this process, particularly the role of γδ T cells, remains largely unexplored. In ruminants, pigs, and camelids, which are members of the order Cetartiodactyla alongside cetaceans, γδ T cells express a unique receptor called workshop cluster 1 (WC1). Despite cetaceans also belonging to this order, the presence of WC1 in their γδ T cells has not yet been reported. This study aims to investigate the distribution and potential function of γδ T cells in cetacean skin during homeostasis and wound healing. Using immunofluorescence and immunohistochemical staining, we identified γδ TCR+ and WC1+ cells in dolphin skin for the first time. These cells are predominantly located in the dermis and blubber, with an increased presence in healing wounds, suggesting their involvement in wound healing rather than pathogen defense. Furthermore, our findings revealed that γδ TCR+ cells constitute a small fraction of CD3+MHCII+ cells in dolphin skin, indicating their intricate role in cetacean immunology. Additionally, the appearance of WC1+ cells in cetaceans highlights unique immunological features within Cetartiodactyla. Comparative analysis demonstrates that γδ T cells in dolphins exhibit distinctive morphological and distributional characteristics compared to those in humans, mice, and ruminants, implying species-specific adaptations. These insights contribute to a deeper understanding of cetacean immunology and underscore the potential evolutionary adaptations that support their exceptional wound healing capabilities. Future research on the genomic and functional aspects of γδ T cells in cetaceans is essential to further elucidate their roles in immune response and wound healing.

γδ T Cells Activated in Different Inflammatory Environments Are Functionally Distinct

γδ T cells are important immunoregulatory cells in experimental autoimmune uveitis (EAU), and the activation status of γδ T cells determines their disease-enhancing or inhibitory effects. Because γδ T cells can be activated via various pathways, we questioned whether the nature of their activation might impact their function. In this study, we show that γδ T cells activated under different inflammatory conditions differ greatly in their functions. Whereas anti-CD3 treatment activated both IFN-γ⁺ and IL-17⁺ γδ T cells, cytokines preferentially activated IL-17⁺ γδ T cells. γδ T cells continued to express high levels of surface CD73 after exposure to inflammatory cytokines, but they downregulated surface CD73 after exposure to dendritic cells. Although both CD73^high and CD73^low cells have a disease-enhancing effect, the CD73^low γδ T cells are less inhibitory. We also show that polarized activation not only applies to αβ T cells and myeloid cells, but also to γδ T cells. After activation under Th17-polarizing conditions, γδ T cells predominantly expressed IL-17 (gdT17), but after activation under Th1 polarizing conditions (gdT1) they mainly expressed IFN-γ. The pro-Th17 activity of γδ T cells was associated with gdT17, but not gdT1. Our results demonstrate that the functional activity of γδ T cells is strikingly modulated by their activation level, as well as the pathway through which they were activated.

γδT Cells Are Required for CD8+ T Cell Response to Vaccinia Viral Infection

Vaccinia virus (VV) is the most studied member of the poxvirus family, is responsible for the successful elimination of smallpox worldwide, and has been developed as a vaccine vehicle for infectious diseases and cancer immunotherapy. We have previously shown that the unique potency of VV in the activation of CD8+ T cell response is dependent on efficient activation of the innate immune system through Toll-like receptor (TLR)-dependent and -independent pathways. However, it remains incompletely defined what regulate CD8+ T cell response to VV infection. In this study, we showed that γδT cells play an important role in promoting CD8+ T cell response to VV infection. We found that γδT cells can directly present viral antigens in the context of MHC-I for CD8+ T cell activation to VV in vivo, and we further demonstrated that cell-intrinsic MyD88 signaling in γδT cells is required for activation of γδT cells and CD8+ T cells. These results illustrate a critical role for γδT cells in the regulation of adaptive T cell response to viral infection and may shed light on the design of more effective vaccine strategies based on manipulation of γδT cells.

Increased Vδ1γδT cells predominantly contributed to IL-17 production in the development of adult human post-infectious irritable bowel syndrome

BACKGROUND

γδT cells play an important role in the mucosa inflammation and immunity-associated disorders. Our previous study reported that γδ T cells producing IL-17 were involved in the pathogenesis of post-infectious irritable bowel syndrome (PI-IBS). However, their subset characteristic profile in this kind of disease remains unclear. Thus the current study's aim is to investigate the functionally predominant subset and its role in PI-IBS.

METHODS

The total T cells were collected from the peripheral blood of patients with PI-IBS. The peripheral proportion of Vδ1 and Vδ2 subset was detected by FACS after stained with anti δ1-PE and anti δ2-APC. The local colonic proportion of this two subsets were measured under laser confocal fluorescence microscope. Vδ1 γδ T cells were enriched from the total peripheral T cells by minoantibody-immuno-microbeads (MACS) method and cultured, functionally evaluated by CCK-8 assay (proliferation), CD69/CD62L molecules expression assay (activation) and ELISA (IL-17 production) respectively.

RESULTS

1. Vδ1 γδ T cells significantly increased while Vδ2 γδ T cells remained unchanged in both the peripheral blood and local colonic tissue from PI-IBS patients (p < 0.05). 2. When cultured in vitro, the Vδ1 γδ T cells remarkably proliferated, activated and produced IL-17 (p < 0.05).

CONCLUSIONS

Our results suggest that Vδ1 γδ T cells was the predominant γδ T cells subset in both peripheral and intestinal tissue, and was the major IL-17 producing γδ T cells in PI-IBS.

Differentiation and functional plasticity of gamma-delta (γδ) T cells under homeostatic and disease conditions

Gamma-delta (γδ) T cells are a heterogeneous population of immune cells, which constitute <5% of total T cells in mice lymphoid tissue and human peripheral blood. However, they comprise a higher proportion of T cells in the epithelial and mucosal barrier, where they perform immune functions, help in tissue repair, and maintaining homeostasis. These tissues resident γδ T cells possess properties of innate and adaptive immune cells which enables them to perform a variety of functions during homeostasis and disease. Emerging data suggest the involvement of γδ T cells during transplant rejection and survival. Interestingly, several functions of γδ T cells can be modulated through their interaction with other immune cells. This review provides an overview of development, differentiation plasticity into regulatory and effector phenotypes of γδ T cells during homeostasis and various diseases.

Human and murine memory γδ T cells: Evidence for acquired immune memory in bacterial and viral infections and autoimmunity

γδ T cells are unconventional lymphocytes that could play a role in bridging the innate and adaptive immune system. Upon initial exposure to an antigen, some activated T cells become memory T cells that could be reactivated upon secondary immune challenge. Recently, subsets of γδ T cells with a restricted antigen repertoire and long-term persistence have been observed after clearance of viral and bacterial infections. These γδ T cells possess the hallmark ability of memory T cells to respond more strongly and proliferate to a higher extent upon secondary infection. Murine and primate models of Listeria monocytogenes and cytomegalovirus infection display these memory hallmarks and demonstrate γδ T cell memory responses. In addition, human and non-human primate infections with Mycobacterium tuberculosis, as well as non-human primate infection with monkeypox and studies on patients suffering from autoimmune disease (rheumatoid arthritis and multiple sclerosis) reveal memory-like responses corresponding with disease. Murine models of psoriatic disease (imiquimod) and parasite infections (malaria) exhibited shifts to memory phenotypes with repeated immune challenge. These studies provide strong support for the formation of immune memory in γδ T cells, and memory γδ T cells may have a widespread role in protective immunity and autoimmunity.

γδ T cells in rheumatic diseases: from fundamental mechanisms to autoimmunity

The innate and adaptive arms of the immune system tightly regulate immune responses in order to maintain homeostasis and host defense. The interaction between those two systems is critical in the activation and suppression of immune responses which if unchecked may lead to chronic inflammation and autoimmunity. γδ T cells are non-conventional lymphocytes, which express T cell receptor (TCR) γδ chains on their surface and straddle between innate and adaptive immunity. Recent advances in of γδ T cell biology have allowed us to expand our understanding of γδ T cell in the dysregulation of immune responses and the development of autoimmune diseases. In this review, we summarize current knowledge on γδ T cells and their roles in skin and joint inflammation as commonly observed in rheumatic diseases.

Innate-Like Lymphocytes Are Immediate Participants in the Hyper-Acute Immune Response to Trauma and Hemorrhagic Shock

Adverse outcomes following severe traumatic injury are frequently attributed to a state of immunological dysfunction acquired during treatment and recovery. Recent genomic evidence however, suggests that the trajectory toward development of multiple organ dysfunction syndrome (MODS) is already in play at admission (<2 h following injury). Improved understanding of the molecular events during the hyper-acute immunological response to trauma, <2 h following injury, may reveal opportunities to ameliorate organ injury and expedite recovery. Lymphocytes have not previously been considered key participants in this early response; however, two observations in human trauma patients namely, raised populations of circulating NKT and NK cells during the hyper-acute phase and persistent lymphopenia beyond 48 h show association with the development of MODS during recovery. These highlight the need for greater understanding of lymphocyte function in the hyper-acute phase of inflammation. An exploratory study was therefore conducted in a well-established murine model of trauma and hemorrhagic shock (T&HS) to investigate (1) the development of lymphopenia in the murine model and (2) the phenotypic and functional changes of three innate-like lymphocyte subsets, NK1.1+ CD3–, NK1.1+ CD3+, γδTCR+ CD3+ cells, focusing on the first 6 h following injury. Rapid changes in phenotype and function were demonstrated in these cells within blood and spleen, but responses in lung tissue lagged behind. This study describes the immediacy of the innate-like lymphocyte response to trauma in different body compartments and considers new lines for further investigation to develop our understanding of MODS pathogenesis.

Contributions of Farm Animals to Immunology

By their very nature, great advances in immunology are usually underpinned by experiments carried out in animal models and inbred lines of mice. Also, their corresponding knock-out or knock-in derivatives have been the most commonly used animal systems in immunological studies. With much credit to their usefulness, laboratory mice will never provide all the answers to fully understand immunological processes. Large animal models offer unique biological and experimental advantages that have been and continue to be of great value to the understanding of biological and immunological processes. From the identification of B cells to the realization that γδ T cells can function as professional antigen presenting cells, farm animals have contributed significantly to a better understanding of immunity.

High level expression of A2ARs is required for the enhancing function, but not for the inhibiting function, of γδ T cells in the autoimmune responses of EAU

We previously reported that activated γδ T cells greatly enhance autoimmune responses, particularly the Th17 response. To determine the mechanisms involved, we made a series of comparisons between activated and non-activated γδ T cells. Our results showed that activated γδ T cells expressed greatly increased levels of A2A adenosine receptor (A2AR) and decreased amounts of CD73, as well as increased amounts of T cell activation markers such as CD69, CD44 and CD25. We show that A2AR is a major functional molecule in the enhancing activity of γδ T cells. A2AR-/- γδ T cells (isolated from A2AR-/- mouse), lost their Th17-enhancing activity as did A2AR+/+ γδ T cells (isolated from wt-B6 mouse) after treatment with an A2AR antagonist. Since γδ T cells possess either an enhancing or an inhibiting effect, we also tested whether A2AR expression on γδ T cells is essential to their inhibiting effect. Our results showed that the inhibiting effect of A2AR-/- γδ T cells was as potent as that of A2AR+/+ γδ T cells. In a previous report we showed that the expression of different levels of CD73 molecule allowed γδ T cells to adjust their suppressive activity; in the current study, we show that expression of increased amounts of A2AR allows γδ T cells to more effectively exert their enhancing function.

Heat shock protein 70 protects mouse against post-infection irritable bowel syndrome via up-regulating intestinal γδ T cell's Th17 response

Background

This study investigated the role of HSP70 in modulating intestinal γδ T cells’ Th17 response in Trichinella spiralis-induced PI-IBS mice model.

Methods

The intestinal HSP70’s expression and mRNA level were measured by Western blot and RT-PCR. The intestinal γδ T cell’s morphological changes were analyzed using immunofluorescence staining and confocal laser scanning microscope. The pro-inflammatory cytokines’ level was detected by ELISA. The isolated and purified γδ T cells were pre-incubated with HSP70 and their functions including proliferation, apoptosis, activation and production of IL-17 were also detected.

Results

Heat treatment augmented intestinal HSP70 expression and alleviated the clinical presentations in PI-IBS mice. Meanwhile, intestinal γδ T cells and local IL-17 level were increased by pre-induction of HSP70. HSP70 promoted the proliferation of PI-IBS mice’s intestinal γδ T cells, inhibited the apoptosis and stimulated these cells to secret IL-17 rather than IFN-γ.

Conclusion

Our results suggest that HSP70 plays a protective role via up-regulating intestinal γδ T cell’s Th17 response in PI-IBS mice.

Ability of γδ T cells to modulate the Foxp3 T cell response is dependent on adenosine

Whether γδ T cells inhibit or enhance the Foxp3 T cell response depends upon their activation status. The critical enhancing effector in the supernatant is adenosine. Activated γδ T cells express adenosine receptors at high levels, which enables them to deprive Foxp3⁺ T cells of adenosine, and to inhibit their expansion. Meanwhile, cell-free supernatants of γδ T cell cultures enhance Foxp3 T cell expansion. Thus, inhibition and enhancement by γδ T cells of Foxp3 T cell response are a reflection of the balance between adenosine production and absorption by γδ T cells. Non-activated γδ T cells produce adenosine but bind little, and thus enhance the Foxp3 T cell response. Activated γδ T cells express high density of adenosine receptors and have a greatly increased ability to bind adenosine. Extracellular adenosine metabolism and expression of adenosine receptor A2ARs by γδ T cells played a major role in the outcome of γδ and Foxp3 T cell interactions. A better understanding of the functional conversion of γδ T cells could lead to γδ T cell-targeted immunotherapies for related diseases.

Connection between γδ T-cell- and Adenosine- Mediated Immune Regulation in the Pathogenesis of Experimental Autoimmune Uveitis

Regulatory effects of γδ T-cells on immune responses have been studied for years. We have investigated the regulatory effect of γδ T-cells on Th1 and Th17 autoimmune responses, and have studied molecular and cellular mechanisms by which γδ T-cells enhance or inhibit immune responses, exploiting a well-characterized murine model of experimental autoimmune uveitis (EAU). Our results show that (1) aberrant γδ T-cell activation is an important pathogenic event in EAU; (2) γδ T-cells have a unique regulatory effect on Th17 autoimmune responses, which is shaped by the activation status of γδ T-cells; and (3) γδ-mediated immunoregulation is closely linked with the extracellular adenosine metabolism. Reciprocal interactions between γδ T-cells and extracellular adenosine partially determine the development of EAU.

Depletion of MHC class II invariant chain peptide or γ–δ T-cells ameliorates experimental preeclampsia

Excessive innate immune system activation and inflammation during pregnancy can lead to organ injury and dysfunction and preeclampsia (PE); however, the molecular mechanisms involved are unknown. We tested the hypothesis that Toll-like receptor (TLR) activation induces major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class II invariant chain peptide (CLIP) expression on immune cells, makes them pro-inflammatory, and are necessary to cause PE-like features in mice. Treatment with VG1177, a competitive antagonist peptide for CLIP in the groove of MHC class II, was able to both prevent and treat PE-like features in mice. We then determined that γ–δ T cells are critical for the development of PE-like features in mice since γ–δ T-cell knockout mice, like CLIP deficient mice, are resistant to developing PE-like features. Placentas from women with PE exhibit significantly increased levels of γ–δ T cells. These preclinical data demonstrate that CLIP expression and activated γ–δ T cells are responsible for the development of immunologic PE-like features and that temporarily antagonizing CLIP and/or γ–δ T cells may be a therapeutic strategy for PE.

γδ T Cells and B Cells

γδ T cells constitute the third arm of a tripartite adaptive immune system in jawed vertebrates, besides αβ T cells and B cells. Like the other two lymphocyte-types, they express diverse antigen receptors, capable of specific ligand recognition. Functionally, γδ T cells represent a system of differentiated subsets, sometimes engaged in cross-regulation, which ultimately determines their effect on other components of the immune system, including B cells and antibodies. γδ T cells are capable of providing help to B cells in antibody production. More recently it became clear that γδ T cells influence B cell differentiation during the peripheral stages of B cell development, control levels of circulating immunoglobulin (all subclasses), and affect production of autoantibodies. Because of this relationship between γδ T cells and B cells, the extensive variation of γδ T cells among human individuals might be expected to modulate their humoral responsiveness.

Bovine peripheral blood WC1+ and WC1neg γδ T lymphocytes modulate monocyte-derived macrophage effector functions during in vitro Mycobacterium avium subspecies paratuberculosis infection

The importance of bovine γδ T lymphocytes during anti-mycobacterial immunity is recognized; however, the role of major subsets of γδ T lymphocytes (WC1⁺ and WC1^neg) in this process remains unclear. We investigated how WC1⁺ and WC1^neg γδ T lymphocyte subsets of calves modulate monocyte-derived macrophage (MDM) functions during Map infection in vitro. To achieve this, Map-infected or uninfected MDMs from young calves were co-cultured with autologous WC1⁺ or WC1^neg γδ T lymphocytes. Our data indicate that WC1⁺ and WC1^neg γδ T lymphocytes of young calves modulate effector functions of MDMs with respect to Map killing, CD11b and MHC-II expression. We observed differences in IFN-γ production and CD25 expression on γδ T lymphocyte subsets, as well as MDM expression of CD1b when in contact with WC1^neg γδ T lymphocytes.

Functional Conversion and Dominance of γδ T Subset in Mouse Experimental Autoimmune Uveitis

We have previously shown that activated γδ T cells have a much stronger proinflammatory effect in the development of experimental autoimmune uveitis than their nonactivated counterparts. Our present study explored γδ T cell subsets are functionally distinct in autoimmune pathogenesis and determined the pathogenic contribution of biased Vγ4⁺ γδ T cell activation in this disease. By systematically comparing two major peripheral γδ T cell subsets, the Vγ1⁺ and the Vγ4⁺ cells, we found that the Vγ4⁺ cells were readily activated in B6 mice during experimental autoimmune uveitis development, whereas Vγ1⁺ cells remained nonactivated. Cytokines that were abundantly found in the serum of immunized mice activated Vγ4⁺, but did not activate Vγ1⁺, cells. The Vγ4⁺ cells had a strong proinflammatory activity, whereas the Vγ1⁺ cells remained nonactivated when tested immediately after isolation from immunized mice. However, when the Vγ1⁺ cells were activated in vitro, they promoted inflammation. Our results demonstrated that activation is a major factor in switching the enhancing and inhibiting effects of both Vγ1⁺ and Vγ4⁺ γδ T cell subsets, and that γδ T cell subsets differ greatly in their activation requirements. Whether the enhancing or inhibiting function of γδ T cells is dominant is mainly determined by the proportion of the γδ T cells that are activated versus the proportion not activated.

Human γδ T cells augment antigen presentation in Listeria Monocytogenes infection

Circulating γδ T cells in healthy individuals rapidly respond to bacterial and viral pathogens. Many studies have demonstrated that γδ T cells are activated and expanded by Listeria monocytogenes (L.monocytogenes), a foodborne bacterial pathogen with high fatality rates. However, the roles of γδ T cells during L.monocytogenes infection are not clear. In the present study, we characterized the morphological characteristics of phagocytosis in γδ T cells after L.monocytogenes infection using transmission electron microscopy. Results show activation markers including HLA-DR and lymph node-homing receptor CCR7 on γδ T cells were upregulated after stimulation via L.monocytogenes. Significant proliferation and differentiation of primary αβ T cells was also observed after co-culture of peripheral blood mononuclear cells with γδ T cells anteriorly stimulated by L.monocytogenes. L.monocytogenes infection decreased the percentage of γδ T cells in mouse IELs and increased MHC-II expression on the surface of γδ T cells in vivo. Our findings shed light on antigen presentation of γδ T cells during L.monocytogenes infection.

Mycobacterium vaccae Nebulization Can Protect against Asthma in Balb/c Mice by Regulating Th9 Expression

Asthma is a heterogeneous disease characterized by chronic airway inflammation. CD4(+) T-helper 9 (Th9) cells are closely linked to asthma, helping to regulate inflammation and immunity. Epidemiological studies showed that mycobacteria infections are negatively associated with asthma. Our previous research showed that inactivated Mycobacterium phlei nebulization alleviated the airway hyperresponsiveness and inflammation of asthma. However, the relationship between Th9 cells and mycobacteria remains unknown. Here, we evaluated the relationship between Mycobacterium vaccae nebulization and Th9 cells in asthmatic mice. Eighteen Balb/c mice were randomized into 3 groups of 6 mice each (normal control group, asthma control group, and nebulization asthma group [Neb. group]). The Neb. group was nebulized with M. vaccae one month before establishment of the asthmatic model with ovalbumin (OVA) sensitization, and the normal and asthma control groups were nebulized with phosphate-buffered saline. The hyperresponsiveness of the mouse airways was assessed using a non-invasive lung function machine. Lung airway inflammation was evaluated by hematoxylin and eosin and periodic acid-Schiff staining. Cytokine interlukin-9 (IL-9) concentration and OVA-specific IgE in the bronchoalveolar lavage fluid were measured by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays. The percentages of γδTCR+ CD3+, IL-9+CD3+, IL-10+CD3+ lymphocytes, and IL9+γδT and IL-10+γδT cells were detected by flow cytometry. The airway inflammation and concentration of IL-9 and OVA-specific IgE were significantly reduced in the Neb. group compared to the asthma control group. The Neb. group had lower airway hyperresponsiveness, percentages of γδTCR+CD3+ and IL-9+CD3+ lymphocytes, and IL9+γδT cells, and higher percentages of IL-10+CD3+ lymphocytes and IL-10+γδT cells compared to the asthma control group. Thus, mouse bronchial asthma could be prevented by M. vaccae nebulization. The mechanism could involve M. vaccae-mediated effects on induction of IL-9 secretion and suppression of IL-10 secretion from γδT cells. γδT cells showed prominent IL-10 expression, indicating that they possibly belong to the Th9 family.

CD4(+)B220(+)TCRγδ(+) T cells produce IL-17 in lupus-prone MRL/lpr mice

Systemic lupus erythematosus is an autoimmune disease with comprehensive immune cell disorders. Recent studies suggested that pro-inflammatory cytokine IL-17 plays important role in lupus, leaving the cellular sources and their pathogenic and physiologic characters largely unknown. In the current study, by using lupus-prone MRL/lpr mice, we demonstrated that Th17 response prevails in lupus disease regarding significantly accumulated serum IL-17, increased IL-17-producing splenocytes, and elevated phospho-STAT3 in CD4(+) T cells. Intracellular staining revealed that unusual CD4(+)B220(+) T cells are major IL-17-producing cells, whereas conventional CD4(+)B220(-) T cells are major IFN-γ-producing cells. Subsequent studies showed that CD4(+)B220(+) cells contains both αβ and γδ T cells in the spleen and thymus of MRL/lpr mice. Further study showed that around 60% of γδ T cells in MRL/lpr mice co-express both B220 and CD4 on their surface, and are the major RORγt(+) cells in MRL/lpr mice. Finally, CD4(+)B220(+) T cells alone do not proliferate, but could enhance the proliferation and IFN-γ-production of conventional CD4(+)B220(-) T cells. Our findings suggest the pathogenic role of unusual CD4(+)B220(+) T cells in lupus disease in MRL/lpr mice according to their IL-17-producing ability and stimulatory function for conventional CD4(+)B220(-) T cells.

Glutamine Modulates Changes in Intestinal Intraepithelial γδT-Lymphocyte Expressions in Mice With Ischemia/Reperfusion Injury

This study investigated the effect of glutamine (GLN) on expressions of small intestinal intraepithelial lymphocyte (IEL) γδT-cell proinflammatory cytokines and apoptotic regulatory factor genes in a mouse model of hindlimb ischemia/reperfusion (IR) injury. Mice were assigned to a normal control group and three IR groups. Mice in the normal control group received no ischemia treatment, whereas IR groups had hindlimb ischemia for 90 min with subsequent 0 (IR0) or 24 h (IR24) of reperfusion. The IR0 group was sacrificed immediately after reperfusion. The IR24S group was injected with saline, and the IR24G group was given 0.75 g GLN/kg of body weight once via a tail vein before reperfusion. The IR24 groups were sacrificed 24 h after reperfusion. Small intestinal IEL γδT cells of the animals were isolated for further analysis. Results showed that IR injury resulted in lower small intestinal IEL γδT-cell percentages and higher proinflammatory cytokine messenger RNA expressions of interleukin-1β (IL-1β), IL-6, and tumor necrosis factor-α by IEL γδT cells. Compared with the IR24S group, the IR24G group had a higher IEL γδT-cell percentage. Multiples of change of messenger RNA of proliferation gene expressions of the antiapoptotic Bcl-xl (B-cell lymphoma-extra large) and IL-7 receptor in the IR24G group were higher, whereas expressions of the keratinocyte growth factor and bacterial lectin regenerating islet-derived (Reg)IIIγ were lower in IEL γδT cells. Histological findings also showed that damage to the intestinal mucosa was less severe in the IR group with GLN. These results indicated that a single dose of GLN administered before reperfusion maintained small intestinal IEL γδT cell populations and reduced expressions of intestinal inflammatory cytokines, which may have consequently ameliorated the severity of IR-induced small intestinal epithelial injury.

Identification and characterization of latency-associated peptide-expressing γδ T cells

γδ T cells are a subset of lymphocytes specialized in protecting the host against pathogens and tumours. Here we describe a subset of regulatory γδ T cells that express the latency-associated peptide (LAP), a membrane-bound TGF-β1. Thymic CD27+IFN-γ+CCR9+α₄β₇+TCRγδ+ cells migrate to the periphery, particularly to Peyer's patches and small intestine lamina propria, where they upregulate LAP, downregulate IFN-γ via ATF-3 expression and acquire a regulatory phenotype. TCRγδ+LAP+ cells express antigen presentation molecules and function as antigen presenting cells that induce CD4+Foxp3+ regulatory T cells, although TCRγδ+LAP+ cells do not themselves express Foxp3. Identification of TCRγδ+LAP+ regulatory cells provides an avenue for understanding immune regulation and biologic processes linked to intestinal function and disease.

Latency-associated peptide (LAP) is a membrane-bound form of TGF-β1. Here the authors show that LAP marks a subset of regulatory γδ T cells with innate gut-homing properties, which present antigen and induce CD4+ Foxp3+ in Peyer's patches and lamina propria.

Acute infection with bovine viral diarrhea virus of low or high virulence leads to depletion and redistribution of WC1(+) γδ T cells in lymphoid tissues of beef calves

The objective of this study was to determine the abundance and distribution of γδ T lymphocytes in lymphoid tissue during acute infection with high (HV) or low virulence (LV) non-cytopathic bovine viral diarrhea virus (BVDV) in beef calves. This study was performed using tissue samples from a previous experiment in which thirty beef calves were randomly assigned to 1 of 3 groups: LV [n=10; animals inoculated intranasally (IN) with LV BVDV-1a (strain SD-1)], HV [n=10; animals inoculated IN with HV BVDV-2 (strain 1373)], and control (n=10; animals inoculated with cell culture medium). On day 5 post inoculation, animals were euthanized, and samples from spleen and mesenteric lymph nodes (MLN) were collected to assess the abundance of WC1(+) γδ T cells. A higher proportion of calves challenged with BVDV showed signs of apoptosis and cytophagy in MLN and spleen samples compared to the control group. A significantly lower number of γδ T cells was observed in spleen and MLN from calves in HV and LV groups than in the control calves (P<0.05). In conclusion, acute infection with HV or LV BVDV resulted in depletion of WC1(+) γδ T cells in mucosal and systemic lymphoid tissues at five days after challenge in beef calves. This reduction in γδ T cells in the studied lymphoid tissues could be also due to lymphocyte trafficking to other tissues.

Gut T cell receptor-γδ(+) intraepithelial lymphocytes are activated selectively by cholera toxin to break oral tolerance in mice

The gut immune system is usually tolerant to harmless foreign antigens such as food proteins. However, tolerance breakdown may occur and lead to food allergy. To study mechanisms underlying food allergy, animal models have been developed in mice by using cholera toxin (CT) to break tolerance. In this study, we identify T cell receptor (TCR)-γδ(+)  intraepithelial lymphocytes (IELs) as major targets of CT to break tolerance to food allergens. TCR-γδ(+)  IEL-enriched cell populations isolated from mice fed with CT and transferred to naive mice hamper tolerization to the food allergen β-lactoglobulin (BLG) in recipient mice which produce anti-BLG immunoglobulin (Ig)G1 antibodies. Furthermore, adoptive transfer of TCR-γδ(+)  cells from CT-fed mice triggers the production of anti-CT IgG1 antibodies in recipient mice that were never exposed to CT, suggesting antigen-presenting cell (APC)-like functions of TCR-γδ(+)  IELs. In contrast to TCR-αβ(+)  cells, TCR-γδ(+)  IELs bind and internalize CT both in vitro and in vivo. CT-activated TCR-γδ(+)  IELs express major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class II molecules, CD80 and CD86 demonstrating an APC phenotype. CT-activated TCR-γδ(+)  IELs migrate to the lamina propria, where they produce interleukin (IL)-10 and IL-17. These results provide in-vivo evidence for a major role of TCR-γδ(+)  IELs in the modulation of oral tolerance in the pathogenesis of food allergy.

Immune response of γδT cells in Schistosome japonicum-infected C57BL/6 mouse liver

Systematic evaluation of the role of γδT cells during the Schistosoma japonicum infection has not been reported, despite the fact that γδT cells contribute to many infectious diseases in innate immunity. Therefore, the aim of this study was to observe the properties of γδT cells in the liver of C57BL/6 mice infected by S. japonicum. In this report, using immuno-fluorescent histological analysis, γδT cells were found around hepatic granulomatous. Moreover, the flow cytometry results revealed that the percentage of hepatic γδT cells increased significantly after S. japonicum infection. More interestingly, a subset of CD3(-)γδTCR(+) cells were found and markedly increased after infection. Furthermore, expression of activation markers (CD25 and CD69) and cytokine profiles were detected in these hepatic CD3(+)γδTCR(+) and CD3(-)γδTCR(+) cells. The significantly higher level of CD69, IL-4 and IL-17 were observed in CD3(+)γδTCR(+) cells after infection, suggesting that CD3(+)γδTCR(+) cells instead of CD3(-)γδTCR(+) cells might play a predominant role during the infection. Finally, our results indicated that the expression of NKG2D on CD3(+)γδTCR(+) cells was higher than that on CD3(-)γδTCR(+) cells. Collectively, γδT cells could play an important role in the liver of C57BL/6 mouse during japonicum infection.

Traumatic brain injury causes selective, CD74-dependent peripheral lymphocyte activation that exacerbates neurodegeneration

Introduction

Traumatic brain injury (TBI), a significant cause of death and disability, causes, as in any injury, an acute, innate immune response. A key component in the transition between innate and adaptive immunity is the processing and presentation of antigen by professional antigen presenting cells (APCs). Whether an adaptive immune response to brain injury is beneficial or detrimental is not known. Current efforts to understand the contribution of the immune system after TBI have focused on neuroinflammation and brain-infiltrating immune cells. Here, we characterize and target TBI-induced expansion of peripheral immune cells that may act as potential APCs. Because MHC Class II-associated invariant peptide (CLIP) is important for antigen processing and presentation, we engineered a competitive antagonist (CAP) for CLIP, and tested the hypothesis that peptide competition could reverse or prevent neurodegeneration after TBI.

Results

We show that after fluid percussion injury (FPI), peripheral splenic lymphocytes, including CD4+ and CD8+ T cells, regulatory T cells (Tregs), and γδ T cells, are increased in number within 24 hours after FPI. These increases were reversed by CAP treatment and this antagonism of CLIP also reduced neuroinflammation and neurodegeneration after TBI. Using a mouse deficient for the precursor of CLIP, CD74, we observed decreased peripheral lymphocyte activation, decreased neurodegeneration, and a significantly smaller lesion size following TBI.

Conclusion

Taken together, the data support the hypothesis that neurodegeneration following TBI is dependent upon antigen processing and presentation that requires CD74.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s40478-014-0143-5) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

γδ T cells recognize the insulin B:9-23 peptide antigen when it is dimerized through thiol oxidation

The insulin peptide B:9-23 is a natural antigen in the non-obese diabetic (NOD) mouse model of type 1 diabetes (T1D). In addition to αβ T cells and B cells, γδ T cells recognize the peptide and infiltrate the pancreatic islets where the peptide is produced within β cells. The peptide contains a cysteine in position 19 (Cys19), which is required for the γδ but not the αβ T cell response, and a tyrosine in position 16 (Tyr16), which is required for both. A peptide-specific mAb, tested along with the T cells, required neither of the two amino acids to bind the B:9-23 peptide. We found that γδ T cells require Cys19 because they recognize the peptide antigen in an oxidized state, in which the Cys19 thiols of two peptide molecules form a disulfide bond, creating a soluble homo-dimer. In contrast, αβ T cells recognize the peptide antigen as a reduced monomer, in complex with the MHCII molecule I-A(g7). Unlike the unstructured monomeric B:9-23 peptide, the γδ-stimulatory homo-dimer adopts a distinct secondary structure in solution, which differs from the secondary structure of the corresponding portion of the native insulin molecule. Tyr16 is required for this adopted structure of the dimerized insulin peptide as well as for the γδ response to it. This observation is consistent with the notion that γδ T cell recognition depends on the secondary structure of the dimerized insulin B:9-23 antigen.

Regeneration of stalled immune responses to transformed and infected cells using γδ T cells

Manipulation of the human immune system is becoming more of a therapeutic focus as a treatment option or complement. Prominent examples are the increasing use of monoclonal antibodies in combating malignant tumours, and the numerous adoptive immunotherapy trials underway. One important aspect of any use of the human immune system in this regard is to harness the power of professional antigen-presenting cells (pAPC), that is, dendritic cells (DC), to direct immune responses. Here, we review how recent findings regarding the biology of γδT cells have revealed that they, surprisingly, could serve as convenient tools for this purpose, in that they combine innate cytotoxic cell and pAPC functions in one cell type, with potential benefits in cancer immunotherapy and infectious disease.

Influence of endogamy and mitochondrial DNA on immunological parameters in cattle

BACKGROUND

Endogamy increases the risk of manifestation of deleterious recessive genes. Mitochondrial DNA allows the separation of American Zebu (Bos indicus and Bos taurus) and evaluate the effect of mitochondrial DNA on productive traits of cattle. However, the effect of endogamy and mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) on the immune system remains unclear. The aim of this study was to evaluate the association between endogamy, mtDNA and immune parameters.

RESULTS

A total of 86 cattle (43 cows and 43 calves) were used in this study. Age, endogamy, milk yield, and origin of mtDNA were measured and their influence on immunological parameters was evaluated. Older cows had increased CD4+ T cells, decreased CD21+ and γδhigh T cells as well as increased CD4+/CD8+ and T/B ratio. Multiple regression analysis indicated that endogamy in calves was associated with increased CD8+ T and CD21+ B lymphocytes, and decreased γδhigh T cells in peripheral blood. Cows with medium and lower endogamy had a lower percentage of B lymphocytes and γδlow T cells and cows with lower endogamy had higher levels of γδ T cells and γδhigh T cells, as well as the CD4+/CD48+ cell ratio. Calves with higher endogamy had higher levels of CD8+ T lymphocytes, whereas calves with lower endogamy had lower levels of γδlow T cells.

CONCLUSIONS

These results demonstrated for the first time that endogamy influences the immune system of cattle.

γδ T cell and other immune cells crosstalk in cellular immunity

γδ T cells have been recognized as effectors with immunomodulatory functions in cellular immunity. These abilities enable them to interact with other immune cells, thus having the potential for treatment of various immune-mediated diseases with adoptive cell therapy. So far, the interactions between γδ T cell and other immune cells have not been well defined. Here we will discuss the interactivities among them and the perspective on γδ T cells for their use in immunotherapy could be imagined. The understanding of the crosstalk among the immune cells in immunopathology might be beneficial for the clinical application of γδ T cell.

Phenotypic and functional plasticity of gamma-delta (γδ) T cells in inflammation and tolerance

Gamma-delta T cells (γδ T cells) are an unique group of lymphocytes and play an important role in bridging the gap between innate and adaptive immune systems under homeostatic condition as well as during infection and inflammation. They are predominantly localized into the mucosal and epithelial sites, but also exist in other peripheral tissues and secondary lymphoid organs. γδ T cells can produce cytokines and chemokines to regulate the migration of other immune cells, can bring about lysis of infected or stressed cells by secreting granzymes, provide help to B cells and induce IgE production, can present antigen to conventional T cells, activate antigen presenting cells (APC) maturation, and are also known to produce growth factors that regulate the stromal cell function. γδ T cells spontaneously produce IFN-γ and IL-17 cytokines compared to delayed differentiation of Th1 and Th17 cells. In this review, we discussed the current knowledge about the mechanism of γδ T cell function including its mode of antigen recognition, and differentiation into various subsets of γδ T cells. We also explored how γδ T cells interact with different types of innate and adaptive immune cells, and how these interactions shape the immune response highlighting the plasticity and role of these cells-protective or pathogenic under inflammatory and tolerogenic conditions.

Glutamine modulates acute dextran sulphate sodium-induced changes in small-intestinal intraepithelial γδ-T-lymphocyte expression in mice

The present study investigated the effect of glutamine (Gln) on dextran sulphate sodium (DSS)-induced changes in the expression of small-intestinal intraepithelial lymphocyte (IEL) γδ-T cells in mice. Mice were randomly assigned to a normal control (NC) group and two DSS-treated groups. The NC group and one of the DSS-treated groups (DSS-C) were fed a common semi-purified diet, while the other DSS-treated group (DSS-G) was fed an identical diet, except that part of casein was replaced by Gln, which provided 25 % of total amino acid nitrogen. After being fed the diets for 10 d, mice in the NC group were given distilled water, while the DSS-treated groups were given distilled water containing 2·5 % DSS for 5 d. At the end of the experiment, the mice were killed. The small-intestinal IEL γδ-T-cell subset was isolated for further analysis. The results indicated that DSS treatment resulted in a lower percentage of small-intestinal IEL γδ-T cells and higher mRNA expressions of interferon-γ, TNF-α, IL-17, complement 5a receptor and keratinocyte growth factor in IEL γδ-T cells. Gln administration increased the proportion of small-intestinal IEL γδ-T cells, and the expression levels of immunomodulatory mediator genes in IEL γδ-T cells were lower in the DSS-treated mice. The histological findings indicated that the immunoreactive intensity of the tight junction protein ZO-1 in the small-intestinal mucosa was higher in the DSS-G group than in the DSS-C group. These results indicate that pretreatment with Gln increases the proportion of small-intestinal IEL γδ-T cells and down-regulates γδ-T-cell-expressed inflammatory mediators, which may consequently ameliorate the severity of DSS-induced small-intestinal epithelial injury.

IL-23 receptor expression on γδ T cells correlates with their enhancing or suppressive effects on autoreactive T cells in experimental autoimmune uveitis

We have previously reported that, depending on their activation status, mouse γδ T cells can either enhance or inhibit the activity of IL-17(+) autoreactive T cells in experimental autoimmune uveitis. In this study, we showed that γδ T cells in naive C57BL/6 (B6) mouse do not express the IL-23R, whereas in immunized mice, it is expressed on >50% of γδ T cells. In vitro studies showed that IL-23R expression on γδ T cells is modulated by their state of activation, as weakly activated γδ T cells expressed the IL-23R, but highly activated γδ T cells did not. Functional studies showed that IL-23R(+) γδ T cells had the strongest suppressive effect on IL-17(+) autoreactive T cells, and that this effect was inhibited when the IL-23R was blocked by anti-IL-23R Ab or in the presence of excessive amounts of exogenous IL-23. We conclude that the balance between the enhancing and inhibitory effects of γδ T cells is regulated by their level of IL-23R expression. The expression of variable IL-23R levels allows γδ T cells to have different regulatory effects on adaptive immune responses, conceivably as a result of αβ and γδ T cells competing for IL-23.

Early IL-17 production by intrahepatic T cells is important for adaptive immune responses in viral hepatitis

This study was conducted to examine the interactions among the innate and adaptive immune components of the liver parenchyma during acute viral hepatitis. Mice were i.v. infected with a recombinant adenovirus, and within the first 24 h of infection, we found a transient but significant accumulation of IL-17 and IL-23 in the liver. In vivo neutralization of these interleukins alleviated the liver injury. Further investigations showed that IL-17 neutralization halted the intrahepatic accumulation of CTLs and Th1 cells. A majority of the IL-17-producing cells in the liver were γδ T cells. Additionally, intrahepatic IL-17(+) γδ T cells, but not the IFN-γ(+) ones, preferentially expressed IL-7Rα (CD127) on their surface, which coincided with an elevation of hepatocyte-derived IL-7 at 12 h postinfection. IL-7Rα blockade in vivo severely impeded the expansion of IL-17-producing cells after viral infection. In vitro, IL-7 synergized with IL-23 and directly stimulated IL-17 production from γδ T cells in response to TCRγδ stimulation. Finally, type I IFN (IFN-I) signaling was found to be critical for hepatic IL-7 induction. Collectively, these results showed that the IFN-I/IL-7/IL-17 cascade was important in priming T cell responses in the liver. Moreover, the highly coordinated cross talk among hepatocytes and innate and adaptive immune cells played a critical role in anti-viral immunity in hepatitis.

Comparative biology of γδ T cell function in humans, mice, and domestic animals

γδ T cells are a functionally heterogeneous population and contribute to many early immune responses. The majority of their activity is described in humans and mice, but the immune systems of all jawed vertebrates include the γδ T cell lineage. Although some aspects of γδ T cells vary between species, critical roles in early immune responses are often conserved. Common features of γδ T cells include innate receptor expression, antigen presentation, cytotoxicity, and cytokine production. Herein we compare studies describing these conserved γδ T cell functions and other, potentially unique, functions. γδ T cells are well documented for their potential immunotherapeutic properties; however, these proposed therapies are often focused on human diseases and the mouse models thereof. This review consolidates some of these studies with those in other animals to provide a consensus for the current understanding of γδ T cell function across species.

Antigen-specific regulation of IgE antibodies by non-antigen-specific γδ T cells

We re-examined the observation that γδ T cells, when transferred from mice tolerized to an inhaled conventional Ag, suppress the allergic IgE response to this Ag specifically. Using OVA and hen egg lysozyme in crisscross fashion, we confirmed the Ag-specific IgE-regulatory effect of the γδ T cells. Although only Vγ4(+) γδ T cells are regulators, the Ag specificity does not stem from specificity of their γδ TCRs. Instead, the Vγ4(+) γδ T cells failed to respond to either Ag, but rapidly acquired Ag-specific regulatory function in vivo following i.v. injection of non-T cells derived from the spleen of Ag-tolerized mice. This correlated with their in vivo Ag acquisition from i.v. injected Ag-loaded splenic non-T cells, and in vivo transfer of membrane label provided evidence for direct contact between the injected splenic non-T cells and the Vγ4(+) γδ T cells. Together, our data suggest that Ag itself, when acquired by γδ T cells, directs the specificity of their IgE suppression.

Glutamine modulates sepsis-induced changes to intestinal intraepithelial γδT lymphocyte expression in mice

This study investigated the effect of glutamine (GLN) on intestinal intraepithelial lymphocyte (IEL) γδT-cell cytokines and immune regulatory factor gene expressions in a mouse model of polymicrobial sepsis. Mice were randomly assigned to a normal group, a sepsis with saline (SS) group, or a sepsis with GLN (SG) group. All mice were fed a chow diet. Sepsis was induced by cecal ligation and puncture (CLP). The SS group was injected with saline, and the SG group was given 0.75 g GLN/kg body weight once via a tail vein 1 h after CLP. Septic mice were killed 12 h after CLP, and IEL γδT cells of the animals were isolated for further analysis. Results showed that compared with normal mice, sepsis resulted in lower IEL γδT-cell percentage and higher messenger RNA expressions of interferon γ, tumor necrosis factor α, interleukin 4 (IL-4), IL-13, IL-17, retinoid acid receptor-related orphan receptor γt, and complement 5a receptor by IEL γδT cells. These immunomodulatory mediator genes exhibited decreases, whereas IL-7 receptor expression increased in IEL γδT cells in septic mice with GLN administration. Annexin V/7-amino-actinomycin D stain revealed significantly lower rates of apoptosis, and IEL γδT-cell percentage was higher in the SG group. The histological findings also showed that damage to intestinal epithelial cells was less severe in the SG group. These results indicated that a single dose of GLN administered as treatment after the initiation of sepsis prevented apoptosis of IEL γδT cells and downregulated γδT cell-expressed inflammatory mediators that may consequently ameliorate the severity of sepsis-induced intestinal epithelial injury.

Cellular immunity in ASFV responses

African swine fever virus (ASFV) infection usually results in an acute haemorrhagic disease with a mortality rate approaching 100% in domestic pigs. However, pigs can survive infection with less-virulent isolates of ASFV and may become chronically infected. Surviving animals are resistant to challenge with homologous or, in some cases, closely related isolates of the virus indicating that pigs can develop protective immunity against ASFV. During asymptomatic, non-virulent ASFV infections natural killer cell activity increases in pigs, suggesting this cell type plays a role in ASFV immunity. Furthermore, depletion of CD8(+) lymphocytes from ASFV immune pigs demolishes protective immunity against related virulent viruses. This suggests that ASFV specific antibody alone is not sufficient for protection against ASFV infection and that there is an important role for the CD8(+) lymphocyte subset in ASFV protective immunity. These results were supported by DNA immunization studies, demonstrating a correlation between the protection afforded against lethal challenge and the detection of a large number of vaccine-induced antigen-specific CD8(+) T-cells. Peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) from ASF immune pigs protected from clinical disease show higher proportions of ASFV specific CD4(+)CD8(high+) double positive cytotoxic T cells than PBMCs from ASF immune but clinically diseased pig. The frequency of ASFV specific IFNγ producing T cells induced by immunization correlates to the degree of protection from ASFV challenge, and this may prove to be a useful indicator of any potential cross-protection against heterologous ASFV isolates.

The multifunctionality of human Vγ9Vδ2 γδ T cells: clonal plasticity or distinct subsets?

The dominant subset of γδ T cells in human peripheral blood expresses Vγ9 paired with Vδ2 as variable TCR elements. Vγ9Vδ2 T cells recognize pyrophosphates derived from the microbial non-mevalonate isoprenoid biosynthesis pathway at pico- to nanomolar concentrations. Structurally related pyrophosphates are generated in eukaryotic cells through the mevalonate pathway involved in protein prenylation and cholesterol synthesis. However, micromolar concentrations of endogenous pyrophosphates are required to be recognized by Vγ9Vδ2 T cells. Such concentrations are not produced by normal cells but can accumulate upon cellular stress and transformation. Therefore, many tumour cells are susceptible to γδ T cell-mediated lysis owing to the overproduction of endogenous pyrophosphates. This explains why Vγ9Vδ2 T cells contribute to both anti-infective and anti-tumour immunity. Ex vivo analysed Vγ9Vδ2 T cells can be subdivided on the basis of additional surface markers, including chemokine receptors and markers for naïve and memory T cells. At the functional level, Vγ9Vδ2 T cells produce a broad range of cytokines, display potent cytotoxic activity, regulate αβ T cell responses, and - quite surprisingly - can act as professional antigen-presenting cells. Thus, an exceptional range of effector functions has been assigned to a population of T cells, which all recognize invariant exogenous or endogenous pyrophosphates that are not seen by any other immune cell. Here, we discuss whether this plethora of effector functions reflects the plasticity of individual Vγ9Vδ2 T cells or can be assigned to distinct subsets.

γδ-T cells: an unpolished sword in human anti-infection immunity

γδ-T cells represent a small population of immune cells, but play an indispensable role in host defenses against exogenous pathogens, immune surveillance of endogenous pathogenesis and even homeostasis of the immune system. Activation and expansion of γδ-T cells are generally observed in diverse human infectious diseases and correlate with their progression and prognosis. γδ-T cells have both 'innate' and 'adaptive' characteristics in the immune response, and their anti-infection activities are mediated by multiple pathways that are under elaborate regulation by other immune components. In this review, we summarize the current state of the literature and the recent advancements in γδ-T cell-mediated immune responses against common human infectious pathogens. Although further investigation is needed to improve our understanding of the characteristics of different γδ-T cell subpopulations under specific conditions, γδ-T cell-based therapy has great potential for the treatment of infectious diseases.

CD154 as a potential early molecular biomarker for rapid quantification analysis of active Staphylococcus enterotoxin A

Staphylococcus aureus is a major bacterial pathogen producing a group of 21 enterotoxins (SEs). These enterotoxins have two separate but related biological activities. They cause gastroenteritis, and they function as superantigens that activate large numbers of T cells. In the current study, we demonstrate that short-term ex vivo exposure of primary naïve CD4(+) T-cells to SEA induces differential expression of the T cell surface receptor CD154 in a time- and dose-dependent manner. In addition, we show that SEA induces higher CD154 protein expression and higher splenocyte cell proliferation compared with SEB. We also demonstrate that expression of CD154 can be used for rapid detection of active SEA in milk.

The expression of CD25, CD11b, SWC1, SWC7, MHC-II, and family of CD45 molecules can be used to characterize different stages of γδ T lymphocytes in pigs

The expression of selected molecules was chosen to study porcine γδ lymphocytes and their CD2/CD8 subsets in different lymphoid organs in vivo and in vitro. Results indicate that many γδ T cells can constitutively express CD25 and MHC-II and that the frequency of γδ T cells positive for CD25, CD11b, SWC1 and SWC7 can be increased by stimulation. A diversified TCRδ repertoire was found inside CD25(+), CD11b(+), SWC1(-) and CD45RA(-) cells. Ontogenetic studies revealed various age and/or colonization dependency for expression of all studied molecules except of SWC7. Findings generally indicate that CD25 represent an activation molecule that probably marks a functionally distinct subsets, expression of CD11b is perhaps connected to early functions of naive γδ T cells in the periphery, SWC1 is lineage specific marker, SWC7 may represent an activation molecule with intrinsic or transient expression, and the expression of CD45RA/RC most likely defines naive and terminally differentiated cells.

Role of γδ T cells in α-galactosylceramide-mediated immunity

Attempts to harness mouse type I NKT cells in different therapeutic settings including cancer, infection, and autoimmunity have proven fruitful using the CD1d-binding glycolipid α-galactosylceramide (α-GalCer). In these different models, the effects of α-GalCer mainly relied on the establishment of a type I NKT cell-dependent immune cascade involving dendritic cell, NK cell, B cell, or conventional CD4(+) and CD8(+) T cell activation/regulation as well as immunomodulatory cytokine production. In this study, we showed that γδ T cells, another population of innate-like T lymphocytes, displayed a phenotype of activated cells (cytokine production and cytotoxic properties) and were required to achieve an optimal α-GalCer-induced immune response. Using gene-targeted mice and recombinant cytokines, a critical need for IL-12 and IL-18 has been shown in the α-GalCer-induced IFN-γ production by γδ T cells. Moreover, this cytokine production occurred downstream of type I NKT cell response, suggesting their bystander effect on γδ T cells. In line with this, γδ T cells failed to directly recognize the CD1d/α-GalCer complex. We also provided evidence that γδ T cells increase their cytotoxic properties after α-GalCer injection, resulting in an increase in killing of tumor cell targets. Moreover, using cancer models, we demonstrated that γδ T cells were required for an optimal α-GalCer-mediated anti-tumor activity. Finally, we reported that immunization of wild-type mice with α-GalCer enhanced the adaptive immune response elicited by OVA, and this effect was strongly mediated by γδ T cells. We conclude that γδ T cells amplify the innate and acquired response to α-GalCer, with possibly important outcomes for the therapeutic effects of this compound.

Characterization of autoreactive and bystander IL-17+ T cells induced in immunized C57BL/6 mice

PURPOSE

To characterize antigen-specific and bystander IL-17+ T cells induced in immunized mice.

METHODS

C57BL/6 (B6) mice were immunized with the uveitogenic peptide IRBP₁₋₂₀ in either incomplete (IFA) or complete (CFA) Freund's adjuvant. In vivo-primed T cells were stimulated with syngeneic APCs, with or without the immunizing peptide, under polarizing conditions. Activated T cells were analyzed for expression and production of IL-17.

RESULTS

B6 mice immunized with the uveitogenic peptide IRBP₁₋₂₀ generated two types of IL-17+ T cell: one specific for the immunizing autoantigen (IRBP-Th17) and a much more abundant type (bystander-Th17) that is not reactive with the immunizing antigen. The bystander-Th17 can be demonstrated when in vivo-primed T cells are cultured in Th17-polarizing conditions in the absence of antigen stimulation. Increased expansion of both types of Th17 cells was seen in mice immunized with IRBP₁₋₂₀/CFA, but not with IRBP₁₋₂₀/IFA. Both T-cell types produced IL-17, IL-22, and IFN-γ, but only bystander Th17 cells produced IL-10. Addition to culture medium of IL-6 and TGF-β1 caused more activation of bystander-Th17 T cells than IRBP-Th17 cells. When adoptively transferred into syngeneic naïve mice, the bystander-Th17 cells neutralized the pathogenic activity of the IRBP-Th17 cells.

CONCLUSIONS

A procedure commonly used to induce autoimmune disease promotes two functionally antagonistic types of IL-17+ T cells, and the pathogenic type is restricted to the population that specifically responds to the immunizing autoantigen. Molecular components of the CFA, rather than the immunizing peptide, promote the generation of both types of IL-17+ T cells.

Activated gammadelta T cells promote the activation of uveitogenic T cells and exacerbate EAU development

PURPOSE

To determine how the activation of γδ T cells affects the generation of uveitogenic αβ T cells and the development of experimental autoimmune uveitis (EAU).

METHODS

γδ T cells were isolated from B6 mice immunized with the uveitogenic peptide IRBP(1-20) and αβ T cells from immunized TCR-δ(-/-) mice. Resting γδ T cells were prepared by culture of separated γδ T cells in cytokine-free medium for 3 to 5 days, when they showed downregulation of CD69 expression. Activated γδ T cells were prepared by incubating resting γδ T cells with anti-γδ TCR (GL3) for 2 days. Responder αβ T cells were cocultured with immunizing antigen and antigen-presenting cells. The numbers of antigen-specific T cells expressing IL-17 or IFN-γ were determined by intracellular staining followed by FACS analysis after stimulation, with or without the addition of purified γδ T cells. The cytokines in the culture medium were measured by ELISA.

RESULTS

Highly enriched γδ T cells exert widely different effects on autoreactive αβ T cells in EAU, depending on the activation status of the γδ T cells. Whereas nonactivated γδ T cells had little effect on the activation of interphotoreceptor retinoid-binding protein-specific αβ T cells in vitro and in vivo, activated γδ T cells promoted the generation of uveitogenic T cells and exacerbated the development of EAU.

CONCLUSIONS

The functional ability of γδ T cells is greatly influenced by their activation status. Activated γδ T cells exacerbate EAU through increased activation of uveitogenic T cells.

γδ T-APCs: a novel tool for immunotherapy?

The series of seminal articles in this book clearly illustrate the multi-functional nature of γδ T cells. Some of the functions correlate with the tissue tropism of distinct γδ T cell subsets whereas others appear to result from oligoclonal selection. Here, we discuss the antigen-presenting cell (APC) function of the major subset of circulating γδ T cells, Vγ9/Vδ2 T cells, present in human blood. During tissue culture, Vγ9/Vδ2 T cells uniformly respond to a class of non-peptide antigens, so-called prenyl pyrophosphates, derived from stressed host cells or from microbes. It is this feature that distinguishes human (and primate) Vγ9/Vδ2 T cells from αβ and γδ T cells of all other species and that forms the basis for detailed studies of human Vγ9/Vδ2 T cells. One of the consequences of Vγ9/Vδ2 T cell activation is the rapid acquisition of APC characteristics (γδ T-APCs) reminiscent of mature dendritic cells (DCs). In the following discussion, we will discriminate between the potential use of γδ T-APCs as a cellular vaccine in immunotherapy and their role in anti-microbial immunity. Exploiting the APC function in γδ T-APCs represents a true novelty in current immunotherapy research and may lead to effective, anti-tumor immunity in cancer patients.