A novel layer-structured scaffold with large pore sizes suitable for 3D cell culture prepared by near-field electrospinning

Engineering multifunctional surface topography to regulate multiple biological responses

Surface topography or curvature plays a crucial role in regulating cell behavior, influencing processes such as adhesion, proliferation, and gene expression. Recent advancements in nano- and micro-fabrication techniques have enabled the development of biomimetic systems that mimic native extracellular matrix (ECM) structures, providing new insights into cell-adhesion mechanisms, mechanotransduction, and cell-environment interactions. This review examines the diverse applications of engineered topographies across multiple domains, including antibacterial surfaces, immunomodulatory devices, tissue engineering scaffolds, and cancer therapies. It highlights how nanoscale features like nanopillars and nanospikes exhibit bactericidal properties, while many microscale patterns can direct stem cell differentiation and modulate immune cell responses. Furthermore, we discuss the interdisciplinary use of topography for combined applications, such as the simultaneous regulation of immune and tissue cells in 2D and 3D environments. Despite significant advances, key knowledge gaps remain, particularly regarding the effects of topographical cues on multicellular interactions and dynamic 3D contexts. This review summarizes current fabrication methods, explores specific and interdisciplinary applications, and proposes future research directions to enhance the design and utility of topographically patterned biomaterials in clinical and experimental settings.

Concept and Evolution in 3D Printing for Excellence in Healthcare

Three-dimensional printing (3DP) has gained popularity among scientists and researchers in every field due to its potential to drastically reduce energy costs for the production of customized products by utilizing less energy-intensive machines as well as minimizing material waste. The 3D printing technology is an additive manufacturing approach that uses material layer-by-layer fabrication to produce the digitally specified 3D model. The use of 3D printing technology in the pharmaceutical sector has the potential to revolutionize research and development by providing a quick and easy means to manufacture personalized one-off batches, each with unique dosages, distinct substances, shapes, and sizes, as well as variable release rates. This overview addresses the concept of 3D printing, its evolution, and its operation, as well as the most popular types of 3D printing processes utilized in the health care industry. It also discusses the application of these cutting-edge technologies to the pharmaceutical industry, advancements in various medical fields and medical equipment, 3D bioprinting, the most recent initiatives to combat COVID-19, regulatory frameworks, and the major challenges that this technology currently faces. In addition, we attempt to provide some futuristic approaches to 3DP applications.

Fabrication of 3D microfibrous composite polycaprolactone/hydroxyapatite scaffolds loaded with piezoelectric poly (lactic acid) nanofibers by sequential near-field and conventional electrospinning for bone tissue engineering

Near-field electrospinning (NFES) has recently gained considerable interest in fabricating tissue engineering scaffolds. This technique combines the advantages of both 3D printing and electrospinning. It allows for the production of fibers with smaller resolution and the ability to make regular structures with suitable pores. In this study, a microfibrous composite scaffold of polycaprolactone (PCL)/hydroxyapatite (HA) was prepared by NFES in the first step. The microfibrous scaffold had a fiber spacing of 414.674 ± 24.9 μm with an average fiber diameter of 94.695 ± 16.149 μm. However, due to the large fiber spacing, the surface area was insufficient for cell adhesion. Therefore, the hybrid scaffold was prepared by adding aligned and random electrospun poly (L-lactic acid) (PLLA) nanofibers to the microfibrous scaffold. Cellular studies showed that cell adhesion to the hybrid scaffold increased by 334 % compared to the microfibrous scaffold. These nanofibers also exhibited piezoelectric properties, which helped stimulate bone regeneration. Aligned nanofibers in the hybrid scaffold enhanced alkaline phosphatase activity and the intensity of alizarin red staining 1.5 and 1.6 times, respectively, compared to the microfibrous scaffold. Furthermore, the elastic modulus and ultimate tensile strength increased by 268 % and 130 %, respectively, by adding aligned nanofibers to the microfibrous scaffold. Therefore, the hybrid microfibrous composite scaffold of PCL/HA containing aligned electrospun PLLA nanofibers with improved properties showed the potential for bone regeneration.

Wharton's jelly of the umbilical cord serves as a natural biomaterial to promote osteogenesis

Various factors can contribute to bone damage or loss, presenting challenges for bone regeneration. Our study explores the potential clinical applications of two processed forms of Wharton's jelly of the human umbilical cord for treating bone loss. Wharton's jelly from fresh umbilical cords underwent two distinct processes: (1) frozen Wharton's jelly (WJF), preserved with cryoprotective agents, and (2) decellularized Wharton's jelly matrix (WJD), prepared only via lyophilization without cryoprotectants. Both WJD and WJF are rich in collagen, hyaluronan, and polysaccharide proteins. Notably, WJD exhibited a porous structure lacking nuclei from human umbilical cord mesenchymal stem cells, unlike WJF. In direct contact experiments, WJD stimulated osteoblast migration, enhanced osteoblast maturation, and promoted calcium deposition for bone formation when administered to cultured rat osteoblasts. Furthermore, in transwell co-culture experiments, both WJD and WJF increased the rat osteoblast expression of RUNX2 and OPN genes, elevated alkaline phosphatase levels, and enhanced extracellular calcium precipitation, indicating their role in osteoblast maturation and new bone formation. Hyaluronic acid, one of the ingredients from WJD and WJF, was identified as a key component triggering osteogenesis. In vivo experiments involved creating circular bone defects in the calvarias of rats, where WJD and WJF were separately implanted and monitored over five months using micro-computerized tomography. Our results demonstrated that both WJD and WJF enhanced angiogenesis, collagen formation, osteoblast maturation, and bone growth within the bone defects. In summary, WJD and WJF, natural biomaterials with biocompatibility and nontoxicity, act not only as effective scaffolds but also promote osteoblast adhesion and differentiation, and accelerate osteogenesis.

Review on Engineering of Bone Scaffolds Using Conventional and Additive Manufacturing Technologies

Bone is a complex connective tissue that serves as mechanical and structural support for the human body. Bones' fractures are common, and the healing process is physiologically complex and involves both mechanical and biological aspects. Tissue engineering of bone scaffolds holds great promise for the future treatment of bone injuries. However, conventional technologies to prepare bone scaffolds cannot provide the required properties of human bones. Over the past decade, three-dimensional (3D) printing or additive manufacturing technologies have enabled control over the creation of bone scaffolds with personalized geometries, appropriate materials, and tailored pores. This article aims to review recent advances in the fabrication of bone scaffolds for bone repair and regeneration. A detailed review of bone fracture repair and an in-depth discussion on conventional manufacturing and 3D printing techniques are introduced with an emphasis on novel studies concepts, potentials, and limitations.

The Synergetic Effect of 3D Printing and Electrospinning Techniques in the Fabrication of Bone Scaffolds

The primary goal of bone tissue engineering is to restore and rejuvenate bone defects by using a suitable three-dimensional scaffold, appropriate cells, and growth hormones. Various scaffolding methods are used to fabricate three-dimensional scaffolds, which provide the necessary environment for cell activity and bone formation. Multiple materials may be used to create scaffolds with hierarchical structures that are optimal for cell growth and specialization. This study examines a notion for creating an optimal framework for bone regeneration using a combination of the robocasting method and the electrospinning approach. Research indicates that the integration of these two procedures enhances the benefits of each method and provides a rationale for addressing their shortcomings via this combination. The hybrid approach is anticipated to provide a manufactured scaffold that can effectively replace bone defects while possessing the necessary qualities for bone regeneration.

Scalable Processes for Culturing Meat Using Edible Scaffolds

There is increasing consumer demand for alternative animal protein products that are delicious and sustainably produced to address concerns about the impacts of mass-produced meat on human and planetary health. Cultured meat has the potential to provide a source of nutritious dietary protein that both is palatable and has reduced environmental impact. However, strategies to support the production of cultured meats at the scale required for food consumption will be critical. In this review, we discuss the current challenges and opportunities of using edible scaffolds for scaling up the production of cultured meat. We provide an overview of different types of edible scaffolds, scaffold fabrication techniques, and common scaffold materials. Finally, we highlight potential advantages of using edible scaffolds to advance cultured meat production by accelerating cell growth and differentiation, providing structure to build complex 3D tissues, and enhancing the nutritional and sensory properties of cultured meat.

A direct-writing electrospinning system for designing complex architectures in tissue engineering

Recently, direct-writing electrospinning has been pursued to reach a higher accuracy and complexity in fiber scaffold fabrication compared to other extrusion techniques more frequently encountered in tissue engineering. However, to date, direct-writing electrospinning lacks a wide application to process materials such as nature-derived polymers, of huge importance in tissue engineering given their chemical properties similar to that of native tissues. In this work, a setup to perform direct-writing electrospinning was developed and demonstrated versatility and efficiency in obtaining submicrometric fibers and guiding their deposition along various types of paths and patterns, resulting in a user-friendly method to create structures closely resembling tissue architecture.

Biomimetic cell culture for cell adhesive propagation for tissue engineering strategies

Biomimetic cell culture, which involves creating a biomimetic microenvironment for cells in vitro by engineering approaches, has aroused increasing interest given that it maintains the normal cellular phenotype, genotype and functions displayed in vivo. Therefore, it can provide a more precise platform for disease modelling, drug development and regenerative medicine than the conventional plate cell culture. In this review, initially, we discuss the principle of biomimetic cell culture in terms of the spatial microenvironment, chemical microenvironment, and physical microenvironment. Then, the main strategies of biomimetic cell culture and their state-of-the-art progress are summarized. To create a biomimetic microenvironment for cells, a variety of strategies has been developed, ranging from conventional scaffold strategies, such as macroscopic scaffolds, microcarriers, and microgels, to emerging scaffold-free strategies, such as spheroids, organoids, and assembloids, to simulate the native cellular microenvironment. Recently, 3D bioprinting and microfluidic chip technology have been applied as integrative platforms to obtain more complex biomimetic structures. Finally, the challenges in this area are discussed and future directions are discussed to shed some light on the community.

Rapid magnetically directed assembly of pre-patterned capillary-scale microvessels

Capillary scale vascularization is critical to the survival of engineered 3D tissues and remains an outstanding challenge for the field of tissue engineering. Current methods to generate micro-scale vasculature such as 3D printing, two photon hydrogel ablation, angiogenesis, and vasculogenic assembly face challenges in rapidly creating organized, highly vascularized tissues at capillary length-scales. Within metabolically demanding tissues, native capillary beds are highly organized and densely packed to achieve adequate delivery of nutrients and oxygen and efficient waste removal. Here, we adopt two existing techniques to fabricate lattices composed of sacrificial microfibers that can be efficiently and uniformly seeded with endothelial cells (ECs) by magnetizing both lattices and ECs. Ferromagnetic microparticles (FMPs) were incorporated into microfibers produced by solution electrowriting (SEW) and fiber electropulling (FEP). By loading ECs with superparamagnetic iron oxide nanoparticles (SPIONs), the cells could be seeded onto magnetized microfiber lattices. Following encapsulation in a hydrogel, the capillary templating lattice was selectively degraded by a bacterial lipase that does not impact mammalian cell viability or function. This work introduces a novel approach to rapidly producing organized capillary networks within metabolically demanding engineered tissue constructs which should have broad utility for the fields of tissue engineering and regenerative medicine.

Cryo-Electrospinning Generates Highly Porous Fiber Scaffolds Which Improves Trabecular Meshwork Cell Infiltration

Human trabecular meshwork is a sieve-like tissue with large pores, which plays a vital role in aqueous humor outflow. Dysfunction of this tissue can occur, which leads to glaucoma and permanent vision loss. Replacement of trabecular meshwork with a tissue-engineered device is the ultimate objective. This study aimed to create a biomimetic structure of trabecular meshwork using electrospinning. Conventional electrospinning was compared to cryogenic electrospinning, the latter being an adaptation of conventional electrospinning whereby dry ice is incorporated in the fiber collector system. The dry ice causes ice crystals to form in-between the fibers, increasing the inter-fiber spacing, which is retained following sublimation. Structural characterization demonstrated cryo-scaffolds to have closer recapitulation of the trabecular meshwork, in terms of pore size, porosity, and thickness. The attachment of a healthy, human trabecular meshwork cell line (NTM5) to the scaffold was not influenced by the fabrication method. The main objective was to assess cell infiltration. Cryo-scaffolds supported cell penetration deep within their structure after seven days, whereas cells remained on the outer surface for conventional scaffolds. This study demonstrates the suitability of cryogenic electrospinning for the close recapitulation of trabecular meshwork and its potential as a 3D in vitro model and, in time, a tissue-engineered device.

Application of Noggin-Coated Electrospun Scaffold in Corneal Wound Healing

Purpose

The objective of this study is to develop and characterize electrospun corneal bandage infused with Noggin protein and evaluate its therapeutic potential in the treatment of superficial nonhealing corneal ulceration.

Methods

Electrospun nanofibrous scaffolds were created with different blend ratios of polycaprolactone and gelatin and coated with different concentrations of Noggin protein. Morphologic, mechanical, degradation, and surface chemistry of the developed scaffold was assessed. Biocompatibility of the developed scaffold with corneal epithelial cells was evaluated by looking at cell viability, proliferation, and immunostaining. In vitro wound healing in the presence of Noggin-coated scaffold was evaluated by measuring wound closure rate after scratch.

Results

Uniform nanofibrous scaffolds coated with Noggin were constructed through optimization of electrospinning parameters and demonstrated mechanical properties better than or similar to commercially available contact lenses used in corneal wound healing. In the presence of Noggin-coated scaffold, corneal epithelial cells showed higher proliferation and wound-healing rate.

Conclusions

This Noggin-coated electrospun scaffold represents a step toward, expanding treatment options for patients with indolent corneal ulcers.

Translational Relevance

In this study, the feasibility of Noggin-coated electrospun scaffold as a therapeutic for indolent corneal ulcer was evaluated. This study also provides a better perspective for understanding electrospun scaffolds as a tunable platform to infuse topical therapeutics and use as a corneal bandage.

Recent Advances in the Production of Pharmaceuticals Using Selective Laser Sintering

Selective laser sintering (SLS) is an additive manufacturing process that has shown promise in the production of medical devices, including hip cups, knee trays, dental crowns, and hearing aids. SLS-based 3D-printed dosage forms have the potential to revolutionise the production of personalised drugs. The ability to manipulate the porosity of printed materials is a particularly exciting aspect of SLS. Porous tablet formulations produced by SLS can disintegrate orally within seconds, which is challenging to achieve with traditional methods. SLS also enables the creation of amorphous solid dispersions in a single step, rather than the multi-step process required with conventional methods. This review provides an overview of 3D printing, describes the operating mechanism and necessary materials for SLS, and highlights recent advances in SLS for biomedical and pharmaceutical applications. Furthermore, an in-depth comparison and contrast of various 3D printing technologies for their effectiveness in tissue engineering applications is also presented in this review.

Direct-Writing Electrospun Functionalized Scaffolds for Periodontal Regeneration: In Vitro Studies

Multiphasic scaffolds that combine different architectural, physical, and biological properties are the best option for the regeneration of complex tissues such as the periodontium. Current developed scaffolds generally lack architectural accuracy and rely on multistep manufacturing, which is difficult to implement for clinical applications. In this context, direct-writing electrospinning (DWE) represents a promising and rapid technique for developing thin 3D scaffolds with controlled architecture. The current study aimed to elaborate a biphasic scaffold using DWE based on two polycaprolactone solutions with interesting properties for bone and cement regeneration. One of the two scaffold parts contained hydroxyapatite nanoparticles (HAP) and the other contained the cementum protein 1 (CEMP1). After morphological characterizations, the elaborated scaffolds were assessed regarding periodontal ligament (PDL) cells in terms of cell proliferation, colonization, and mineralization ability. The results demonstrated that both HAP- and CEMP1-functionalized scaffolds were colonized by PDL cells and enhanced mineralization ability compared to unfunctionalized scaffolds, as revealed by alizarin red staining and OPN protein fluorescent expression. Taken together, the current data highlighted the potential of functional and organized scaffolds to stimulate bone and cementum regeneration. Moreover, DWE could be used to develop smart scaffolds with the ability to spatially control cellular orientation with suitable cellular activity at the micrometer scale, thereby enhancing periodontal and other complex tissue regeneration.

The Application of Porous Scaffolds for Cardiovascular Tissues

As the number of arteriosclerotic diseases continues to increase, much improvement is still needed with treatments for cardiovascular diseases. This is mainly due to the limitations of currently existing treatment options, including the limited number of donor organs available or the long-term durability of the artificial organs. Therefore, tissue engineering has attracted significant attention as a tissue regeneration therapy in this area. Porous scaffolds are one of the effective methods for tissue engineering. However, it could be better, and its effectiveness varies depending on the tissue application. This paper will address the challenges presented by various materials and their combinations. We will also describe some of the latest methods for tissue engineering.

Double crosslinked biomimetic composite hydrogels containing topographical cues and WAY-316606 induce neural tissue regeneration and functional recovery after spinal cord injury

Spinal cord injury (SCI) is an overwhelming and incurable disabling condition, for which increasing forms of multifunctional biomaterials are being tested, but with limited progression. The promising material should be able to fill SCI-induced cavities and direct the growth of new neurons, with effective drug loading to improve the local micro-organism environment and promote neural tissue regeneration. In this study, a double crosslinked biomimetic composite hydrogel comprised of acellularized spinal cord matrix (ASCM) and gelatin-acrylated-β-cyclodextrin-polyethene glycol diacrylate (designated G-CD-PEGDA) hydrogel, loaded with WAY-316606 to activate canonical Wnt/β-catenin signaling, and reinforced by a bundle of three-dimensionally printed aligned polycaprolactone (PCL) microfibers, was constructed. The G-CD-PEGDA component endowed the composite hydrogel with a dynamic structure with a self-healing capability which enabled cell migration, while the ASCM component promoted neural cell affinity and proliferation. The diffusion of WAY-316606 could recruit endogenous neural stem cells and improve neuronal differentiation. The aligned PCL microfibers guided neurite elongation in the longitudinal direction. Animal behavior studies further showed that the composite hydrogel could significantly recover the motor function of rats after SCI. This study provides a proficient approach to produce a multifunctional system with desirable physiological, chemical, and topographical cues for treating patients with SCI.

Research Progress of Shape Memory Polymer and 4D Printing in Biomedical Application

As a kind of smart material, shape memory polymer (SMP) shows great application potential in the biomedical field. Compared with traditional metal-based medical devices, SMP-based devices have the following characteristics: 1) The adaptive ability allows the biomedical device to better match the surrounding tissue after being implanted into the body by minimally invasive implantation; 2) it has better biocompatibility and adjustable biodegradability; 3) mechanical properties can be regulated in a large range to better match with the surrounding tissue. 4D printing technology is a comprehensive technology based on smart materials and 3D printing, which has great application value in the biomedical field. 4D printing technology breaks through the technical bottleneck of personalized customization and provides a new opportunity for the further development of the biomedical field. This paper summarizes the application of SMP and 4D printing technology in the field of bone tissue scaffolds, tracheal scaffolds, and drug release, etc. Moreover, this paper analyzes the existing problems and prospects, hoping to provide a preliminary discussion and useful reference for the application of SMP in biomedical engineering.

Porous biomaterials for tissue engineering: a review

The field of biomaterials has grown rapidly over the past decades. Within this field, porous biomaterials have played a remarkable role in: (i) enabling the manufacture of complex three-dimensional structures; (ii) recreating mechanical properties close to those of the host tissues; (iii) facilitating interconnected structures for the transport of macromolecules and cells; and (iv) behaving as biocompatible inserts, tailored to either interact or not with the host body. This review outlines a brief history of the development of biomaterials, before discussing current materials proposed for use as porous biomaterials and exploring the state-of-the-art in their manufacture. The wide clinical applications of these materials are extensively discussed, drawing on specific examples of how the porous features of such biomaterials impact their behaviours, as well as the advantages and challenges faced, for each class of the materials.

Electrical Stimulation Enabled via Electrospun Piezoelectric Polymeric Nanofibers for Tissue Regeneration

Electrical stimulation has demonstrated great effectiveness in the modulation of cell fate in vitro and regeneration therapy in vivo. Conventionally, the employment of electrical signal comes with the electrodes, battery, and connectors in an invasive fashion. This tedious procedure and possible infection hinder the translation of electrical stimulation technologies in regenerative therapy. Given electromechanical coupling and flexibility, piezoelectric polymers can overcome these limitations as they can serve as a self-powered stimulator via scavenging mechanical force from the organism and external stimuli wirelessly. Wireless electrical cue mediated by electrospun piezoelectric polymeric nanofibers constitutes a promising paradigm allowing the generation of localized electrical stimulation both in a noninvasive manner and at cell level. Recently, numerous studies based on electrospun piezoelectric nanofibers have been carried out in electrically regenerative therapy. In this review, brief introduction of piezoelectric polymer and electrospinning technology is elucidated first. Afterward, we highlight the activating strategies (e.g., cell traction, physiological activity, and ultrasound) of piezoelectric stimulation and the interaction of piezoelectric cue with nonelectrically/electrically excitable cells in regeneration medicine. Then, quantitative comparison of the electrical stimulation effects using various activating strategies on specific cell behavior and various cell types is outlined. Followingly, this review explores the present challenges in electrospun nanofiber-based piezoelectric stimulation for regeneration therapy and summarizes the methodologies which may be contributed to future efforts in this field for the reality of this technology in the clinical scene. In the end, a summary of this review and future perspectives toward electrospun nanofiber-based piezoelectric stimulation in tissue regeneration are elucidated.

Tailoring Cu2+-loaded electrospun membranes with antibacterial ability for guided bone regeneration

Copper (Cu)-loaded electrospun membranes were tailored for guided bone regeneration (GBR), targeting the stimulation of innate cells active in bone growth and the prevention of bacterial infections. Functional GBR membranes were produced via an electrospinning set-up using a silk-based solution associated with polyethylene oxide (Silk/PEO - control). Experimental groups were loaded with copper oxide using varying weight percentages (0.05 % to 1 % of CuO). The morphological, structural, chemical, and mechanical properties of membranes were evaluated. Direct and indirect in vitro cytocompatibility experiments were performed with primary human bone mesenchymal stem cells and primary human umbilical vein endothelial cells. The antibacterial potential of membranes was tested with Staphylococcus aureus and Fusobacterium nucleatum biofilm. CuO was successfully incorporated into membranes as clusters without compromising their mechanical properties for clinical applicability. Increased Cu concentrations generated membranes with thinner nanofibers, greater pore areas, and stronger antimicrobial effect (p < 0.01). Cu²⁺ ion was released from the nanofiber membranes during 1 week, showing higher release in acidic conditions. CuO 0.1 % and CuO 0.05 % membranes were able to support and stimulate cell adhesion and proliferation (p < 0.05), and favor angiogenic responses of vascular cells. In addition, detailed quantitative and qualitative analysis determined that amount of the attached biofilm was reduced on the tailored functional Cu²⁺-loaded GBR membrane. Importantly, these qualities represent a valuable strategy to improve the bone regeneration process and diminish the risk of bacterial infections.

Tailorable 3DP Flexible Scaffolds with Porosification of Filaments Facilitate Cell Ingrowth and Biomineralized Deposition

Facilitating cell ingrowth and biomineralized deposition inside filaments of 3DP scaffolds are an ideal bone repair strategy. Here, 3D printed PLGA/HA scaffolds with hydroxyapatite content of 50% (P5H5) and 70% (P3H7) were prepared by optimizing 3D printing inks, which exhibited good tailorability and foldability to meet clinical maneuverability. The supercritical CO2 foaming technology further endowed the filaments of P5H5 with a richer interconnected pore structure (P5H5-C). The finite element and computational fluid dynamics simulation analysis indicated that the porosification could effectively reduce the stress concentration at the filament junction and improved the overall permeability of the scaffold. The results of in vitro experiments confirmed that P5H5-C promoted the adsorption of proteins on the surface and inside of filaments, accelerated the release of Ca and P ions, and significantly upregulated osteogenesis (Col I, ALP, and OPN)- and angiogenesis (VEGF)-related gene expression. Subcutaneous ectopic osteogenesis experiments in nude mice further verified that P5H5-C facilitated cell growth inside filaments and biomineralized deposition, as well as significantly upregulated the expression of osteogenesis- and angiogenesis-related genes (Col I, ALP, OCN, and VEGF) and protein secretion (ALP, RUNX2, and VEGF). The porosification of filaments by supercritical CO2 foaming provided a new strategy for accelerating osteogenesis of 3DP implants.

Medical Applications of Porous Biomaterials: Features of Porosity and Tissue-Specific Implications for Biocompatibility

Porosity is an important material feature commonly employed in implants and tissue scaffolds. The presence of material voids permits the infiltration of cells, mechanical compliance, and outward diffusion of pharmaceutical agents. Various studies have confirmed that porosity indeed promotes favorable tissue responses, including minimal fibrous encapsulation during the foreign body reaction (FBR). However, increased biofilm formation and calcification is also described to arise due to biomaterial porosity. Additionally, the relevance of host responses like the FBR, infection, calcification, and thrombosis are dependent on tissue location and specific tissue microenvironment. In this review, the features of porous materials and the implications of porosity in the context of medical devices is discussed. Common methods to create porous materials are also discussed, as well as the parameters that are used to tune pore features. Responses toward porous biomaterials are also reviewed, including the various stages of the FBR, hemocompatibility, biofilm formation, and calcification. Finally, these host responses are considered in tissue specific locations including the subcutis, bone, cardiovascular system, brain, eye, and female reproductive tract. The effects of porosity across the various tissues of the body is highlighted and the need to consider the tissue context when engineering biomaterials is emphasized.

The Bumpy Road to Stem Cell Therapies: Rational Design of Surface Topographies to Dictate Stem Cell Mechanotransduction and Fate

Cells sense and respond to a variety of physical cues from their surrounding microenvironment, and these are interpreted through mechanotransductive processes to inform their behavior. These mechanisms have particular relevance to stem cells, where control of stem cell proliferation, potency, and differentiation is key to their successful application in regenerative medicine. It is increasingly recognized that surface micro- and nanotopographies influence stem cell behavior and may represent a powerful tool with which to direct the morphology and fate of stem cells. Current progress toward this goal has been driven by combined advances in fabrication technologies and cell biology. Here, the capacity to generate precisely defined micro- and nanoscale topographies has facilitated the studies that provide knowledge of the mechanotransducive processes that govern the cellular response as well as knowledge of the specific features that can drive cells toward a defined differentiation outcome. However, the path forward is not fully defined, and the "bumpy road" that lays ahead must be crossed before the full potential of these approaches can be fully exploited. This review focuses on the challenges and opportunities in applying micro- and nanotopographies to dictate stem cell fate for regenerative medicine. Here, key techniques used to produce topographic features are reviewed, such as photolithography, block copolymer lithography, electron beam lithography, nanoimprint lithography, soft lithography, scanning probe lithography, colloidal lithography, electrospinning, and surface roughening, alongside their advantages and disadvantages. The biological impacts of surface topographies are then discussed, including the current understanding of the mechanotransductive mechanisms by which these cues are interpreted by the cells, as well as the specific effects of surface topographies on cell differentiation and fate. Finally, considerations in translating these technologies and their future prospects are evaluated.

Metal Phenolic Nanodressing of Porous Polymer Scaffolds for Enhanced Bone Regeneration via Interfacial Gating Growth Factor Release and Stem Cell Differentiation

Porous polymer scaffolds are essential materials for tissue engineering because they can be easily processed to deliver stem cells or bioactive factors. However, scaffolds made of synthetic polymers normally lack a bioactive cell-material interface and undergo a burst release of growth factors, which may hinder their further application in tissue engineering. In this paper, a metal-phenolic network (MPN) was interfacially constructed on the pore surface of a porous poly(dl-lactide) (PPLA) scaffold. Based on the molecular gating property of the MPN supramolecular structure, the PPLA@MPN scaffold achieved the sustained release of the loaded molecules. In addition, the MPN coating provided a bioactive interface, thus encouraging the migration and osteogenic differentiation of bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells (BMSCs). The PPLA@MPN scaffolds exhibited enhanced bone regeneration in a rat femoral defect model in vivo compared to PPLA, which is ascribed to the combined effect of sustained bone morphogenetic protein-2 (BMP-2) release and the osteogenic ability of MPN. This nanodressing technique provides a viable and straightforward strategy for enhancing the performance of porous polymer scaffolds in bone tissue engineering.

Near-Field Electrospinning: Crucial Parameters, Challenges, and Applications

Near-field electrospinning (NFES) is a micro- or nanofiber production technology based on jetting molten polymer or polymer solution. Thanks to the programmable collector and nozzle movement, it can generate designed patterns in the presence of an electric field. Despite a few shortcomings of NFES, its high resolution, simplicity, precision, high throughput, reproducibility, and low costs have convinced researchers to employ it for various purposes. Furthermore, as the paradigm of fiber-based structures shifts from random textures toward delicate designs, NFES can bridge the gap between existing inefficient processes and aspired technologies for precise patterning. NFES facilitates the production of ultrafine nanofibers because it can be used to fabricate them in every laboratory. These robust fibers are convenient tools for small and additive manufacturing. As such, NFES is considered a potent additive fabrication technology that facilitates the production of complicated patterns as well. It is suggested that near-field electrospun fibers exhibit outstanding results in various applications, owing to their precise and controllable positioning. Meanwhile, the ongoing development of NFES has yet to reach its climax, making it attractive for further research. In this review, the basic principles of NFES, derivatives, limitations, and applications in nanomanufacturing, tissue engineering, microscale electronics, biosensors, and optics are presented.

Applications of electrospun scaffolds with enlarged pores in tissue engineering

Despite electrospinning has multiple advantages over other methods such as creating materials with superfine fiber diameter, high specific surface area, and good mechanical properties, the pore diameter of scaffolds prepared...

Design, development, and experimental setup of near-field electrospinning with a sharp electrode: Influence of procedural parameters on the 3D nanofiber structure

A near-field electrospinning configuration has been developed to fabricate 3D structures by layer-by-layer stacking. The system or experimental setup consists of a high voltage source, a syringe pump, and the electrospinning equipment which has been designed and built. It works with Arduino Uno as a controller for adjusting the procedural parameters through OpenBuilds CONTROL software using a firmware preloaded on the Arduino Uno. The proposed experimental configuration consists of a collinear arrangement between the spinner and the sharp electrode, which move in the XY directions, keeping the same disposition; this arrangement is designed with the aim of manipulating the electric field (EF) and reducing instabilities associated with the process. The displacement speed (DS) and the distance of work adjust automatically to modify nanofiber features, which improves the flexibility of the system. In order to be efficient and set the EF profile, this was simulated using COMSOL Multiphysics® software. Nylon 6,6 polymeric fiber films have been electrospun to evaluate the efficiency of the system setup and the influence of parameters. The fiber morphology is studied by scanning electron microscopy and the chemical structure features are studied by infrared spectroscopy. Parameters such as voltage and DS are studied experimentally and analyzed to determine their effects on the control of fiber deposition. Stacking of up to 15 layers was obtained where the structural characteristics notably depend on the operating parameters.

Additive Manufacturing: The Next Generation of Scapholunate Ligament Reconstruction

Background  Ligament reconstruction, as a surgical method used to stabilize joints, requires significant strength and tissue anchoring to restore function. Historically, reconstructive materials have been fraught with problems from an inability to withstand normal physiological loads to difficulties in fabricating the complex organization structure of native tissue at the ligament-to-bone interface. In combination, these factors have prevented the successful realization of nonautograft reconstruction. Methods  A review of recent improvements in additive manufacturing techniques and biomaterials highlight possible options for ligament replacement. Description of Technique  In combination, three dimensional-printing and electrospinning have begun to provide for nonautograft options that can meet the physiological load and architectures of native tissues; however, a combination of manufacturing methods is needed to allow for bone-ligament enthesis. Hybrid biofabrication of bone-ligament tissue scaffolds, through the simultaneous deposition of disparate materials, offer significant advantages over fused manufacturing methods which lack efficient integration between bone and ligament materials. Results  In this review, we discuss the important chemical and biological properties of ligament enthesis and describe recent advancements in additive manufacturing to meet mechanical and biological requirements for a successful bone-ligament-bone interface. Conclusions  With continued advancement of additive manufacturing technologies and improved biomaterial properties, tissue engineered bone-ligament scaffolds may soon enter the clinical realm.

Near-Field Electrospinning and Melt Electrowriting of Biomedical Polymers-Progress and Limitations

Near-field electrospinning (NFES) and melt electrowriting (MEW) are the process of extruding a fiber due to the force exerted by an electric field and collecting the fiber before bending instabilities occur. When paired with precise relative motion between the polymer source and the collector, a fiber can be directly written as dictated by preprogrammed geometry. As a result, this precise fiber control results in another dimension of scaffold tailorability for biomedical applications. In this review, biomedically relevant polymers that to date have manufactured fibers by NFES/MEW are explored and the present limitations in direct fiber writing of standardization in published setup details, fiber write throughput, and increased ease in the creation of complex scaffold geometries are discussed.

Electrospun nanofibers promote wound healing: theories, techniques, and perspectives

At present, the clinical strategies for treating chronic wounds are limited, especially when it comes to pain relief and rapid wound healing. Therefore, there is an urgent need to develop alternative treatment methods. This paper provides a systematic review on recent researches on how electrospun nanofiber scaffolds promote wound healing and how the electrospinning technology has been used for fabricating multi-dimensional, multi-pore and multi-functional nanofiber scaffolds that have greatly promoted the development of wound healing dressings. First, we provide a review on the four stages of wound healing, which is followed by a discussion on the evolvement of the electrospinning technology, what is involved in electrospinning devices, and factors affecting the electrospinning process. Finally, we present the possible mechanisms of electrospun nanofibers to promote wound healing, the classification of electrospun polymers, cell infiltration favoring fiber scaffolds, antibacterial fiber scaffolds, and future multi-functional scaffolds. Although nanofiber scaffolds have made great progress as a type of multi-functional biomaterial, major challenges still remain for commercializing them in a way that fully meets the needs of patients.

Comparative Analysis of Fiber Alignment Methods in Electrospinning

Fabrication of anisotropic materials is highly desirable in designing biomaterials and tissue engineered constructs. Electrospinning has been broadly adopted due to its versatility in producing non-woven fibrous meshes with tunable fiber diameters (from 10 nanometers to 10 microns), microarchitectures, and construct geometries. A myriad of approaches have been utilized to control fiber alignment of electrospun materials to achieve complex microarchitectures, improve mechanical properties, and provide topographical cellular cues. This review provides a comparative analysis of the techniques developed to generate fiber alignment in electrospun materials. A description of the underlying mechanisms that drive fiber alignment, setup variations for each technique, and the resulting impact on the aligned microarchitecture is provided. A critical analysis of the advantages and limitations of each approach is provided to guide researchers in method selection. Finally, future perspectives of advanced electrospinning methodologies are discussed in terms of developing a scalable method with precise control of microarchitecture.

Modeling the Mechanobiology of Cancer Cell Migration Using 3D Biomimetic Hydrogels

Understanding how cancer cells migrate, and how this migration is affected by the mechanical and chemical composition of the extracellular matrix (ECM) is critical to investigate and possibly interfere with the metastatic process, which is responsible for most cancer-related deaths. In this article we review the state of the art about the use of hydrogel-based three-dimensional (3D) scaffolds as artificial platforms to model the mechanobiology of cancer cell migration. We start by briefly reviewing the concept and composition of the extracellular matrix (ECM) and the materials commonly used to recreate the cancerous ECM. Then we summarize the most relevant knowledge about the mechanobiology of cancer cell migration that has been obtained using 3D hydrogel scaffolds, and relate those discoveries to what has been observed in the clinical management of solid tumors. Finally, we review some recent methodological developments, specifically the use of novel bioprinting techniques and microfluidics to create realistic hydrogel-based models of the cancer ECM, and some of their applications in the context of the study of cancer cell migration.

Super-assembled core/shell fibrous frameworks with dual growth factors for in situ cementum-ligament-bone complex regeneration

The regeneration of periodontal tissue defects remains a clinical challenge due to its complex tissue structure (e.g. periodontal ligament, alveolar bone and cementum) and poor self-healing ability. In situ tissue engineering has emerged as a promising approach that combines frameworks with growth factors that are specifically chosen for the recruitment of endogenous stem cells to the site of injury and to evoke the innate regenerative potential of the body. Herein, a core/shell fibrous super-assembled framework (SAF)-based sequential growth factor delivery system is developed, in which basic fibroblast growth factor (bFGF) and bone morphogenetic protein-2 (BMP-2) are designed to release in a sequential manner to facilitate in situ regeneration of the cementum-ligament-bone complex. The in situ tissue engineering framework (iTE-framework) shows ameliorated physicochemical properties and improved hydrophilicity, with an initial burst release of bFGF in the first few days, followed by a slow and constant release of BMP-2 up to 4 weeks. The iTE-framework shows excellent biocompatibility, significantly promoting the proliferation, migration and osteogenic differentiation of human periodontal ligament stem cells (PDLSCs) in vitro. After implantation in rat periodontal defects, the iTE-framework effectively triggers the recruitment of mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) to the defect site, significantly promotes the formation of new bones, and facilitates the regeneration of the periodontal ligament and cementum tissue in vivo. Therefore, this sequential delivery system provides a promising therapeutic strategy for cementum-ligament-bone complex regeneration.

High-resolution electrohydrodynamic bioprinting: a new biofabrication strategy for biomimetic micro/nanoscale architectures and living tissue constructs

Electrohydrodynamic (EHD) printing is a newly emerging additive manufacturing strategy for the controlled fabrication of three-dimensional (3D) micro/nanoscale architectures. This unique superiority makes it particularly suitable for the biofabrication of artificial tissue analogs with biomimetic structural organizations similar to the scales of native extracellular matrix (ECM) or living cells, which shows great potentials to precisely regulate cellular behaviors and tissue regeneration. Here the state-of-the-art advancements of high-resolution EHD bioprinting were reviewed mainly including melt-based and solution-based processes for the fabrication of micro/nanoscale fibrous scaffolds and living tissues constructs. The related printing materials, innovations on structure design and printing processes, functionalization of the resultant architectures as well as their effects on the mechanical and biological properties of the EHD-printed structures were introduced and analyzed. The recent explorations on the EHD cell printing for high-resolution cell-laden microgel patterning and 3D construct fabrication were highlighted. The major challenges as well as possible solutions to translate EHD bioprinting into a mature and prevalent biofabrication strategy were finally discussed.

3D printing of bone tissue engineering scaffolds

Tissue engineering is promising in realizing successful treatments of human body tissue loss that current methods cannot treat well or achieve satisfactory clinical outcomes. In scaffold-based bone tissue engineering, a high performance scaffold underpins the success of a bone tissue engineering strategy and a major direction in the field is to produce bone tissue engineering scaffolds with desirable shape, structural, physical, chemical and biological features for enhanced biological performance and for regenerating complex bone tissues. Three-dimensional (3D) printing can produce customized scaffolds that are highly desirable for bone tissue engineering. The enormous interest in 3D printing and 3D printed objects by the science, engineering and medical communities has led to various developments of the 3D printing technology and wide investigations of 3D printed products in many industries, including biomedical engineering, over the past decade. It is now possible to create novel bone tissue engineering scaffolds with customized shape, architecture, favorable macro-micro structure, wettability, mechanical strength and cellular responses. This article provides a concise review of recent advances in the R & D of 3D printing of bone tissue engineering scaffolds. It also presents our philosophy and research in the designing and fabrication of bone tissue engineering scaffolds through 3D printing.

In vitro and in vivo assessment of glucose cross-linked gelatin/zein nanofibrous scaffolds for cranial bone defects regeneration

The purpose of this study was to evaluate the glucose cross-linked gelatin/zein scaffolds for bone regeneration in vitro and in vivo. The nanofibrous scaffolds exhibited fast mineralization in the concentrated simulated body fluid with the deposited octacalcium phosphate and dicalcium phosphate dehydrate. The nanofibrous scaffolds exhibited no cytotoxic effect on MC3T3e1 cells in a CCK-8 test. Additionally, scanning electron microscope and confocal laser scanning microscopy images revealed that all the scaffolds were biocompatible and showed excellent support for MC3T3e1 cells. In the osteogenesis characterizations, Alizarin Red staining experiments indicated the improved calcium deposits on the cross-linked scaffolds, while the alkaline phosphatase activity showed no difference. Furthermore, the in vivo cranial bone regeneration results suggested that the cross-linked gelatin/zein scaffolds presented a strong positive effect on the cranial bone regeneration with the increased new bone volume and connective tissue formation, but the incorporation of zein in the gelatin scaffolds did not favor the bone regeneration. Moreover, the cross-linked gelatin scaffold retarded the bone resorption as indicated by the higher levels of IFN-γ and lower levels of IL-6, which restricted the differentiation of osteoclasts.

Internal nanocrystalline structure and stiffness alterations of electrospun polycaprolactone-based mats after six months of in vitro degradation. An atomic force microscopy assay

Biodegradable electrospun nanofibrous scaffolds for bone tissue engineering applications have been extensively studied as they can provide attractive open-worked architecture resembling natural extracellular matrix, with tunable physical and mechanical properties enhancing positive cellular response. For this purpose, electrospun mats were tested in terms of morphology, mechanical and physical properties, degradation kinetics and related phenomena occurring in micro- and nanoscale. However, detailed description of internal nanostructures of electrospun mats and their changes related to in vitro degradation is still missing. In this manuscript, we report qualitative and quantitative evaluation of internal lamellar nanostructure of electrospun fibrous scaffolds made of pristine polycaprolactone and composite with polymeric matrix and nanoceramic (hydroxyapatite) filler during in vitro degradation. Morphological and mechanical studies performed with an atomic force microscope were followed by scanning electron microscope imaging and X-Ray diffraction. The results suggest degradation-dependent alteration of both organization and thickness of nano-scaled lamellas recorded with atomic force microscope. Moreover, changes of the material's internal structure were followed by enhanced stiffness and higher crystallinity of electrospun fibers.

A laser-cutting-based manufacturing process for the generation of three-dimensional scaffolds for tissue engineering using Polycaprolactone/Hydroxyapatite composite polymer

A manufacturing process for sheet-based stacked scaffolds (SSCs) based on laser-cutting (LC) was developed. The sheets consist of Polycaprolactone/Hydroxyapatite (PCL/HA) composite material. Single sheets were cut from a PCL/HA foil and stacked to scaffolds with interconnecting pores of defined sizes. HA quantities up to 50% were processable with high reproducibility, while the accuracy was dependent on the applied laser power. The smallest achievable pore sizes were about 40 µm, while the smallest stable solid structures were about 125 µm. The human mesenchymal stem cell line SCP-1 was cultured on the manufactured PCL/HA scaffolds. The cells developed a natural morphology and were able to differentiate to functional osteoblasts. The generation of PCL/HA SSCs via LC offers new possibilities for tissue engineering (TE) approaches. It is reliable and fast, with high resolution. The SSC approach allows for facile cell seeding and analysis of cell fate within the three-dimensional cell culture, thus allowing for the generation of functional tissue constructs.

A direct 3D suspension near-field electrospinning technique for the fabrication of polymer nanoarrays

Near-field electrospinning (NFES) is widely recognized as a versatile nanofabrication method, one suitable for applications in tissue engineering. Rapid developments in this field have given rise to layered nanofibrous scaffolds. However, this electrostatic fabrication process is limited by the electric field inhibitory effects of polymer deposition. This leads to a major challenge: how to surpass this limitation on planar/layered constructs. While the current focus in this area largely lies with the investigation of new materials, techniques and increasing precision of NFES systems and patterning, exploration of complex collector substrates is often restricted by (i) available technology and (ii) access to complex electrode manufacturing tools. To achieve nanofiber arrays suspended in free space, this paper documents both the development of an integrated NFES system and the potential of standing electrodes manufactured via selective laser melting. This system was first tested by 2D patterning on planar silicon, using polyethylene oxide polymer solution. To demonstrate suspension NFES, two patterns operating within and around the standing electrodes produced high volume suspended nanoarrays. Image analysis of the arrays allowed for the assessment of fiber directionality and isotropy. By scanning electron microscopy, it was found that a mean fiber diameter of 310 nm of the arrays was achieved. Effectively manoeuvring between the electrode pillars required a precision automated system (unavailable off-the-shelf), developed in-house. This technique can be applied to the fabrication of nanofiber structures of sufficient volume for tissue engineering.

Integrating 3D Cell Culture of PC12 Cells with Microchip-Based Electrochemical Detection

Developing in vitro cell culture models that accurately mimic in vivo processes in a manner that also enables near real-time analysis of neurotransmitters is an important research area. New technologies being developed such as 3D scaffolds for cell culture and 3D printed microfluidics provide an opportunity for such advancements. In this work, PC12 cells were used as a model system and they were immobilized onto a 3D scaffold of polystyrene (PS) fibers. These fibers were created by electrospinning onto PS sheets, which were laser cut and, after cell seeding, inserted into a 3D printed microfluidic device. The 3D printed device was designed with threads for connecting commercial fittings (to integrate automated pumps and a 4-port injection system) and a steel pin for simple coupling with PDMS/polystyrene analytical devices. A straight PDMS channel was used for simple (and continuous) flow-based detection by sealing onto a PS base containing an embedded gold array working electrode and a platinum pseudo-reference. Electrochemical detection of stimulated catecholamine release was demonstrated. The insert-based system was then integrated with a bilayer valving PDMS device (for microchip electrophoresis) sealed onto a PS base (with electrodes for electrochemical detection). This base was embedded with a Pd decoupler (for grounding the separation voltage and adsorbing hydrogen) and a 33 µm carbon fiber working electrode for in-channel detection. PC12 cells were stimulated in the 3D cell culture device, and the valving/electrophoresis microchip was able to separate and detect dopamine and norepinephrine release. This work demonstrates the ability to integrate 3D cell scaffolds with microchip-based analysis for detection of multiple analytes released from cells.