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Girl P, Euringer K, Coroian M, Mihalca AD, Borde JP, Dobler G. Comparison of Five Serological Methods for the Detection of West Nile Virus Antibodies. Viruses 2024; 16:788. [PMID: 38793670 PMCID: PMC11126072 DOI: 10.3390/v16050788] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/06/2024] [Revised: 05/09/2024] [Accepted: 05/14/2024] [Indexed: 05/26/2024] Open
Abstract
The West Nile Virus (WNV), a member of the family Flaviviridae, is an emerging mosquito-borne flavivirus causing potentially severe infections in humans and animals involving the central nervous system (CNS). Due to its emerging tendency, WNV now occurs in many areas where other flaviviruses are co-occurring. Cross-reactive antibodies with flavivirus infections or vaccination (e.g., tick-borne encephalitis virus (TBEV), Usutu virus (USUV), yellow fever virus (YFV), dengue virus (DENV), Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV)) therefore remain a major challenge in diagnosing flavivirus infections. Virus neutralization tests are considered as reference tests for the detection of specific flavivirus antibodies, but are elaborate, time-consuming and need biosafety level 3 facilities. A simple and straightforward assay for the differentiation and detection of specific WNV IgG antibodies for the routine laboratory is urgently needed. In this study, we compared two commercially available enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (anti-IgG WNV ELISA and anti-NS1-IgG WNV), a commercially available indirect immunofluorescence assay, and a newly developed in-house ELISA for the detection of WNV-NS1-IgG antibodies. All four tests were compared to an in-house NT to determine both the sensitivity and specificity of the four test systems. None of the assays could match the specificity of the NT, although the two NS1-IgG based ELISAs were very close to the specificity of the NT at 97.3% and 94.6%. The in-house WNV-NS1-IgG ELISA had the best performance regarding sensitivity and specificity. The specificities of the ELISA assays and the indirect immunofluorescence assays could not meet the necessary specificity and/or sensitivity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Philipp Girl
- Bundeswehr Institute of Microbiology, 80937 Munich, Germany; (P.G.); (K.E.); (G.D.)
- Central Institute of the Bundeswehr Medical Service Munich, 85748 Garching, Germany
- Institute for Infectious Diseases and Zoonoses, Department of Veterinary Sciences, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, LMU Munich, 80539 Munich, Germany
| | - Kathrin Euringer
- Bundeswehr Institute of Microbiology, 80937 Munich, Germany; (P.G.); (K.E.); (G.D.)
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine II, University Medical Centre Freiburg, Faculty of Medicine, University of Freiburg, 79106 Freiburg im Breisgau, Germany
| | - Mircea Coroian
- Department of Parasitology and Parasitic Diseases, University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine of Cluj-Napoca, 400372 Cluj-Napoca, Romania; (M.C.); (A.D.M.)
| | - Andrei Daniel Mihalca
- Department of Parasitology and Parasitic Diseases, University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine of Cluj-Napoca, 400372 Cluj-Napoca, Romania; (M.C.); (A.D.M.)
| | - Johannes P. Borde
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine II, University Medical Centre Freiburg, Faculty of Medicine, University of Freiburg, 79106 Freiburg im Breisgau, Germany
- Praxis Prof. Borde and Kollegen, 77704 Oberkirch, Germany
| | - Gerhard Dobler
- Bundeswehr Institute of Microbiology, 80937 Munich, Germany; (P.G.); (K.E.); (G.D.)
- Department of Infectious Diseases and Tropical Medicine, LMU Center of Medicine, 80336 Munich, Germany
- Department of Parasitology, University of Hohenheim, 70599 Stuttgart, Germany
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2
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Fauziah I, Nugroho HA, Yanthi ND, Tiffarent R, Saputra S. Potential zoonotic spillover at the human-animal interface: A mini-review. Vet World 2024; 17:289-302. [PMID: 38595670 PMCID: PMC11000462 DOI: 10.14202/vetworld.2024.289-302] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/02/2023] [Accepted: 01/09/2024] [Indexed: 04/11/2024] Open
Abstract
Wildlife markets and wet wildlife markets, a type of human-animal interface, are commonly trading centers for wild-caught and captive-exotic animals as well as their products. These markets provide an ideal environment for spillovers of zoonotic and emerging infectious diseases (EIDs). These conditions may raise serious concerns, particularly in relation to wildlife species that frequently interact with humans and domestic animals. EIDs pose a significant risk to humans, ecosystems, and public health, as demonstrated by the current COVID-19 pandemic, and other previous outbreaks, including the highly pathogenic avian influenza H5N1. Even though it seems appears impossible to eliminate EIDs, we may still be able to minimalize the risks and take several measures to prevent new EIDs originated from animals. The aim of this study was to review several types of human-animal interfaces with a high risk of zoonotic spillover, infectious agents, and animal hosts or reservoirs. Identifying those factors will support the development of interventions and effective disease control in human-animal interface settings.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ima Fauziah
- Research Center for Applied Microbiology, Research Organization for Life Sciences and Environment, National Research and Innovation Agency (BRIN), KST Soekarno, Jalan Raya Jakarta Bogor Km 46 Cibinong, Bogor, West Java, Indonesia
| | - Herjuno Ari Nugroho
- Research Center for Applied Microbiology, Research Organization for Life Sciences and Environment, National Research and Innovation Agency (BRIN), KST Soekarno, Jalan Raya Jakarta Bogor Km 46 Cibinong, Bogor, West Java, Indonesia
| | - Nova Dilla Yanthi
- Research Center for Applied Microbiology, Research Organization for Life Sciences and Environment, National Research and Innovation Agency (BRIN), KST Soekarno, Jalan Raya Jakarta Bogor Km 46 Cibinong, Bogor, West Java, Indonesia
| | - Rida Tiffarent
- Research Center for Applied Microbiology, Research Organization for Life Sciences and Environment, National Research and Innovation Agency (BRIN), KST Soekarno, Jalan Raya Jakarta Bogor Km 46 Cibinong, Bogor, West Java, Indonesia
| | - Sugiyono Saputra
- Research Center for Applied Microbiology, Research Organization for Life Sciences and Environment, National Research and Innovation Agency (BRIN), KST Soekarno, Jalan Raya Jakarta Bogor Km 46 Cibinong, Bogor, West Java, Indonesia
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3
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de Martinis C, Cardillo L, Pesce F, Viscardi M, Cozzolino L, Paradiso R, Cavallo S, De Ascentis M, Goffredo M, Monaco F, Savini G, D’Orilia F, Pinto R, Fusco G. Reoccurrence of West Nile virus lineage 1 after 2-year decline: first equine outbreak in Campania region. Front Vet Sci 2023; 10:1314738. [PMID: 38098986 PMCID: PMC10720362 DOI: 10.3389/fvets.2023.1314738] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/10/2023] [Accepted: 11/10/2023] [Indexed: 12/17/2023] Open
Abstract
West Nile virus (WNV) is the most widespread arbovirus worldwide, responsible for severe neurological symptoms in humans as well as in horses and birds. The main reservoir and amplifier of the virus are birds, and migratory birds seem to have a key role in the introduction and spread of WNV during their migratory routes. WNV lineage 1 (L1) has been missing in Italy for almost 10 years, only to reappear in 2020 in two dead raptor birds in southern Italy. The present study reports the first equine outbreak in the Campania region. A 7-year-old horse died because of worsening neurological signs and underwent necropsy and biomolecular analyses. WNV-L1 was detected by real-time RT-PCR in the heart, brain, gut, liver, and spleen. Next Generation Sequence and phylogenetic analysis revealed that the strain responsible for the outbreak showed a nucleotide identity of over 98% with the strain found in Accipiter gentilis 2 years earlier in the same area, belonging to the WNV-L1 Western-Mediterranean sub-cluster. These results underline that WNV-L1, after reintroduction in 2020, has probably silently circulated during a 2-year eclipse, with no positive sample revealed by both serological and biomolecular examinations in horses, birds, and mosquitoes. The climate changes that have occurred in the last decades are evolving the epidemiology of WNV, with introductions or re-introductions of the virus in areas that were previously considered low risk. Thereby, the virus may easily amplify and establish itself to reappear with sporadic evident cases in susceptible hosts after several months or even years.
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Affiliation(s)
- Claudio de Martinis
- Department of Animal Health, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale del Mezzogiorno, Portici, Italy
| | - Lorena Cardillo
- Department of Animal Health, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale del Mezzogiorno, Portici, Italy
| | - Federica Pesce
- Department of Animal Health, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale del Mezzogiorno, Portici, Italy
| | - Maurizio Viscardi
- Department of Animal Health, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale del Mezzogiorno, Portici, Italy
| | - Loredana Cozzolino
- Department of Animal Health, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale del Mezzogiorno, Portici, Italy
| | - Rubina Paradiso
- Department of Animal Health, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale del Mezzogiorno, Portici, Italy
| | - Stefania Cavallo
- Department of Epidemiologic and Biostatistics Regional Observatory (OREB), Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale del Mezzogiorno, Portici, Italy
| | - Matteo De Ascentis
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale di Abruzzo e Molise, Teramo, Italy
| | - Maria Goffredo
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale di Abruzzo e Molise, Teramo, Italy
| | - Federica Monaco
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale di Abruzzo e Molise, Teramo, Italy
| | - Giovanni Savini
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale di Abruzzo e Molise, Teramo, Italy
| | | | - Renato Pinto
- U.O.D. Prevenzione e sanità pubblica veterinaria, Regione Campania, Napoli, Italy
| | - Giovanna Fusco
- Department of Animal Health, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale del Mezzogiorno, Portici, Italy
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4
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Khalil N, Little EAH, Akaratovic KI, Kiser JP, Abadam CF, Yuan KJ, Misencik MJ, Armstrong PM, Molaei G. Host Associations of Culex pipiens: A Two-Year Analysis of Bloodmeal Sources and Implications for Arboviral Transmission in Southeastern Virginia. Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis 2021; 21:961-972. [PMID: 34665047 DOI: 10.1089/vbz.2021.0069] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Understanding vector-host interactions is crucial for evaluating the role of mosquito species in enzootic cycling and epidemic/epizootic transmission of arboviruses, as well as assessing vertebrate host contributions to maintenance and amplification in different virus foci. To investigate blood-feeding pattern of Culex pipiens, engorged mosquitoes were collected on a weekly basis at 50 sites throughout Suffolk, Virginia, using Centers for Disease Control and Prevention miniature light traps, BG-Sentinel traps, and modified Reiter gravid traps. Vertebrate hosts of mosquitoes were identified by amplifying and sequencing portions of the mitochondrial cytochrome b gene. Of 281 Cx. pipiens bloodmeals successfully identified to species, 255 (90.7%) contained solely avian blood, 13 (4.6%) mammalian, 1 (0.4%) reptilian, and 12 (4.3%) both avian and mammalian blood. Nineteen avian species were identified as hosts for Cx. pipiens with American robin (n = 141, 55.3% of avian hosts) and northern cardinal (n = 57, 22.4%) as the most common hosts. More American robin feedings took place in areas of higher development. Three mammalian species were also identified as hosts for Cx. pipiens with Virginia opossum and domestic cat as the most common hosts in this class (each n = 6, 46.2% of mammalian hosts). There was no significant seasonal difference in the proportion of bloodmeals obtained from avian hosts, but there was a decrease in the proportion of bloodmeals from mammalian hosts from spring to fall. One engorged specimen of Cx. pipiens with Virginia opossum-derived bloodmeal tested positive for West Nile virus (WNV), and another with black-and-white warbler-derived bloodmeal tested positive for eastern equine encephalitis virus. Our findings, in conjunction with the results of vector competence studies and virus isolation from field-collected mosquitoes, lend additional support that Cx. pipiens serves as the principal enzootic vector and potential epizootic/epidemic vector of WNV in southeastern Virginia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Noelle Khalil
- Department of Environmental Sciences, The Connecticut Agricultural Experiment Station, New Haven, Connecticut, USA.,Center for Vector Biology & Zoonotic Diseases, The Connecticut Agricultural Experiment Station, New Haven, Connecticut, USA
| | - Eliza A H Little
- Center for Vector Biology & Zoonotic Diseases, The Connecticut Agricultural Experiment Station, New Haven, Connecticut, USA.,Department of Entomology, The Connecticut Agricultural Experiment Station, New Haven, Connecticut, USA
| | - Karen I Akaratovic
- Suffolk Mosquito Control, Department of Public Works, Suffolk, Virginia, USA
| | - Jay P Kiser
- Suffolk Mosquito Control, Department of Public Works, Suffolk, Virginia, USA
| | - Charles F Abadam
- Suffolk Mosquito Control, Department of Public Works, Suffolk, Virginia, USA
| | - Karen J Yuan
- Department of Epidemiology of Microbial Diseases, Yale School of Public Health, New Haven, Connecticut, USA
| | - Michael J Misencik
- Department of Environmental Sciences, The Connecticut Agricultural Experiment Station, New Haven, Connecticut, USA.,Center for Vector Biology & Zoonotic Diseases, The Connecticut Agricultural Experiment Station, New Haven, Connecticut, USA
| | - Philip M Armstrong
- Department of Environmental Sciences, The Connecticut Agricultural Experiment Station, New Haven, Connecticut, USA.,Center for Vector Biology & Zoonotic Diseases, The Connecticut Agricultural Experiment Station, New Haven, Connecticut, USA.,Department of Epidemiology of Microbial Diseases, Yale School of Public Health, New Haven, Connecticut, USA
| | - Goudarz Molaei
- Department of Environmental Sciences, The Connecticut Agricultural Experiment Station, New Haven, Connecticut, USA.,Center for Vector Biology & Zoonotic Diseases, The Connecticut Agricultural Experiment Station, New Haven, Connecticut, USA.,Department of Epidemiology of Microbial Diseases, Yale School of Public Health, New Haven, Connecticut, USA
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5
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Simulundu E, Ndashe K, Chambaro HM, Squarre D, Reilly PM, Chitanga S, Changula K, Mukubesa AN, Ndebe J, Tembo J, Kapata N, Bates M, Sinkala Y, Hang'ombe BM, Nalubamba KS, Kajihara M, Sasaki M, Orba Y, Takada A, Sawa H. West Nile Virus in Farmed Crocodiles, Zambia, 2019. Emerg Infect Dis 2021; 26:811-814. [PMID: 32187004 PMCID: PMC7101096 DOI: 10.3201/eid2604.190954] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
We detected West Nile virus (WNV) nucleic acid in crocodiles (Crocodylus niloticus) in Zambia. Phylogenetically, the virus belonged to lineage 1a, which is predominant in the Northern Hemisphere. These data provide evidence that WNV is circulating in crocodiles in Africa and increases the risk for animal and human transmission.
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6
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Rissmann M, Lenk M, Stoek F, Szentiks CA, Eiden M, Groschup MH. Replication of Rift Valley Fever Virus in Amphibian and Reptile-Derived Cell Lines. Pathogens 2021; 10:pathogens10060681. [PMID: 34072763 PMCID: PMC8228813 DOI: 10.3390/pathogens10060681] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2021] [Revised: 05/20/2021] [Accepted: 05/26/2021] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Rift Valley fever phlebovirus (RVFV) is a zoonotic arthropod-borne virus, which has led to devastating epidemics in African countries and on the Arabian Peninsula. Results of in-vivo, in-vitro and field studies suggested that amphibians and reptiles may play a role as reservoir hosts of RVFV, promoting its maintenance during inter-epidemic periods. To elucidate this hypothesis, we examined two newly established reptile-derived cell lines (Egyptian cobra and Chinese pond turtle) and five previously generated reptile- and amphibian-derived cell lines for their replicative capacity for three low- and high-pathogenic RVFV strains. At different time points after infection, viral loads (TCID50), genome loads and the presence of intracellular viral antigen (immunofluorescence) were assessed. Additionally, the influence of temperatures on the replication was examined. Except for one cell line (read-eared slider), all seven cell lines were infected by all three RVFV strains. Two different terrapin-derived cell lines (Common box turtle, Chinese pond turtle) were highly susceptible. A temperature-dependent replication of RVFV was detected for both amphibian and reptile cells. In conclusion, the results of this study indicate the general permissiveness of amphibian and reptile cell lines to RVFV and propose a potential involvement of terrapins in the virus ecology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Melanie Rissmann
- Institute of Novel and Emerging Infectious Diseases, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Insel Riems, 17493 Greifswald, Germany; (M.R.); (F.S.); (M.E.)
| | - Matthias Lenk
- Department of Experimental Animal Facilities and Biorisk Management, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Insel Riems, 17493 Greifswald, Germany;
| | - Franziska Stoek
- Institute of Novel and Emerging Infectious Diseases, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Insel Riems, 17493 Greifswald, Germany; (M.R.); (F.S.); (M.E.)
| | - Claudia A. Szentiks
- Department of Wildlife Diseases, Leibniz Institute for Zoo and Wildlife Research, 10315 Berlin, Germany;
| | - Martin Eiden
- Institute of Novel and Emerging Infectious Diseases, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Insel Riems, 17493 Greifswald, Germany; (M.R.); (F.S.); (M.E.)
| | - Martin H. Groschup
- Institute of Novel and Emerging Infectious Diseases, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Insel Riems, 17493 Greifswald, Germany; (M.R.); (F.S.); (M.E.)
- Correspondence:
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7
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Okoh GR, Horwood PF, Whitmore D, Ariel E. Herpesviruses in Reptiles. Front Vet Sci 2021; 8:642894. [PMID: 34026888 PMCID: PMC8131531 DOI: 10.3389/fvets.2021.642894] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/17/2020] [Accepted: 04/06/2021] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Since the 1970s, several species of herpesviruses have been identified and associated with significant diseases in reptiles. Earlier discoveries placed these viruses into different taxonomic groups on the basis of morphological and biological characteristics, while advancements in molecular methods have led to more recent descriptions of novel reptilian herpesviruses, as well as providing insight into the phylogenetic relationship of these viruses. Herpesvirus infections in reptiles are often characterised by non-pathognomonic signs including stomatitis, encephalitis, conjunctivitis, hepatitis and proliferative lesions. With the exception of fibropapillomatosis in marine turtles, the absence of specific clinical signs has fostered misdiagnosis and underreporting of the actual disease burden in reptilian populations and hampered potential investigations that could lead to the effective control of these diseases. In addition, complex life histories, sampling bias and poor monitoring systems have limited the assessment of the impact of herpesvirus infections in wild populations and captive collections. Here we review the current published knowledge of the taxonomy, pathogenesis, pathology and epidemiology of reptilian herpesviruses.
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Affiliation(s)
- God'spower Richard Okoh
- Division of Tropical Health and Medicine, College of Public Health, Medical and Veterinary Sciences, James Cook University, Townsville, QLD, Australia
| | - Paul F Horwood
- Division of Tropical Health and Medicine, College of Public Health, Medical and Veterinary Sciences, James Cook University, Townsville, QLD, Australia
| | - David Whitmore
- Division of Tropical Health and Medicine, College of Public Health, Medical and Veterinary Sciences, James Cook University, Townsville, QLD, Australia
| | - Ellen Ariel
- Division of Tropical Health and Medicine, College of Public Health, Medical and Veterinary Sciences, James Cook University, Townsville, QLD, Australia
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8
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Rissmann M, Kley N, Ulrich R, Stoek F, Balkema-Buschmann A, Eiden M, Groschup MH. Competency of Amphibians and Reptiles and Their Potential Role as Reservoir Hosts for Rift Valley Fever Virus. Viruses 2020; 12:v12111206. [PMID: 33114178 PMCID: PMC7690770 DOI: 10.3390/v12111206] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/10/2020] [Revised: 10/10/2020] [Accepted: 10/19/2020] [Indexed: 01/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Rift Valley fever phlebovirus (RVFV) is an arthropod-borne zoonotic pathogen, which is endemic in Africa, causing large epidemics, characterized by severe diseases in ruminants but also in humans. As in vitro and field investigations proposed amphibians and reptiles to potentially play a role in the enzootic amplification of the virus, we experimentally infected African common toads and common agamas with two RVFV strains. Lymph or sera, as well as oral, cutaneous and anal swabs were collected from the challenged animals to investigate seroconversion, viremia and virus shedding. Furthermore, groups of animals were euthanized 3, 10 and 21 days post-infection (dpi) to examine viral loads in different tissues during the infection. Our data show for the first time that toads are refractory to RVFV infection, showing neither seroconversion, viremia, shedding nor tissue manifestation. In contrast, all agamas challenged with the RVFV strain ZH501 carried virus genomes in the spleens at 3 dpi, but the animals displayed neither viremia nor virus shedding. In conclusion, the results of this study indicate that amphibians are not susceptible and reptiles are only susceptible to a low extent to RVFV, indicating that both species play, if at all, rather a subordinate role in the RVF virus ecology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Melanie Rissmann
- Institute of Novel and Emerging Infectious Diseases, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, 17493 Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany; (M.R.); (N.K.); (F.S.); (A.B.-B.); (M.E.)
| | - Nils Kley
- Institute of Novel and Emerging Infectious Diseases, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, 17493 Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany; (M.R.); (N.K.); (F.S.); (A.B.-B.); (M.E.)
| | - Reiner Ulrich
- Department of Experimental Animal Facilities and Biorisk Management, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, 17493 Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany;
- Institute of Veterinary Pathology, Leipzig University, 04103 Leipzig, Germany
| | - Franziska Stoek
- Institute of Novel and Emerging Infectious Diseases, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, 17493 Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany; (M.R.); (N.K.); (F.S.); (A.B.-B.); (M.E.)
| | - Anne Balkema-Buschmann
- Institute of Novel and Emerging Infectious Diseases, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, 17493 Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany; (M.R.); (N.K.); (F.S.); (A.B.-B.); (M.E.)
| | - Martin Eiden
- Institute of Novel and Emerging Infectious Diseases, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, 17493 Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany; (M.R.); (N.K.); (F.S.); (A.B.-B.); (M.E.)
| | - Martin H. Groschup
- Institute of Novel and Emerging Infectious Diseases, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, 17493 Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany; (M.R.); (N.K.); (F.S.); (A.B.-B.); (M.E.)
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +49-38351-7-1163
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9
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Vidaña B, Busquets N, Napp S, Pérez-Ramírez E, Jiménez-Clavero MÁ, Johnson N. The Role of Birds of Prey in West Nile Virus Epidemiology. Vaccines (Basel) 2020; 8:vaccines8030550. [PMID: 32967268 PMCID: PMC7564710 DOI: 10.3390/vaccines8030550] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/23/2020] [Revised: 09/14/2020] [Accepted: 09/16/2020] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Reported human cases of West Nile virus (WNV) in Europe increased dramatically in 2018. Lineage 1 strains had been circulating in Euro-Mediterranean countries since the early 1990s. The subsequent introduction of WNV lineage 2 has been responsible for the remarkable upsurge of European WNV outbreaks since 2004, including the dramatic increase in human cases observed since 2018. The virus exists in a natural cycle between mosquitoes and wild birds, with humans and horses acting as dead-end hosts. As the key vertebrate hosts in the transmission cycle of WNV, avian species have been the focus of surveillance across many countries. Raptors appear particularly susceptible to WNV infection, resulting in higher prevalence, and in some cases exhibiting neurological signs that lead to the death of the animal. In addition, birds of prey are known to play an important role as WNV reservoir and potentially amplifying hosts of infection. Importantly, raptor higher susceptibility/prevalence may indicate infection through predation of infected prey. Consequently, they are considered important target species when designing cost-effective surveillance for monitoring both seasonal WNV circulation in endemic countries and its emergence into new areas, where migrating raptors may play a critical role in virus introduction. This review summarizes the different aspects of the current knowledge of WNV infection in birds of prey and evaluates their role in the evolution of the epizootic that is spreading throughout Europe.
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Affiliation(s)
- Beatriz Vidaña
- Bristol Veterinary School, University of Bristol, Bristol BS40 5DU, UK
- Correspondence:
| | - Núria Busquets
- IRTA, Animal Health Research Centre (CReSA IRTA-UAB), 08193 Bellaterra, Spain; (N.B.); (S.N.)
| | - Sebastian Napp
- IRTA, Animal Health Research Centre (CReSA IRTA-UAB), 08193 Bellaterra, Spain; (N.B.); (S.N.)
| | - Elisa Pérez-Ramírez
- Animal Health Research Centre INIA-CISA C, 28130 Madrid, Spain; (E.P.-R.); (M.Á.J.-C.)
| | | | - Nicholas Johnson
- Virology Department, Animal and Plant Health Agency, Addlestone KT15 3NB, UK;
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West Nile Virus: An Update on Pathobiology, Epidemiology, Diagnostics, Control and "One Health" Implications. Pathogens 2020; 9:pathogens9070589. [PMID: 32707644 PMCID: PMC7400489 DOI: 10.3390/pathogens9070589] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/28/2020] [Revised: 07/16/2020] [Accepted: 07/16/2020] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
West Nile virus (WNV) is an important zoonotic flavivirus responsible for mild fever to severe, lethal neuroinvasive disease in humans, horses, birds, and other wildlife species. Since its discovery, WNV has caused multiple human and animal disease outbreaks in all continents, except Antarctica. Infections are associated with economic losses, mainly due to the cost of treatment of infected patients, control programmes, and loss of animals and animal products. The pathogenesis of WNV has been extensively investigated in natural hosts as well as in several animal models, including rodents, lagomorphs, birds, and reptiles. However, most of the proposed pathogenesis hypotheses remain contentious, and much remains to be elucidated. At the same time, the unavailability of specific antiviral treatment or effective and safe vaccines contribute to the perpetuation of the disease and regular occurrence of outbreaks in both endemic and non-endemic areas. Moreover, globalisation and climate change are also important drivers of the emergence and re-emergence of the virus and disease. Here, we give an update of the pathobiology, epidemiology, diagnostics, control, and “One Health” implications of WNV infection and disease.
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Reisen WK, Wheeler SS. Overwintering of West Nile Virus in the United States. JOURNAL OF MEDICAL ENTOMOLOGY 2019; 56:1498-1507. [PMID: 31549726 DOI: 10.1093/jme/tjz070] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/14/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
The establishment of a tropical virus such as West Nile (WNV; Flaviviridae: Flavivirus) within the temperate latitudes of the continental United States was unexpected and perhaps contingent, in part, upon the ability of this invasive virus to persist during winter when temperatures become too cold for replication and vector mosquito gonotrophic activity. Our Forum article reviews research examining possible overwintering mechanisms that include consistent reintroduction and local persistence in vector mosquitoes and avian hosts, mostly using examples from research conducted in California. We conclude that the transmission of WNV involves so many vectors and hosts within different landscapes that multiple overwintering pathways are possible and collectively may be necessary to allow this virus to overwinter consistently within the United States.
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Affiliation(s)
- William K Reisen
- Department of Pathology, Microbiology and Immunology, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, CA
| | - Sarah S Wheeler
- Sacramento-Yolo Mosquito and Vector Control District, Elk Grove, CA
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Abstract
Equine populations worldwide are at increasing risk of infection by viruses transmitted by biting arthropods, including mosquitoes, biting midges (Culicoides), sandflies and ticks. These include the flaviviruses (Japanese encephalitis, West Nile and Murray Valley encephalitis), alphaviruses (eastern, western and Venezuelan encephalitis) and the orbiviruses (African horse sickness and equine encephalosis). This review provides an overview of the challenges faced in the surveillance, prevention and control of the major equine arboviruses, particularly in the context of these viruses emerging in new regions of the world.
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Affiliation(s)
- G E Chapman
- Epidemiology and Population Health, Institute of Infection and Global Health, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, UK
| | - M Baylis
- Epidemiology and Population Health, Institute of Infection and Global Health, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, UK
| | - D Archer
- Epidemiology and Population Health, Institute of Infection and Global Health, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, UK
| | - J M Daly
- School of Veterinary Medicine and Science, University of Nottingham, Sutton Bonington, Leicestershire, UK
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Reeves LE, Krysko KL, Avery ML, Gillett-Kaufman JL, Kawahara AY, Connelly CR, Kaufman PE. Interactions between the invasive Burmese python, Python bivittatus Kuhl, and the local mosquito community in Florida, USA. PLoS One 2018; 13:e0190633. [PMID: 29342169 PMCID: PMC5771569 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0190633] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/04/2017] [Accepted: 12/18/2017] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
The Burmese python, Python bivittatus Kuhl, is a well-established invasive species in the greater Everglades ecosystem of southern Florida, USA. Most research on its ecological impacts focuses on its role as a predator and its trophic interactions with native vertebrate species, particularly mammals. Beyond predation, there is little known about the ecological interactions between P. bivittatus and native faunal communities. It is likely that established populations of P. bivittatus in southern Florida serve as hosts for native mosquito communities. To test this concept, we used mitochondrial cytochrome c oxidase subunit I DNA barcoding to determine the hosts of blood fed mosquitoes collected at a research facility in northern Florida where captive P. bivittatus and Argentine black and white tegu, Salvator merianae (Duméril and Bibron), are maintained in outdoor enclosures, accessible to local mosquitoes. We recovered python DNA from the blood meals of three species of Culex mosquitoes: Culex erraticus (Dyar and Knab), Culex quinquefasciatus Say, and Culex pilosus (Dyar and Knab). Culex erraticus conclusively (P = 0.001; Fisher's Exact Test) took more blood meals from P. bivittatus than from any other available host. While the majority of mosquito blood meals in our sample were derived from P. bivittatus, only one was derived from S. merianae. These results demonstrate that local mosquitoes will feed on invasive P. bivittatus, a recently introduced host. If these interactions also occur in southern Florida, P. bivittatus may be involved in the transmission networks of mosquito-vectored pathogens. Our results also illustrate the potential of detecting the presence of P. bivittatus in the field through screening mosquito blood meals for their DNA.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lawrence E. Reeves
- Entomology and Nematology Department, Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, United States of America
- * E-mail:
| | - Kenneth L. Krysko
- Division of Herpetology, Florida Museum of Natural History, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, United States of America
| | - Michael L. Avery
- National Wildlife Research Center, United States Department of Agriculture, Gainesville, Florida, United States of America
| | - Jennifer L. Gillett-Kaufman
- Entomology and Nematology Department, Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, United States of America
| | - Akito Y. Kawahara
- McGuire Center for Lepidoptera and Biodiversity, Florida Museum of Natural History, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, United States of America
| | - C. Roxanne Connelly
- Florida Medical Entomology Laboratory, Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences, University of Florida, Vero Beach, Florida, United States of America
| | - Phillip E. Kaufman
- Entomology and Nematology Department, Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, United States of America
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