Lipid redistribution by α-linolenic acid-rich chia seed inhibits stearoyl-CoA desaturase-1 and induces cardiac and hepatic protection in diet-induced obese rats

Unlocking the Potential of Chia Intake in the Management of Metabolic Syndrome and its Risk Conditions: A Narrative Review

Metabolic syndrome is the occurrence of at least three of the five conditions diabetes, overweight and obesity, triglyceridemia, hypercholesterolemia, and hypertension. Dietary interventions have been one of the first lines of treatment indicated for improving conditions related to metabolic syndrome. The growing interest in plant-based diets and foods with health-promoting qualities has increased significantly. Due to its excellent nutritional and bioactive value, chia seeds have a significant market share, characterized by their high content of proteins, essential fatty acids, fiber, vitamins, minerals, phenolic compounds, and antioxidants. These constituents promote potential positive effects on improving health, especially blood pressure, and reducing oxidative stress and the inflammatory state installed by metabolic syndrome and its risk conditions. However, the ten studies in humans that were reviewed generally showed no effect on anthropometric parameters and biochemical parameters related to glucose and lipid homeostasis. Thus, although chia seeds have a high potential to combat metabolic syndrome, this review found few studies, highlighting a gap in the area and a possible future topic for researchers.

The Effect of Chia Seed on Blood Pressure, Body Composition, and Glycemic Control: A GRADE-Assessed Systematic Review and Dose-Response Meta-Analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials

CONTEXT

Numerous studies have demonstrated the positive effects on metabolic factors of consuming chia seeds. However, the results of clinical trials have been inconsistent.

OBJECTIVE

The aim of this study was to conduct a systematic review and meta-analysis of available randomized controlled trials to explore the effects of chia seed consumption on body weight (BW), body composition, blood pressure, and glycemic control.

DATA SOURCES

A comprehensive search was conducted on the Scopus, PubMed, Medline via Ovid, ISI Web of Science, and Scholar Google databases up to August 2023.

DATA EXTRACTION

The outcomes of interest included systolic blood pressure (SBP), diastolic blood pressure (DBP), BW, body mass index (BMI), body fat percentage, waist circumference (WC), fasting blood glucose (FBG), and hemoglobin A1c (HbA1c).

DATA ANALYSIS

Weighted mean difference (WMD) and 95% CIs were used to determine the effect size.

RESULTS

A total of 8 eligible studies were included in the analysis. The findings revealed a significant reduction in SBP (WMD: -7.19 mmHg; 95% CI, -10.63 to -3.73; P < .001) and DBP (WMD: -6.04 mmHg, 95% CI, -9.58 to -2.49; P = .001). However, no significant effects were observed on BW, body fat percentage, WC, BMI, FBG, and HbA1c. Subgroup analysis indicated that the effect of chia seed on SBP was significant in participants with a baseline SBP of less than 140 mmHg, but the effect was not dependent on the administered dose.

CONCLUSION

Chia seed consumption has positive effects on SBP and DBP but does not significantly impact BW, body composition, or glycemic parameters. However, the limited amount of data from included studies should be considered as a limitation while interpreting these findings.

SYSTEMATIC REVIEW REGISTRATION

PROSPERO registration no. CRD42023462575.

Effects of chia seed (Salvia hispanica L.) supplementation on cardiometabolic health in overweight subjects: a systematic review and meta-analysis of RCTs

BACKGROUND

Obesity is a significant public health issue associated with various chronic diseases. Research has indicated that chia seeds have the potential to improve cardiometabolic health. However, due to the diversity of research and inconsistencies in study design, further investigation is needed to fully understand their clinical effects on overweight individuals. This review aims to comprehensively analyze the available evidence on the effects of chia seeds on cardiometabolic indices in overweight populations through a meta-analysis.

METHODS

A comprehensive literature search was performed across PubMed, Web of Science, Scopus, and Embase databases from their inception until 01-03-2024 to identify randomized controlled trials (RCTs) evaluating the effect of chia on cardiometabolic indices in overweight subjects. The search strategy incorporated both Medical Subject Headings (MeSH). Following the screening, ten RCTs were finally included. The data, including subject characteristics, study design, and changes in serum biomarkers, were extracted and analyzed using Stata software version 18.

RESULTS

The meta-analysis results reveal that chia supplementation no significant changes in lipid profile, including triglycerides (TG) (MD: - 5.80 mg/dL, p = 0.47), total cholesterol (TC) (MD: - 0.29 mg/dL, p = 0.95), high-density lipoprotein (HDL) (MD: 1.53 mg/dL, p = 0.33), and low-density lipoprotein (LDL) (MD: 0.63 mg/dL, p = 0.88). Similarity fasting blood glucose (FBG) (MD: - 0.03 mg/dL, p = 0.98), hemoglobin A1c (HbA1c) (MD: - 0.13%, p = 0.13), and insulin levels (MD: 0.45 µIU/mL, p = 0.78). However, chia seed supplementation was associated with a significant reduction in C-reactive protein (CRP) (MD: - 1.18 mg/L, p < 0.0001), but no significant changes were observed in interleukin-6 (IL-6) (MD: - 0.15, p = 0.70) or tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α) (MD: 0.03, p = 0.91). There was no significant effect on body mass index (BMI) (MD: 0.1 kg/m2, p = 0.91), but a significant reduction in waist circumference (WC) (MD: - 2.82 cm, p < 0.001) was noted. Additionally, chia seed supplementation resulted in a significant reduction in systolic blood pressure (BP) (MD: - 3.27 mmHg, p = 0.03), though diastolic BP changes were non-significant (MD: - 2.69 mmHg, p = 0.09). The studies showed low to moderate heterogeneity in outcome measures, with I2 < 50%.

CONCLUSION

Chia seed supplementation does not significantly impact most lipid profile parameters and glycemic markers. However, it shows potential benefits in reducing WC, BP, and CRP. While chia seeds can be a valuable addition to cardiometabolic health management, they should be part of a broader health strategy that includes a balanced diet, exercise, and lifestyle modifications for optimal results.

Consumption of a Byproduct of Chia Seed Oil Extraction by Cold Pressing Ameliorates Cardiovascular Risks Factors in an Experimental Model of Metabolically Unhealthy Normal Weight

The byproduct of Salvia hispanica (chia) seed oil extraction by cold pressing, also known as expeller, possesses a high nutritional value. It is rich in proteins, fibers, minerals, and has a residual oil content of 7-11%, which is rich in omega 3 linolenic acid (ALA). However, this byproduct has been historically undervalued. Thus, the aim of current work was to study the effects of consuming of a rich in chia expeller diet on a rabbit model of metabolically unhealthy normal weight to validate their use as a functional food. Rabbits were fed different diets for a period of 6 weeks: a standard diet (CD), a high-fat diet (HFD), a rich in expeller CD (Exp-CD) and a rich in expeller HFD (Exp-HFD). The Exp-HFD attenuated the rise in basal glucose, TyG index, triglycerides, cholesterol and non-HDL cholesterol induced by the HFD. Both rich in expeller diets reduced mean arterial blood pressure (MAP) and increase liver and fat ALA levels compared to their respective controls. Furthermore, the angiotensin converting enzyme (ACE) activity was lower in the lungs of animals fed on rich in expeller diets compared to their respective controls. In vitro studies showed that ALA inhibited ACE activity. The evaluation of vascular reactivity revealed that rich in expeller diets improved angiotensin II affinity and reduced contractile response to noradrenaline. In conclusion, the consumption of rich in expeller diets showed beneficial effects in preventing cardiovascular risk factors such as insulin resistance, dyslipidemia and MAP. Therefore, its use as functional ingredient holds significant promise.

Evaluation of hematoprotective, hepatoprotective, and anti-inflammatory potentials of chia seed (Salvia hispanica L.) extract in rats

This study was conducted to evaluate the effects of chia seed extract on CCl4-induced hepatotoxicity, hematological profile, and carrageenan-induced inflammation in rats. Water-ethanol-acetone extract of chia seeds at the doses of 200 and 400 mg/kg body weight/day were applied to evaluate the comparative protective roles. Hematological profile and serum biochemical parameters were measured to evaluate the hematoprotective, and hepatoprotective effects of chia seed extract. Paw thickness and motility level were assessed at 0, 1, 3, 5, and 7 h after sub-planter injection of carrageenan to evaluate the anti-inflammatory potential. Tissue histopathology was performed in both cases. Chia seed extract reduced the elevated level of serum AST and ALT significantly in a dose-dependent manner following intra-peritoneal injection of CCl4. Histopathological study of the liver tissue exhibited acute impairment of the hepatocytes and liver parenchyma following CCl4 exposure, which was markedly regenerated by the chia seed extract treatment. Protective effects of the extracts were also evidenced by the RBC count, Hb (%), PCV (%), ESR, and neutrophil count. Chia seed extract was found to inhibit the carrageenan-induced paw edema and increase motility level in a dose-oriented fashion. Histological examination of the paw tissue revealed severe inflammation characterized by massive infiltration of inflammatory cells in the carrageenan group, which was significantly reduced by chia seed extract treatment. The higher dose of chia seed extract showed significant increases in bodyweight gain and feed efficiency ratio but decrease in visceral fat deposition. These results suggest that chia seeds possess potentials for hematoprotective, hepatoprotective, and anti-inflammatory activities.

Saturated fatty acids inhibit unsaturated fatty acid induced glucose uptake involving GLUT10 and aerobic glycolysis in bovine granulosa cells

Fatty acids have been shown to modulate glucose metabolism in vitro and in vivo. However, there is still a need for substantial evidence and mechanistic understanding in many cell types whether both saturated and unsaturated fatty acids (SFAs and UFAs) pose a similar effect and, if not, what determines the net effect of fatty acid mixes on glucose metabolism. In the present study, we asked these questions by treating granulosa cells (GCs) with the most abundant non-esterified fatty acid species in bovine follicular fluid. Results revealed that oleic and alpha-linolenic acids (UFAs) significantly increased glucose consumption compared to palmitic and stearic acids (SFAs). A significant increase in lactate production, extracellular acidification rate, and decreased mitochondrial activity indicate glucose channeling through aerobic glycolysis in UFA treated GCs. We show that insulin independent glucose transporter GLUT10 is essential for UFA driven glucose consumption, and the induction of AKT and ERK signaling pathways necessary for GLUT10 expression. To mimic the physiological conditions, we co-treated GCs with mixes of SFAs and UFAs. Interestingly, co-treatments abolished the UFA induced glucose uptake and metabolism by inhibiting AKT and ERK phosphorylation and GLUT10 expression. These data suggest that the net effect of fatty acid induced glucose uptake in GCs is determined by SFAs under physiological conditions.

Current Insights into the Effects of Dietary α-Linolenic Acid Focusing on Alterations of Polyunsaturated Fatty Acid Profiles in Metabolic Syndrome

The plant-derived α-linolenic acid (ALA) is an essential n-3 acid highly susceptible to oxidation, present in oils of flaxseeds, walnuts, canola, perilla, soy, and chia. After ingestion, it can be incorporated in to body lipid pools (particularly triglycerides and phospholipid membranes), and then endogenously metabolized through desaturation, elongation, and peroxisome oxidation to eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), with a very limited efficiency (particularly for DHA), beta-oxidized as an energy source, or directly metabolized to C18-oxilipins. At this moment, data in the literature about the effects of ALA supplementation on metabolic syndrome (MetS) in humans are inconsistent, indicating no effects or some positive effects on all MetS components (abdominal obesity, dyslipidemia, impaired insulin sensitivity and glucoregulation, blood pressure, and liver steatosis). The major effects of ALA on MetS seem to be through its conversion to more potent EPA and DHA, the impact on the n-3/n-6 ratio, and the consecutive effects on the formation of oxylipins and endocannabinoids, inflammation, insulin sensitivity, and insulin secretion, as well as adipocyte and hepatocytes function. It is important to distinguish the direct effects of ALA from the effects of EPA and DHA metabolites. This review summarizes the most recent findings on this topic and discusses the possible mechanisms.

A review of the functional activities of chia seed and the mechanisms of action related to molecular targets

In recent years, as a functional potential pseudocereal, chia seed (Salvia hispanica L.) has been of great interest for its comprehensive nutritional profile and attractive qualities after ingestion. It is reported that a reasonable dietary supplementation of chia seed (CS) contributes to the prevention and treatment of acute and chronic diseases (inflammation, diabetes, hypertension, obesity, kidney stone, etc.). CS contains a variety of bioactive macromolecular substances, such as oil, protein and gum, which manifest distinguished health-promoting activities in both in vivo and in vitro research studies. This article provides a comprehensive compendium on the functional importance of CS, in the context of biological activities and mechanism of actions of CS. Specifically, CS and its components alleviate inflammation and regulate glucose and fatty acid metabolism by regulating key influencing factors in the adenosine 5'-monophosphate-activated protein kinase (AMPK), mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPK), nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB), peroxisome-activated receptor gamma (PPAR-γ) and transforming growth factor-beta (TGF-β) pathways and the insulin receptor substrate (IRS)-mediated insulin signaling pathway. In the meantime, predictions of metabolic pathways of CS peptides based on the known tracks of newly researched active peptides were proposed, with the aim of emphasizing the enormous research space of CS peptides compared to other functional active peptides.

Overview of Natural Supplements for the Management of Diabetes and Obesity

Bioactive compounds found in various natural sources, such as fruits, vegetables, and herbs, have been studied for their potential benefits in managing obesity and diabetes. These compounds include polyphenols, flavonoids, other antioxidants, fiber, and certain fatty acids. Studies have found that these compounds may improve insulin sensitivity, regulate blood sugar levels, and promote weight loss. However, the effects of these compounds can vary depending on the type and amount consumed, as well as individual factors, such as genetics and lifestyle. Nutraceutical substances have multifaceted therapeutic advantages, and they have been reported to have disease-prevention and health-promoting properties. Several clinically used nutraceuticals have been shown to target the pathogenesis of diabetes mellitus, obesity, and metabolic syndrome and their complications and modulate various clinical outcomes favorably. This review aims to highlight and comment on some of the most prominent natural components used as antidiabetics and in managing obesity.

Effects of Cold Pressed Chia Seed Oil Intake on Hematological and Biochemical Biomarkers in Both Normal and Hypercholesterolemic Rabbits

Most of the studies on the beneficial effects of chia have been conducted with its seeds. There is less evidence about the effects of cold pressed chia seeds oil on hypercholesterolemia-induced alterations. Thus, this study investigated the effects of cold pressed chia seed oil supplementation on certain hematological and biochemical biomarkers in both normal and hypercholesterolemic rabbits. Thirty two male rabbits were assigned to four different groups and fed on: 1) a regular diet (CD), 2) CD supplemented with 10% chia oil, 3) CD supplemented with 1% cholesterol, 4) CD supplemented with 1% cholesterol and 10% chia oil. After six weeks of dietary interventions, mean arterial blood pressure and visceral fat were measured and blood samples were analyzed for lipid profiles and hematological parameters while erythrocyte membranes and retroperitoneal fat were analyzed for fatty acids composition and biochemical biomarkers. Dietary intervention with chia oil achieved control of the hypercholesterolemia-induced increase of mean arterial blood pressure, neutrophil to lymphocytes ratio, erythrocyte membrane fluidity, and improved erythrocyte morphological alterations. With regard to inflammatory biomarkers, chia oil supplementation reduced omega-6/omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids ratios and arachidonic/linolenic fatty acids ratios both in erythrocytes and fat from normal and hypercholesterolemic rabbits. The increase of linolenic fatty acid into the retroperitoneal fat was about 9 times higher than its respective controls. These results provide support for the potential health benefits of chia oil intake on hypercholesterolemia-associated clinical, hematological and biochemical alterations.

Freshwater Macroalgae, Oedogonium, Grown in Wastewater Reduce Diet-Induced Metabolic Syndrome in Rats

Macroalgae produce compounds with industrial, pharmaceutical and nutritional applications. In this study, biomass from the freshwater macroalgal genus Oedogonium was grown in either treated municipal wastewater (M) or ash dam water from a coal-fired power station (D). The biomass was investigated for its metabolic responses in high-carbohydrate, high-fat diet-fed rats, a model of human metabolic syndrome. The Oedogonium biomass cultured in M contained higher amounts of K, Mg, omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA), insoluble fibre and β-carotene, while biomass grown in D contained higher amounts of Al, Fe, V, Zn, Mn and As. Biomass from M further increased body weight and inflammation in the heart and colon in high-carbohydrate, high-fat diet-fed rats. In contrast, biomass from D prevented changes in metabolic, cardiovascular and liver parameters without changing tissue histology. We suggest that increased intake of metals and metalloids through macroalgal biomass from D may decrease abdominal fat deposition while polysaccharides, PUFA and carotenoids from M may improve blood glucose responses in an obesogenic diet. Thus, macroalgal biomass grown in different wastewater sources could be acceptable for feed or food applications. This biomass could even provide potential health benefits in diet-induced metabolic syndrome.

The effect of simvastatin on gene expression of low-density lipoprotein receptor, sterol regulatory element-binding proteins, stearoyl-CoA desaturase 1 mRNA in rat hepatic tissues

The study aimed to assess the effect of simvastatin on gene expression of LDLR, SREBPs, and SCD1 in rat hepatic tissues fed with high-fat diets (HFD) and its association with some biochemical parameters. Thirty-two male Wister albino rats were divided into four equal groups (three test and one control groups). The biochemical parameters were determined by using spectrophotometer techniques and the Elisa method. Low-density lipoprotein receptor, sterol regulatory element-binding proteins, stearoyl-CoA desaturase1, Beta-actin were analysed by real-time quantitative polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) method. At the end of study, the livers of the rats were separated and changes of hepatic tissue were determined. LDLR, SREBP2, and SCD1 expression increased significantly when compared G1 versus G4 and G2 versus G4. The expression of LDLR, SREBP2, and SCD1 also increased significantly when compared G2 versus G3, G1versus G3 and G1 versus G3 and G2 versus G3. The serum level of cholesterol, triglyceride, glucose, LDL, and HDL increased significantly when compared G1 versus G3. LDL showed significantly decreased when compared G1 versus G2. Cholesterol, glucose and HDL and triglyceride levels were increased significantly when compared G1 versus G4 and G2. Treatment of rats with HFD and simvastatin 20 mg/kg, triglyceride and LDL were almost the same as a control group and LDLR expression increased 98% in liver tissue. Gene expressions may be up-regulated in liver tissue and they showed different effects on biochemical parameters.

Comparison of blood leptin and vitamin E and blood and adipose fatty acid compositions in wild and captive populations of critically endangered Vancouver Island marmots (Marmota vancouverensis)

Vancouver Island marmots (Marmota vancouverensis) (VIMs) are a critically endangered species of fat-storing hibernators, endemic to Vancouver Island, British Columbia, Canada. In addition to in-situ conservation efforts, a captive breeding program has been ongoing since 1997. The captive diet is mostly pellet-based and rich in n-6 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs). In captivity, overall length of hibernation is shortened, and marmots have higher adipose tissue reserves compared to their wild-born counterparts, which may be a risk factor for cardiovascular disease, the leading cause of mortality in captive marmots. To investigate differences in lipid metabolism between wild and captive populations of VIMs, blood vitamin E, fatty acid (FA) profiles and leptin, and white adipose tissue (WAT) FA profiles were compared during the active season (May to September 2019). Gas chromatography, high-performance liquid chromatography, and multiplex kits were used to obtain FA profiles, α-tocopherol, and leptin values, respectively. In both plasma and WAT, the concentration of the sum of all FA in the total lipids was significantly increased in captive VIMs. The n-6/n-3 ratio, saturated FAs, and n-6 PUFAS were higher in captive marmots, whereas n-3 PUFAs and the HUFA score were higher in wild marmots. Serum concentrations of α-tocopherol were greater by an average of 45% in captive marmots, whereas leptin concentrations did not differ. Results from this study may be applied to improve the diet and implement weight management to possibly enhance the quality of hibernation and decrease the risk of cardiovascular and metabolic diseases of captive VIMs.

Salvia hispanica L. (chia) seed ameliorates liver injury and oxidative stress by modulating NrF2 and NFκB expression in sucrose-rich diet-fed rats

The aim of this study was to analyze the liver injury and oxidative stress in an experimental model of Metabolic Syndrome (MS) induced by chronic administration of a sucrose-rich diet (SRD) and to evaluate the effects of chia seed as a therapeutic strategy. Male Wistar rats were fed with a reference diet (RD) -6 months- or a SRD -3 months. Then, the latter group was randomly divided into two subgroups. One subgroup continued receiving the SRD for up to 6 months and the other was fed with a SRD where whole chia seed was incorporated as a source of dietary fat for the next 3 months (SRD+CHIA). The results showed that rats fed with a SRD for a long period of time developed dyslipidemia, hyperglycemia, hepatic lipid accumulation, liver injury, hepatic lipid peroxidation and oxidative stress. Hepatic NrF2 expression was significantly decreased. In addition, a significant increase in hepatic NFκB p65 expression and a positive correlation of this with plasma TNFα levels were found. The administration of chia seed for 3 months reversed dyslipidemia, hyperglycemia, lipid accumulation, liver injury, lipid peroxidation and oxidative stress. In the liver tissue, NrF2 expression was normalized and NFκB p65 expression was decreased, the latter was associated with a decrease in plasma TNFα levels. The present study showed new aspects of liver damage, lipid peroxidation and oxidative stress in dyslipidemic insulin resistant rats chronically fed with a sucrose-rich diet. However, we demonstrated new properties and molecular mechanisms associated with the beneficial anti-oxidant effects of chia seed consumption.

Repurposing chia seed oil: A versatile novel functional food

Chia seed oil (CSO) has been recently gaining tremendous interest as a functional food. The oil is rich in with polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs), especially, alpha linolenic acid (ALA), linoleic acid (LA), tocopherols, phenolic acids, vitamins, and antioxidants. Extracting CSO through green technologies has been highly efficient, cost-effective, and sustainable, which has also shown to improve its nutritional potential and proved to be eco-friendly than any other traditional or conventional processes. Due to the presence of valuable bioactive metabolites, CSO is proving to be a revolutionary source for food, baking, dairy, pharmaceutical, livestock feed, and cosmetic industries. CSO has been reported to possess antidiabetic, anticancer, anti-inflammatory, antiobesity, antioxidant, antihyperlipidemic, insect-repellent, and skin-healing properties. However, studies on toxicological safety and commercial potency of CSO are limited and therefore the need of the hour is to focus on large-scale molecular mechanistic and clinical studies, which may throw light on the possible translational opportunities of CSO to be utilized to its complete potential. In this review, we have deliberated on the untapped therapeutical possibilities and novel findings about this functional food, its biochemical composition, extraction methods, nutritional profiling, oil stability, and nutraceutical and pharmaceutical applications for its health benefits and ability to counter various diseases.

α-Linolenic acid rich-chia seed modulates visceral adipose tissue collagen deposition, lipolytic enzymes expression, insulin signaling and GLUT-4 levels in a diet-induced adiposity rodent model

Given obesity and its associated metabolic disorders have reached epidemic proportions, the study of therapeutic strategies targeting white adipose tissue (WAT) are of main research interest. We previously shown that α-linolenic acid-rich chia seed was able to ameliorate a wide range of metabolic disorders including body fat accretion in sucrose-rich diet (SRD)-fed rats, an experimental model of visceral adiposity and insulin resistance. However, the mechanisms involved are not fully clarified. The aim of this study was to evaluate the effect of chia seed administration upon WAT remodeling and key enzymes that controls lipolysis, insulin signaling (tAKT, pAKT), and GLUT-4 levels in different visceral fat pad depots (epididymal -eWAT- and retroperitoneal -rWAT- adipose tissues) of SRD-fed rats. Results showed that chia seed reduces adipocytes hypertrophy, the increased lipid content and collagen deposition in both WAT. These changes were accompanied by a significant reduction of HSL and ATGL protein levels in eWAT and HSL protein levels in rWAT. Moreover, chia seed restored the altered expression pattern of the pAKT observed in SRD-fed rats, and modulated GLUT-4 levels. Chia seed could be a dietary intervention of great relevance with potential beneficial effects in the management of body fat excess and WAT function.

The Current State of Knowledge on Salvia hispanica and Salviae hispanicae semen (Chia Seeds)

Chia seeds (Salviae hispanicae semen) are obtained from Salvia hispanica L. This raw material is distinguished by its rich chemical composition and valuable nutritional properties. It is currently referred to as “health food”. The purpose of the present work was to perform a literature review on S. hispanica and chia seeds, focusing on their chemical composition, biological properties, dietary importance, and medicinal uses. The valuable biological properties of chia seeds are related to their rich chemical composition, with particularly high content of polyunsaturated fatty acids, essential amino acids, polyphenols, as well as vitamins and bioelements. The available scientific literature indicates the cardioprotective, hypotensive, antidiabetic, and antiatherosclerotic effects of this raw material. In addition, studies based on in vitro assays and animal and human models have proven that chia seeds are characterized by neuroprotective, hepatoprotective, anti-inflammatory, and antioxidant properties. These properties indicate a valuable role of chia in the prevention of civilization diseases. Chia seeds are increasingly popular in functional food and cosmetic and pharmaceutical industries. That is attributed not only to their desirable chemical composition and biological activity but also to their high availability. Nevertheless, S. hispanica is also the object of specific biotechnological studies aimed at elaboration of micropropagation protocols of this plant species.

Effects of Salvia hispanica L. (chia) seed on blood coagulation, endothelial dysfunction and liver fibrosis in an experimental model of Metabolic Syndrome

The aim of this study was to analyze blood coagulation, endothelial dysfunction and liver fibrosis in an experimental model of Metabolic Syndrome (MS) induced by chronic administration of a sucrose-rich diet (SRD) and to evaluate the effects of chia seed as a therapeutic strategy. Male Wistar rats were fed with a reference diet (RD) - 6 months - or a SRD - 3 months. Then, the last group was randomly divided into two subgroups. One subgroup continued receiving the SRD for up to 6 months and the other was fed with a SRD where whole chia seed was incorporated as the source of dietary fat for the next 3 months (SRD + CHIA). Results showed that rats fed a SRD for a long period of time develop dyslipidemia, visceral adiposity, insulin resistance, and a hypercoagulable and hypofibrinolytic basal state. Hepatic VCAM-1 (main adhesion molecules involved in endothelial dysfunction) expression was significantly increased. In addition, the SRD group presented hepatic steatosis, a significant increase in interstitial collagen deposition and hydroxyproline content. Liver TGF-β1 (a key cytokine involved in fibrogenesis) levels increased and a negative correlation with PPARα protein mass levels was found. The administration of chia seed for 3 months reversed dyslipidemia, visceral adiposity and insulin resistance. Platelet count, coagulation parameters and plasma fibrinogen levels were normalized. In the liver tissue, VCAM-1 expression, steatosis, interstitial collagen deposition and the hydroxyproline content decreased. TGF-β1 expression was decreased and this was associated with an increase in the PPARα protein levels. The present study showed new aspects in the progression from liver steatosis to fibrosis in dyslipidemic insulin-resistant rats chronically fed a sucrose-rich diet. Chia seed supplementation could be used as a functional food and a potential dietary strategy to prevent or ameliorate disorders related to atherothrombotic cardiovascular events and NASH.

The review of alpha-linolenic acid: Sources, metabolism, and pharmacology

α-linolenic acid (ALA, 18:3n-3) is a carboxylic acid composed of 18 carbon atoms and three cis double bonds, and is an essential fatty acid indispensable to the human body. This study aims to systematically review related studies on the dietary sources, metabolism, and pharmacological effects of ALA. Information on ALA was collected from the internet database PubMed, Elsevier, ResearchGate, Web of Science, Wiley Online Library, and Europe PMC using a combination of keywords including "pharmacology," "metabolism," "sources." The following findings are mainly contained. (a) ALA can only be ingested from food and then converted into eicosapentaenoic acid and docosahexaenoic acid in the body. (b) This conversion process is relatively limited and affected by many factors such as dose, gender, and disease. (c) Pharmacological research shows that ALA has the anti-metabolic syndrome, anticancer, antiinflammatory, anti-oxidant, anti-obesity, neuroprotection, and regulation of the intestinal flora properties. (d) There are the most studies that prove ALA has anti-metabolic syndrome effects, including experimental studies and clinical trials. (e) The therapeutic effect of ALA will be affected by the dosage. In short, ALA is expected to treat many diseases, but further high quality studies are needed to firmly establish the clinical efficacy of ALA.

Pressurized liquid extraction to obtain chia seeds oils extracts enriched in tocochromanols. Nanoemulsions approaches to preserve the antioxidant potential

The objective of this study was to use accelerated-solvent-extraction to achieve antioxidant extracts from chia seeds oils, enriched in tocopherols and tocotrienols, namely tocochromanols. Nanotechnology applications have been also incorporated to develop an innovative formulation of chia seeds oil nanoemulsion that preserve its antioxidant potential after conditions of oxidative stress. Chia seeds oils proved to be a valuable source of tocochromanols, from 568.84 to 855.98 μg g^-1, depending on the geographical provenance. Quantitative data obtained by LC-DAD-ESI-MS/MS showed outstanding levels of γ-Tocopherol, over 83%, followed far behind by Tocopherols-(α, β, δ) and Tocotrienols-(α, β, δ, γ)-tocotrienols. The characteristic tocochromanols fingerprint of chia seeds oils was positively correlated with the FRAP and DPPH antioxidant activity of the extracts (between 18.81 and 138.48 mg Trolox/g). Formulation of the Chia seeds oils as nanoemulsions did not compromised the antioxidant properties of fresh extracts. Interestingly, nanoemulsions retained about the 80% of the initial antioxidant capacity after UV-induced stress, where the non-emulsified oils displayed a remarkable reduction (50-60%) on its antioxidant capacity under the same conditions. These antioxidant chia seeds formulations can constitute a promising strategy to vectorizing vitamin E isomers, in order to be used for food fortification, natural additives and to increase the self-life of food products during packing.

Carboxymethyl-glucan from Saccharomyces cerevisiae reduces blood pressure and improves baroreflex sensitivity in spontaneously hypertensive rats

Carboxymethyl-glucan (CMG) is a derivative of β-d-glucan extracted from Sacharomyces cerevisae. This polymer presents improved physicochemical properties and shows health benefits, such as immunomodulation, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, anti-tumor, and antiplatelet activities, and improved vascular function. However, studies concerning the effect of administration of CMG on the cardiovascular parameters, mainly in the field of hypertension, are scarce. This study aimed to investigate the effect of administration of CMG in spontaneously hypertensive rats (SHR) and normotensive rats (WKY) models. Normotensive and hypertensive animals received CMG at doses of 20 mg kg-1 and 60 mg kg-1 for four weeks. Then, weight gain, lipid profile, renal function, blood pressure, cardiac hypertrophy, baroreflex sensitivity, and sympathetic tone were evaluated. Oral administration of CMG influenced weight gain and cholesterol levels, and significantly reduced urea in the hypertensive animals. It decreased blood pressure levels and cardiac hypertrophy, improved baroreflex response, and reduced the influence of sympathetic tone. The results demonstrate the antihypertensive effect of CMG through improvement in baroreflex sensitivity via sympathetic tone modulation.

Effect of the Addition of Chia Seed Gel as Egg Replacer and Storage Time on the Quality of Pork Patties

Two types of patties were prepared: control and with chia seeds gel instead of beaten egg. The patties were cooked in the steam-convection oven, vacuum packed and stored at 4 °C. The pork patties with chia addition were characterized by similar water activity and pH values to the control samples. They showed lower values of the b* colour parameter as well as colour saturation (C*) and hue angle values (h°) on the cross-section and lower values of colour parameters L*, a* and b* and C* on the surface than the controls. The addition of chia seeds improved the texture parameters of the tested products. Pork patties with chia seeds were softer and showed better chewiness than the control samples. Chia slowed down oxidative changes in pork patties during storage. The use of 8.0% addition of chia seeds was only slightly noticeable in taste of the pork patties and these samples received similar overall quality scores as control samples.

Egyptian chia seeds (Salvia hispanica L.) during germination: Upgrading of phenolic profile, antioxidant, antibacterial properties and relevant enzymes activities

Little studies on chia sprouts were not deeply address the polyphenols profiles and their functional properties during long period of germination. This study aims to evaluate the impact of germination process on the phenolic profile, antioxidant and antibacterial properties and relevant enzymes activities of Egyptian chia seeds. The total phenolic and flavonoid contents of chia sprouts increased several times during ten days of germination and maximized on 7-day sprouts (6.4 and 11.5 folds, respectively). In HPLC analysis, seventeen phenolic compounds were detected on 7-day sprouts compared to fifteen in dry seeds, where two new phenolic compounds (p-coumaric acid and kaempferol) were detected. The concentrations of all the identified phenolic compounds increased several folds (1.8-27) on 7-day sprouts. The total antioxidant activity increased 10, 17, and 29 folds on 7-day sprouts using DPPH, ABTS and PMC antioxidant methods, respectively compared to the dry seeds. Both antioxidant and carbohydrate-cleaving enzymes increased in chia sprouts and correlated with their phenolic content and antioxidant activity. The phenolic content of 7-day sprouts showed a potent antibacterial activity against some human enteric pathogenic bacteria including Escherichia coli O157-H7, Salmonella typhi, Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Staphylococcus aureus with lower MIC values compared to the raw seeds.

Quantitative Polyunsaturated Fatty Acid Analysis of Chia Seed Oil by High-Performance Liquid Chromatography

Alpha-linolenic acid (ALA) and linoleic acid (LA), abundant in chia seed oil, are useful polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) with numerous health benefits. The objectives of the present study were to explore the optimum extraction condition of chia seed oil and the possibilities of direct analysis of ALA and LA in chia seed oil by reversed-phase high-performance liquid chromatography with ultraviolet detection (RP-HPLC-UV). The optimized chia seed oil extraction condition was set by the usage of Soxhlet extrator with hexane as a solvent, with the solvent to solid ratio of 8 and the extraction time of 8 h. Prior to HPLC-UV analysis, the oil was saponified in order to get the free fatty acids for detection. The results showed that the proposed HPLC-UV method allowed the quantification of ALA and LA in chia seed oil. The method was simple, rapid (within 18 min) and sensitive (limit of detection 0.006 mg/mL for ALA and 0.02 mg/mL for LA) and precise (RSD ≤ 2%). Thus, the proposed experimental designs were shown to offer considerable advantages over traditional derivatization approaches in the ALA and LA analyses.

Antihyperglycemic and Antidyslipidemic Activities of the Aqueous Salvia hispanica Extract in Diabetic Rat

AIMS

The study targeted to evaluate the antihyperglycemic activity of Salvia hispanica.

BACKGROUND

Salvia hispanica L. (Lamiaceae) is a medicinal plant with many beneficial properties on human health.

OBJECTIVE

This objective of the study was to investigate the antihyperglycemic effect of the aqueous extract of Salvia hispanica (S. hispanica) seeds and its capacity to improve lipid profile in normal and STZ-induced diabetic rats.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

The seed aqueous extract of S. hispanica (SHSAE) at a dose of 100 mg/kg was administered orally in normal and diabetic rats. The effect of oral SHSAE treatment on blood glucose and lipid levels during 15 days was assessed in normal and streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats. The oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT) was carried out. The antioxidant activity of SHSAE was also examined.

RESULTS

The decrease of glycemia in rats following the administration of the plant extract suggested that the studied extract possesses antidiabetic effect. The extract of S. hispanica produced hypolipidemic effect with a significant lowering effect on plasma total cholesterol levels and increase on HDL-cholesterol levels. SHSAE was also able to enhance glucose tolerance using OGTT. Moreover, SHSAE possess a potential antioxidant effect in vitro.

CONCLUSION

In conclusion, this study demonstrates the antihyperglycemic and antilipidemic effects of SHSAE in rats.

Enrichment of alpha-linolenic acid in rodent diet reduced oxidative stress and inflammation during myocardial infarction

Myocardial infarction (MI) is an irreversible event caused by cardiac ischemia and may be fatal. Studies reported that increased intake of n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) namely, eicosapentaenoic acid and docosahexaenoic acid reduce the risk of cardiovascular disease and lower the incidence of MI. Nonetheless, the cardioprotective effect of plant n-3-PUFA such as α-linolenic acid (ALA) in the diet is not conclusive. In this study, Sprague Dawley rats were supplemented with isocaloric diets enriched with ALA rich flaxseed (FS) and flaxseed oil (FSO), and normal chow (Control) for 4 weeks. MI was induced by isoproterenol (ISO) injection. Results showed that all ALA-enriched diets displayed cardioprotection against MI. The heart to body weight ratio, plasma LDH activity and plasma cTnI were reduced compared to ISO and was prominent in FS diet. ALA and EPA were up-regulated in both tissues and plasma by ALA-diets compared to Control and remained higher than ISO groups. Notably, LOX-mediated HETEs decreased whereas LOX-mediated HDHAs were elevated in both tissues and plasma of ALA-enriched diets compared to ISO. In addition, non-enzymatic oxidized products from arachidonic acid including 15-F_2t-IsoP were reduced in both tissues and plasma of MI rats supplemented with ALA-enriched diets while those from n-3 PUFAs including F₄-NeuroPs, PhytoPs and PhytoFs were elevated compared to control. ALA-enriched diets particularly flaxseed reduced gene expressions of inflammatory cytokines namely IL-1β, IL-6 and TNFα and prevented the down regulation of antioxidant catalase in the heart tissues. In conclusion ALA-enriched diets potentially exerted cardioprotection through the regulation of anti-inflammatory and anti-oxidative mediators from n-3 PUFA autooxidation.

Chia seeds as a potential cognitive booster in the APP23 Alzheimer's disease model

Glucose hypometabolism potentially contributes to Alzheimer's disease (AD) and might even represent an underlying mechanism. Here, we investigate the relationship of diet-induced metabolic stress and AD as well as the therapeutic potential of chia seeds as a modulator of glucose metabolism in the APP23 mouse model. 4-6 (pre-plaque stage, PRE) and 28-32 (advanced-plaque stage, ADV) weeks old APP23 and wild type mice received pretreatment for 12 weeks with either sucrose-rich (SRD) or control diet, followed by 8 weeks of chia seed supplementation. Although ADV APP23 mice generally showed functioning glucose homeostasis, they were more prone to SRD-induced glucose intolerance. This was accompanied by elevated corticosterone levels and mild insulin insensitivity. Chia seeds improved spatial learning deficits but not impaired cognitive flexibility, potentially mediated by amelioration of glucose tolerance, attenuation of corticosterone levels and reversal of SRD-induced elevation of pro-inflammatory cytokine levels. Since cognitive symptoms and plaque load were not aggravated by SRD-induced metabolic stress, despite enhanced neuroinflammation in the PRE group, we conclude that impairments of glucose metabolism do not represent an underlying mechanism of AD in this mouse model. Nevertheless, chia seeds might provide therapeutic potential in AD as shown by the amelioration of cognitive symptoms.

Bioavailability of Calcium from Chia (Salvia hispanica L.) in Ovariectomized Rats Fed a High Fat Diet

BACKGROUND

Skeletal abnormalities such as bone loss occur when there is an imbalance in bone matrix synthesis and bone resorption. This imbalance is also caused by hormonal changes and inflammation. Chia (Salvia hispanica L.) has a high nutritional value and is an excellent source of calcium. Evaluate the bioavailability of calcium from chia, and its effect on bone metabolism when consumed as part of a standard or high fat diet (HFD) in ovariectomized rats.

METHODS

The study was conducted with 80 female Wistar rats that received standard diet or HFD. 40 female mice were ovariectomized (OVX) and 40 were sham-operated (SHAM). After recovery from surgery the animals received chia as a source of 20% of the calcium recommendation, calcium bioavailability was measured using the calcium balance technique. Bone strength and bone morphometry were evaluated by weight, length and microtomography measurements.

RESULTS

HFD increased serum calcium and decreased calcium retention. The addition of chia to HFD did not alter bone morphology. Ovariectomy led to lower percentage of bone volume, smaller trabecular thickness, higher trabecular separation and higher porosity, when ovariectomy was associated with HFD, the final weight, waist circumference, body mass index and adiposity were increased.

CONCLUSIONS

Chia maintained bone health when offered as a source of 20% calcium, in a diet that met 100% of the mineral recommendation, regardless of the type of diet, in animals non-ovariectomized adults.

Anti-inflammatory potential of chia seeds oil and mucilage against adjuvant-induced arthritis in obese and non-obese rats

Background Natural anti-inflammatory nutraceuticals may be useful in suppressing the incessant aggravation of rheumatoid arthritis. Chia seeds as a natural source of antioxidants help prevent several oxidative stress-mediated diseases. The current study was focused on arthritis combined with obesity and evaluated the validation of oil and mucilage extracted from chia seeds as anti-inflammatory nutraceuticals in obese and non-obese adjuvant arthritic rat model. Methods Chia seeds oil was extracted by pressing method, whereas the mucilage was extracted using water (50 °C for 30 min). Oil and freeze-dried mucilage were tested for their anti-inflammatory effects using 48 male Sprague-Dawley rats. Obesity was developed in rats after 8 weeks of feeding on high-fat high-sucrose diet; on the first day of the ninth week, chia seeds oil and mucilage were administrated for 21 days, and arthritis was induced either in obese or non-obese rats via the injection with Freund's complete adjuvant. Swelling of the paw was then measured. Plasma tumor necrosis factor (TNF-α), lipid profile, liver and kidney functions, serum lipid peroxidation, and erythrocyte catalase activity were determined. Results Results emphasized that arthritis with obesity resulted in the elevation of the swelling of the paw, TNF-α, dyslipidemia, and oxidative stress. Chia seeds oil and mucilage, more promisingly the oil, attenuated TNF-α and the swelling of the paw, improved lipid profile, and diminished the oxidative stress both in obese and non-obese arthritic rats. Conclusions Results showed that chia seeds oil and mucilage exhibited anti-inflammatory effects against adjuvant-induced arthritis in obese and non-obese rats.

Chia seed (Salvia hispanica L.) effects and their molecular mechanisms on unbalanced diet experimental studies: A systematic review

The aim of this review was to compile evidence and understand chia seed effects on unbalanced diet animal studies and the molecular mechanisms on metabolic biomarker modulation. A systematic review was conducted in electronic databases, following PRISMA recommendations. Risk of bias and quality was assessed using SYRCLE toll and ARRIVE guidelines. Seventeen articles were included. Throughout the studies, chia's main effects are associated with AMPK modulation: improvement of glucose and insulin tolerance, lipogenesis, antioxidant activity, and inflammation. Details about randomization and allocation concealment were insufficient, as well as information about blind protocols. Sample size, chia dose, and number of animals evaluated for each parameter were found to be lacking information among the studies. Based on experimental study data, chia has bioactive potential, and its daily consumption may reduce the risk of chronic disease development, mainly due to the antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, hypoglycemic, and hypolipidemic effects of the seed. PRACTICAL APPLICATION: The consumption of chia seeds may improve lipid profile, insulin and glucose tolerance, and reduce risk of cardiovascular disease. Whole seed or its oil presents positive effect, but the effects of chia oil can act faster than the seed.

Chia seeds: an ancient grain trending in modern human diets

Currently, in order to ensure adequate intake of nutrients to complement the normal diet, the consumption of seeds such as Salvia hispanica L. (commonly known as chia seeds) is increasing. For this reason, investigations concerning the composition and potential health effects of chia seeds are being carried out. Moreover, the recent approval of chia seeds as a Novel Food by the European Parliament allows its consumption and incorporation in a wide range of foods; thus, they have become widely available. Concerning their nutritional aspects, chia seeds are an excellent source of fat (20% to 34%), particularly polyunsaturated fatty acids such as α-linolenic (60%) and linoleic (20%) acids. Moreover, high levels of protein (16% to 26%), mainly prolamins, and dietary fibre contents (23% to 41%) have been reported. Vitamins (mostly B complex) and minerals (calcium, phosphorus, and potassium, among others) have also been described in appreciable amounts. Additionally, due to the absence of gluten, these seeds are appropriate for coeliac patients. Regarding other bioactive compounds, chia seeds are also a source of antioxidants, such as chlorogenic and caffeic acids, quercetin and kaempferol. Due to their described composition, chia seeds have been related to different medicinal effects, particularly anti-inflammatory and antidiabetic activities and positive effects on cardiovascular disease and hypertension. The aim of this paper is to perform a systematic review of chia seeds to provide an update of the knowledge about their morphology, nutritional and chemical composition, possible human health benefits and role as a functional food.

Exogenous p-Coumaric Acid Improves Salvia hispanica L. Seedling Shoot Growth

: p-Coumaric acid (p-CA) belongs to a family of natural esters of hydroxycinnamic acid compounds that have been shown to modulate plant growth and metabolism. In this study, we investigated the effect of exogenous p-CA on plant growth, reactive oxygen species (ROS)-induced oxidative damage, photosynthetic metabolism, osmolyte content and changes in superoxide dismutase (SOD) enzymatic activity. Exogenous p-CA improved Salvia hispanica (chia) growth by significantly enhancing shoot length, fresh and dry weights coupled with augmented levels of total chlorophyll and carotenoid contents. Furthermore, p-CA also triggered an induction in proline, glycine betaine (GB) and superoxide (O2∙-) levels while no changes were observed for hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) and downstream malondialdehyde (MDA) content. Also, no change in SOD activity was observed in the p-CA treatment relative to the control. Therefore, the results suggest that exogenous p-CA improves chia seedling growth possibly via activation of a ROS-signalling pathway involving O2∙- under the control of proline accumulation.

Fiber and phenolic compounds contribution to the hepatoprotective effects of mango diets in rats fed high cholesterol/sodium cholate

The present study evaluated the contribution of mango fiber (MF) and mango phenolic compounds (MP) to the hepatoprotective effect of freeze-dried mango pulp (FDM) cultivar (cv.) "Ataulfo" diets in high cholesterol/sodium cholate (HCC)-fed rats. Male Wistar rats were fed with a HCC diet for 12 weeks, either untreated, or supplemented with MF, MP, FDM, or a control diet (no HCC; n = 6/group). All mango treatments significantly decreased hepatic cholesterol deposition and altered its fatty acid profile, whereas MF and MP mitigated adipose tissue hypertrophy. MF caused a lower level of proinflammatory cytokines (IL-1α/β, IFN-γ, TNF-α) whereas FDM increased the anti-inflammatory ones (IL-4, 6, 10). Mango treatments increased catalase (CAT) activity and its mRNA expression; superoxide dismutase (SOD) activity was normalized by MF and FDM, but its activity was unrelated to its hepatic mRNA expression. Changes in CAT and SOD mRNA expression were unrelated to altered Nrf2 mRNA expression. Higher hepatic PPARα and LXRα mRNA levels were found in MP and MF. We concluded that MF and MP are highly bioactive, according to the documented hepatoprotection in HCC-fed rats; their mechanism of action appears to be related to modulating cholesterol and fatty acid metabolism as well as to stimulating the endogenous antioxidant system.

Linseed Components Are More Effective Than Whole Linseed in Reversing Diet-Induced Metabolic Syndrome in Rats

Linseed is a dietary source of plant-based ω–3 fatty acids along with fiber as well as lignans including secoisolariciresinol diglucoside (SDG). We investigated the reversal of signs of metabolic syndrome following addition of whole linseed (5%), defatted linseed (3%), or SDG (0.03%) to either a high-carbohydrate, high-fat or corn starch diet for rats for the final eight weeks of a 16–week protocol. All interventions reduced plasma insulin, systolic blood pressure, inflammatory cell infiltration in heart, ventricular collagen deposition, and diastolic stiffness but had no effect on plasma total cholesterol, nonesterified fatty acids, or triglycerides. Whole linseed did not change the body weight or abdominal fat in obese rats while SDG and defatted linseed decreased abdominal fat and defatted linseed increased lean mass. Defatted linseed and SDG, but not whole linseed, improved heart and liver structure, decreased fat vacuoles in liver, and decreased plasma leptin concentrations. These results show that the individual components of linseed produce greater potential therapeutic responses in rats with metabolic syndrome than whole linseed. We suggest that the reduced responses indicate reduced oral bioavailability of the whole seeds compared to the components.

Dietary chia seeds (Salvia hispanica) improve acute dyslipidemia and steatohepatitis in rats

Chia seeds (Salvia hispanica L.) are rich in omega fatty acids. Dyslipidemia and steatohepatitis are diseases that require effective treatments in obese and non-obese patients. The aim was to evaluate the effect of chia intake on acute tyloxapol (TI)-induced dyslipidemia, on acute carbon tetrachloride (TC)-induced steatohepatitis, and on mixed damage (TC+TI) in non-obese rats. Four experimental groups were fed for 4 weeks a diet with established rodent food (DE), and four groups were fed a diet with 15% added chia (DC). Plasma samples were analyzed for total cholesterol, triglycerides, glucose, biochemical liver damage markers, and tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α). Liver samples were used to quantify glycogen, catalase, lipid peroxidation, and TNF-α. A histopathological analysis was performed. DC intake partially or totally prevented steatohepatitis, and reduced lipids in the dyslipidemic groups. The hypolipidemic and hepatoprotective effects of chia may be correlated to its high content of α-linolenic acid (omega-3) and phenolics. PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS: Metabolic syndrome is associated with non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) and non-alcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH), which are currently the most common causes of chronic liver disease, cirrhosis, and hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) worldwide. Dyslipidemia is a significant risk factor for NAFLD and NASH. Non-obese patients may have NAFLD or NASH. Metabolic syndrome and dyslipidemia are more strongly associated with NAFLD in non-obese than in obese patients. This is the first study evaluating the hypolipidemic and hepatoprotective effects of chia seed intake on acute dyslipidemia and/or steatohepatitis caused by the individual or combined administration of the inducers tyloxapol and carbon tetrachloride, respectively, in non-obese rats. The pharmacological effects of dietary chia are correlated to its high content of omega-3 and omega-6 (1:1), protein, dietary fiber, and phenolics. The results suggest that inclusion of chia in diets of non-obese patients with dyslipidemia and/or NAFLD/NASH may improve their health state and preventing cirrhosis or HCC.

A Renewable Source as a Functional Food: Chia Seed

Background:

Chia seed is not a new food for humanity. The seed has been used in many different areas since the Aztecs, especially the food items. The chia seed is -becoming increasingly important because of its nutritional and functional properties and it is described as “the seed of the 21st century” and “new gold and super nutrient”.

Background:

In this review, general characteristics, nutritional composition, fields of usage, effects on health and importance in human nutrition of the chia seed have been evaluated.

Conclusion:

This seed is shown as an important source of dietary fiber (soluble and insoluble), omega- 3 fatty acids, proteins, bioactive and polyphenolic compounds. It also has many physicochemical and functional properties that make it more suitable for the food industry. Chia seed is a good thickener, gel forming and chelating agent, foam enhancer, emulsifier, suspending agent and rehydration factor. Foods such as frozen products, bakery products, beverages, sweets, pasta, and sausages can be enriched with seeds and chia oil can be used as fat replacer for these products. Some studies have shown that consumption of the seed is beneficial for health problems such as dyslipidemia, inflammation, cardiovascular diseases and insulin resistance. However, the results of studies demonstrating the effect of the seeds on diseases have been controversial and many of the studies on this subject are animal studies. There is a need for further studies to reveal the effects of chia seed on human health and its importance in the food industry.

Enhancement of Composition and Oxidative Stability of Chia (Salvia hispanica L.) Seed Oil by Blending with Specialty Oils

Chia seed (Salvia hispanica L.) oil is mainly composed of ω-3 fatty acids (61% to 70%). Despite being nutritionally favorable, higher amounts of polyunsaturated fatty acids result in poorer oxidative stability. Thus, the aim of this work was to produce edible vegetable oil blends rich in ω-3 fatty acids and with greater oxidative stability than pure chia oil. Blending of chia with other specialty oils (walnut, almond, virgin, and roasted sesame oils) was assessed in the following respective proportions: 20:80, 30:70, and 40:60 (v/v). An accelerated storage test was conducted (40 ± 1 °C, 12 days). Primary and secondary oxidation products, free fatty acid content, antioxidant compounds, fatty acid composition, and induction time were determined. The blends presented higher oxidative stability indices than chia oil. Sensory analysis showed that, given a pure oil, judges did not identify statistically significant differences among the blends. The results suggest that blending of chia oil is an adequate alternative to obtain ω-3-enriched oils with higher oxidative stability indices. PRACTICAL APPLICATION: Vegetable oil blending is a widely used practice in the edible oil industry to produce blended oils with enhanced stability and nutritional and sensory properties at affordable prices. The blends developed in this study from chia, sesame, walnut, and almond oils take advantage of the properties of each parent oil to yield products with improved oxidative stability, essential fatty acid presence, and sensory characteristics. To achieve a daily intake of 2.22 g/day of ω-3 fatty acids as recommended by the Intl. Society for the Study of Fatty Acids and Lipids (ISSFAL), it is necessary to consume approximately one spoonful of the formulated mixtures.

Docosahexaenoic Acid at 0.4% of Dietary Weight Enhances Lean Mass in Young Female Sprague-Dawley Rats

BACKGROUND

Docosahexaenoic acid (DHA; 22:6n-3) is an n-3 (ω-3) fatty acid known for beneficial effects on body composition.

OBJECTIVE

The objective of the study was to test the dose response of lean and fat mass to DHA in healthy growing female rats.

METHODS

Female Sprague-Dawley rats (7 wk at baseline; n = 12/diet) were randomly assigned to receive a control (AIN-93M; 60 g soybean oil/kg diet) or experimental diet for 10 wk. Experimental diets contained 0.1%, 0.4%, 0.8%, or 1.2% DHA (wt:wt of total diet). Imaging for whole-body and abdominal composition was conducted using dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry and microcomputed tomography, respectively, at weeks 0, 5, and 10. Fatty acid profiles of several tissues were analyzed using gas chromatography. Serum leptin, C-reactive protein, and plasma insulin-like growth factor I concentrations were measured at each time point using immunoassays. Data were tested using Pearson's correlations and mixed-model ANOVA.

RESULTS

No differences were observed in weight at baseline or food intake throughout the study. Overall, a 6% increase (P < 0.05) in whole-body and abdominal lean mass was observed in the 0.4%-DHA diet group compared with the control diet group. Moreover, the abdominal visceral fat mass was 31.4% lower in rats in the 0.4%-DHA than in the 1.2%-DHA diet group (P < 0.001). Rats in the 1.2%-DHA diet group showed greater percent differences in whole-body (32.5% and 40.6% higher) and in abdominal (33.9% and 49.4% higher) fat mass relative to the 0.1%- and 0.4%-DHA diet groups, respectively (P < 0.01). Accordingly, serum leptin concentration was lower in the 0.1%-DHA (38.2%) and 0.4%-DHA (43.8%) diet groups (P < 0.01) than in the 1.2%-DHA diet group and positively related to whole-body fat mass (r = 0.91, P < 0.0001).

CONCLUSION

Dietary DHA at 0.4% of dietary weight effectively enhances lean mass and proportionally reduces fat mass in growing female rats.

Chia Seed (Salvia hispanica L.) as a Source of Proteins and Bioactive Peptides with Health Benefits: A Review

The consumption of chia seed (Salvia hispanica L.) has increased in recent years due its high content of omega-3 fatty acids and dietary fiber. This seed also has a high concentration of proteins and essential amino acids, becoming a promising source of bioactive peptides. The objective of this review was to identify the composition and the beneficial effects of chia seeds (S. hispanica L.), their proteins, peptides, and their potential impact on human health. The UniProt database was used to identify the chia proteins and their amino acid sequences. The BIOPEP database was used to analyze the peptides's bioactive potential. A total of 20 proteins were cataloged in chia seed, 12 of those were involved in the regular metabolic processes of the plant cells. However, eight proteins were specifically related to production and storage of plant lipids, thus explaining the high concentration of lipids in chia seeds (around 30%), especially omega-3 fatty acids (around 20%). The analyses of amino acid sequences showed peptides with bioactive potential, including dipeptidyl peptidase-IV inhibitors, angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors, and antioxidant capacity. These results correlated with the main health benefits of whole chia seed in humans such as antioxidant capacity, and hypotensive, hypoglycemic, and anticholesterolemic effects. Such relation can be associated with chia protein and peptide compositions and therefore needs further investigation in vitro and in vivo.