Pharmacotherapeutic potential of ginger and its compounds in age-related neurological disorders

Unraveling the interconversion pharmacokinetics and oral bioavailability of the major ginger constituents: [6]-gingerol, [6]-shogaol, and zingerone after single-dose administration in rats

Background

The available in vitro evidences suggest the inherent instability and interconvertibility of [6]-gingerol and [6]-shogaol. However, limited data on their in vivo interconversion hinder understanding of their influence on the pharmacokinetic profiles.

Purpose

This study presents the first comprehensive in vivo investigation aiming to determine the interconversion pharmacokinetics in rats, and elucidate the oral bioavailability, target distribution, biotransformation, and excretion profiles of the key ginger constituents, [6]-gingerol, [6]-shogaol, and zingerone.

Methods

The pharmacokinetics was investigated through single intravenous (3 mg/kg) or oral (30 mg/kg) administration of [6]-gingerol, [6]-shogaol, or zingerone, followed by the determination of their tissue distribution after oral dosing (30 mg/kg). Intravenous pharmacokinetics was leveraged to evaluate the interconversion, circumventing potential confounders associated with the oral route.

Results

All rats tolerated these compounds throughout the pharmacokinetic study. The parent compounds exhibited rapid but partial absorption, and extensive organ distribution with substantial biotransformation, thereby limiting the oral bioavailability of each compound to below 2% when administered as pure compounds. Conversion of [6]-gingerol to [6]-shogaol after intravenous administration, demonstrated a significantly larger clearance compared to the reverse conversion ([6]-shogaol to [6]-gingerol). The irreversible metabolic clearance for both compounds was significantly greater than their reversible bioconversions. Furthermore, [6]-gingerol underwent biotransformation to zingerone. Conjugated glucuronides were eliminated partly through renal excretion, with minimal fecal excretion.

Conclusion

This in vivo investigation demonstrates the influence of interconversion on the disposition kinetics of [6]-gingerol, [6]-shogaol, and zingerone, as evidenced by the findings in the systemic circulation. The study further highlights the importance of considering this interconversion and tissue distribution when determining the administration dosage of ginger constituent combinations for therapeutic benefits and clinical applications.

The Combination of Zhuli Decoction and N-butylphthalide Inhibits Cell Apoptosis Induced by CO Poisoning through the PI3K/AKT/GSK-3β Signaling Pathway

Carbon monoxide poisoning (COP) represents a significant global health burden, characterized by its morbidity and high mortality rates. The pathogenesis of COP-induced brain injury is complex, and effective treatment modalities are currently lacking. In this study, we employed network pharmacology to identify therapeutic targets and associated signaling pathways of Zhuli Decoction (ZLD) for COP. Subsequently, we conducted both in vitro and in vivo experiments to validate the therapeutic efficacy of ZLD in combination with N-butylphthalide (NBP) for acute COP-induced injury. Our network pharmacology analysis revealed that the primary components of ZLD exerted therapeutic effects through the modulation of multiple targets and pathways. The in vitro and in vivo experiments demonstrated that the combination of NBP and ZLD effectively inhibited apoptosis and up-regulated the activities of P-PI3K (Tyr458), P-AKT (Ser473), P-GSK-3β (Ser9), and Bcl-2, thus leading to the protection of neuronal cells and improvement in cognitive function in rats following COP, which was better than the effects observed with NBP or ZLD alone. The rescue experiment further showed that LY294002, a PI3K inhibitor, significantly attenuated the therapeutic efficacy of NBP + ZLD. The neuroprotection effects of NBP and ZLD against COP-induced brain injury are closely linked to the activation of the PI3K/AKT/GSK-3β signaling pathway.

NLRP3 neuroinflammatory intervention of Mahuang-Lianqiao-Chixiaodou decoction for mental disorders in atopic dermatitis mice

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Mahuang-Lianqiao-Chixiaodou decoction (MLCD) is a traditional Chinese medicinal (TCM) formula recorded in the Treatise on Febrile Diseases. It is commonly used for clinical treatment of atopic dermatitis (AD). However, the potential mechanisms of MLCD intervention in AD combined with mental disorders behaviors such as anxiety and depression remain elusive and deserves further investigation.

AIM OF THE STUDY

The study aims to observe the effect of MLCD on anxiety- and depression-like behaviors in AD mice and explore the possible neuroinflammatory mechanism of NOD-like receptor 3 (NLRP3) inflammasome.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The chemical components of MLCD extracts were identified using UHPLC-MS. The AD mice were induced by 2,4-dinitrofluorobenzene and treated with MLCD or mometasone furoate (MF, as a positive control) for 7 days. The pathological changes in their skin tissue and brain hippocampus were observed by hematoxylin-eosin staining. Elevated plus-maze test (EPM), open field test (OFT), and the suspended tail (TST) were used to measure the anxiety- and depressive-like behaviors in AD mice. Expression of NLRP3 inflammasome-related proteins in brain hippocampus were measured by the quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction (qPCR) and western blotting (WB).

RESULTS

We found that MLCD contain many active ingredients, including ephedrine, Forsythoside A, phillyrin, glycyrrhizic acid, etc. Both MLCD and MF alleviated skin lesions and promoted positive histopathological changes in the hippocampus of AD mince to varying degrees. MLCD however, could further increase their proportion of open arm entry times (Oentries%) in EPM, residence time in the central area (Ctime) and the proportion of the number of times in the central area (Centries%) in OFT significantly. MLCD also reduces their immobility time in TST considerably. Mechanistically, MLCD downregulated the relative mRNA expression and protein level of NLRP3, Caspase-1, IL-1β, and IL-18 in hippocampal tissue compared to the model group.

CONCLUSIONS

MLCD can alleviate anxiety-like and depression-like behaviors in AD mice by intervening in the gene and protein expression of NLRP3 inflammasome-related factors, thus treating AD.

Alleviation of acute stress response by black pepper aroma administration

BACKGROUND

Black pepper is one of the most popular spices globally. As black pepper essential oil has not yet been used in the context of aromatherapy, this study examined the effect of black pepper aroma on cardiac and peripheral autonomic nervous system (ANS) activity under stressful conditions using an olfactometer to administer aroma in a precise and controlled manner to ensure reproducibility.

METHODS

A within-participant design experiment was conducted with 20 male university students who performed a 30-min calculation task as a short-term stressor under three aroma conditions: black pepper, ginger, and dipropylene glycol (DPG) (scentless air as a control). Each aroma was sporadically delivered (first 20 s of each 1-min interval) with the olfactometer during the task. Electrocardiograms and skin conductance level (SCL) were measured to evaluate ANS's physiological acute stress response. Subjective evaluations for the given stressful task and impressions on the types of aromas were assessed.

RESULTS

The physiological acute stress response induced by the short-term stressor, which is characterized by the enhancement of the heart rate (HR) and SCL and decreases in the heart rate variability (HRV), was suppressed with black pepper: the increase in HR and reduction in HRV from the baseline were 38.9% (p = 0.048 when compared with DPG) and 32.9% smaller (p = 0.002 for multiple comparisons) than those in DPG, respectively, and the increase of SCL was 15.5% smaller (p = 0.005 for multiple comparisons) than that in ginger. However, there was no significant difference in subjective scores among the conditions.

CONCLUSION

Although black pepper is a stimulative agent, the study findings showed that black pepper aroma alleviated the physiological acute stress response, which can be beneficial in aromatherapy under stressful conditions.

Promising influences of zingerone against natural and chemical toxins: A comprehensive and mechanistic review

Zingerone is a flavor phytochemical present in ginger, a flowering plant belonging to the Zingiberaceae family used as a condiment and herbal remedy. It possesses anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and anti-apoptotic properties and also exhibits protective effects against radiation, chemicals, biological toxins, and oxidative stress. The current comprehensive literature review was performed in order to assess the therapeutical and protective properties of zingerone against various chemical and natural toxins by considering the mechanisms of action. Extensive searches were performed on Scopus, Web of Science, PubMed, and Google Scholar databases. Zingerone lessens oxidative stress, inflammation, apoptosis, and oxidative DNA damage by increasing the activities of superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT), glutathione (GSH), and glutathione peroxidase (GPX). It prevents alginate production, which increases the cell's susceptibility to macrophages, serum, and antibiotics and dramatically lowers the generation of proinflammatory cytokines brought on by lipopolysaccharide (LPS). Cytokine production, MAPK, and NF-κB activation are all inhibited dose-dependently by zingerone. Zingerone also reduces 8-OHdG over-expression in the liver tissue and the expression of NADPH oxidase 4 (NOX4), inflammatory cytokines (e.g., IFN-γ, IL-17, IL-6, COX-2, TNF-α, and iNOS mRNA level), decreases macrophage inflammatory protein cytokines and eliminates free radicals. It also suppresses matrix metalloproteinase-2 (MMP-2) and MMP-9 during tumor progression, showing its anti-angiogenic activity. Strong radioprotective properties of zingerone are demonstrated against radiation-induced toxicity. The authors hope this review gives researchers some insight into conducting novel clinical and preclinical studies on pharmaceutical applications and the efficiency of zingerone in cancer treatment, and drug adverse effects.

6-Shogaol from Dried Ginger Protects against Intestinal Ischemia/Reperfusion by Inhibiting Cell Apoptosis via the BDNF/TrkB/PI3K/AKT Pathway

SCOPE

Intestinal ischemia-reperfusion (II/R) injury is a common pathological process with high morbidity and mortality. Effective prevention and treatment therapies for II/R are clinically necessary. 6-Shogaol (6-SG), the main active ingredient in dried ginger, behaviors multiple biological activities, including anti-inflammation, antioxidation, and anti-apoptosis. This study aims to elucidate the protective effects and mechanism of 6-SG against II/R-induced injury.

METHODS AND RESULTS

Sprague-Dawley rats are pre-treated orally with 6-SG and subjected to II/R injury by clamping superior mesenteric artery for 1 h and reperfusion for 2 h. Caco-2 cells are challenged by hypoxia/reoxygenation to mimic II/R in vitro. 6-SG pre-treatment protects against II/R injury by reducing intestinal morphological damage and intestinal barrier injury via inhibiting cell apoptosis. Network pharmacology and molecular docking analyses reveal that 6-SG has a high affinity with brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) formed homodimer or heterodimer with NT4 instead of the monomer, and thus the dimer configuration is stabilized, activating BDNF/TrkB/PI3K/AKT signaling pathway and inhibiting II/R-induced cell apoptosis. The outcome is further validated both in vivo and in vitro.

CONCLUSION

6-Shogaol protects against II/R injury by inhibiting cell apoptosis through the BDNF/TrkB/PI3K/AKT pathway. This study offers a new understanding of the protection mechanism of 6-SG against II/R-induced injury.

Mesenchymal stromal cell-derived secretome-based therapy for neurodegenerative diseases: overview of clinical trials

BACKGROUND

Over the past few years, mesenchymal stromal cells (MSCs) have attracted a great deal of scientific attention owing to their promising results in the treatment of incurable diseases. However, there are several concerns about their possible side effects after direct cell transplantation, including host immune response, time-consuming cell culture procedures, and the dependence of cell quality on the donor, which limit the application of MSCs in clinical trials. On the other hand, it is well accepted that the beneficial effects of MSCs are mediated by secretome rather than cell replacement. MSC secretome refers to a variety of bioactive molecules involved in different biological processes, specifically neuro-regeneration.

MAIN BODY

Due to the limited ability of the central nervous system to compensate for neuronal loss and relieve disease progress, mesenchymal stem cell products may be used as a potential cure for central nervous system disorders. In the present study, the therapeutic effects of MSC secretome were reviewed and discussed the possible mechanisms in the three most prevalent central nervous system disorders, namely Alzheimer's disease, multiple sclerosis, and Parkinson's disease. The current work aimed to help discover new medicine for the mentioned complications.

CONCLUSION

The use of MSC-derived secretomes in the treatment of the mentioned diseases has encouraging results, so it can be considered as a treatment option for which no treatment has been introduced so far.

Cytochrome P450 metabolism studies of [6]-gingerol, [8]-gingerol, and [10]-gingerol by liver microsomes of humans and different species combined with expressed CYP enzymes

Gingerols, mainly [6]-gingerol (6G), [8]-gingerol (8G), and [10]-gingerol (10G), are the functional and specific pungent phytochemicals in ginger. However, poor oral bioavailability limits their applications owing to extensive metabolism. The present study aims to characterize the cytochrome P450 (CYP) metabolic characteristics of 6G, 8G, and 10G by using pooled human liver microsomes (HLM), different animal liver microsomes, and the expressed CYP enzymes. It is shown that NADPH-dependent oxidation and hydrogenation metabolisms of gingerols are the main metabolic types in HLM. With the increase of the carbon chain, the polarity of gingerols decreases and the formation of hydrogenated metabolites is more efficient (CL_int: 1.41 μL min^-1 mg^-1 for 6G, 7.79 μL min^-1 mg^-1 for 8G and 14.11 μL min^-1 mg^-1 for 10G), indicating that the phase I metabolism of gingerols by HLM varied with the chemical structure of the substrate. The phase I metabolism of gingerols revealed considerable species variations, and compared to HLM, novel metabolites such as (3S,5S)-gingerdiols and demethylated metabolites are generated in some animal liver microsomes. The primary enzymes involved in the oxidized and demethylated metabolism of these gingerols are CYP1A2 and CYP2C19, but their affinities for gingerols are not the same. CYP2D6 and CYP2B6 contributed significantly to the formation of (3R,5S)-[8]-gingerdiol and (3R,5S)-[10]-gingerdiol, respectively; however, the enzyme responsible for the production of (3R,5S)-[6]-gingerediol is yet to be identified. Some metabolites in microsomes cannot be detected by the 12 investigated CYP enzymes, which may be related to the combined effects of multiple enzymes in microsomes, the different affinity of mixed liver microsomes and CYP enzymes, gene polymorphisms, etc. Overall, this work provides a deeper knowledge of the influence of CYP metabolism on the gingerols, as well as the mode of action and the possibility for drug-herbal interactions.

Bioactivities and green advanced extraction technologies of ginger oleoresin extracts: A review

Zingiber officinale Roscoe is an excellent source of bioactive compounds, mainly gingerols and shogaols compounds, that associated with various bioactivities including antioxidant, anticancer, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, and antibiofilm. Zingiber officinale Roscoe found its application in the food, pharmaceutical, and cosmeceutical industries. The demand for a high quality of ginger oleoresin extracts based on the contents of gingerols and shogaols compounds for a health-benefit has dramatically increased. Various extraction techniques, including the conventional and advanced extraction techniques for gingerols and shogaols have been reported based on the literature data from 2012 to 2022. The present review examines the functional composition and bioactivities of Zingiber officinale Roscoe and the advanced green extraction technologies. Some variations in the quantity and quality of gingerols and shogaols compounds are because of the extraction method employed. This review provides a depth discussion of the various green advanced extraction technologies and the influences of process variables on the performance of the extraction process. Lower temperature with a short exposure time such as ultrasound-assisted and enzyme-assisted extraction, will lead to high quality of extracts with high content of 6-gingerol. High thermal processing, such as microwave-assisted and pressurized liquid extraction, will produce higher 6-shogaol. Meanwhile, supercritical fluid extraction promotes high quality and the safety of extracts by using non-toxic CO2. In addition, challenges and future prospects of the extraction of ginger oleoresin have been identified and discussed. The emerging green extraction methods and technologies show promising results with less energy input and higher quality extracts than conventional extraction methods.

Impact of Thermal Processing on the Selected Biological Activities of Ginger Rhizome-A Review

Ginger (Zingiber officinale Rosc.) is a spice, medicinal and cosmetic plant that has been known for centuries. It can be used in dried, fresh, marinated or candied form, and is also an essential ingredient in well-known curry blends. Ginger rhizomes are often freeze-dried as the first step in the preparation of the raw material. Many studies have proved that the composition and biological activity of ginger changes due to thermal processing. Therefore, the aim of the review was to summarize the scientific results on the impact of traditional and unconventional methods of the heat treatment of ginger rhizomes and their influence on the antioxidant and other selected biological activities of the plant. The review of the available scientific data is inconclusive, and it is hard to state unequivocally whether the thermal treatment of the raw material increases or decreases biological activity. Based on the presented literature review, it can be concluded that traditional cooking and microwave processing in general decrease the antioxidant activity of the ginger rhizome, whereas frying, autoclaving, blanching or traditional drying in the sun mostly lead to a significant increase in ginger activity. Interesting data were presented in the works describing the freeze-drying process during which the antioxidant potential of ginger increased.

Systems Pharmacology and Pharmacokinetics Strategy to Decode Bioactive Ingredients and Molecular Mechanisms from Zingiber officinale as Phyto-therapeutics against Neurological Diseases

BACKGROUND

The bioactive constituents from Zingiber officinale (Z. officinale) have shown a positive effect on neurodegenerative diseases like Alzheimer's disease (AD), which manifests as progressive memory loss and cognitive impairment.

OBJECTIVE

This study investigates the binding ability and the pharmaco-therapeutic potential of Z. officinale with AD disease targets by molecular docking and molecular dynamic (MD) simulation approaches.

METHODS

By coupling enormous available phytochemical data and advanced computational technologies, the possible molecular mechanism of action of these bioactive compounds was deciphered by evaluating phytochemicals, target fishing, and network biological analysis.

RESULTS

As a result, 175 bioactive compounds and 264 human target proteins were identified. The gene ontology and Kyoto Encyclopaedia of Genes and Genomes pathway enrichment analysis and molecular docking were used to predict the basis of vital bioactive compounds and biomolecular mechanisms involved in the treatment of AD. Amongst selected bioactive compounds, 10- Gingerdione and 1-dehydro-[8]-gingerdione exhibited significant anti-neurological properties against AD targeting amyloid precursor protein with docking energy of -6.0 and -5.6, respectively.

CONCLUSION

This study suggests that 10-Gingerdione and 1-dehydro-[8]-gingerdione strongly modulates the anti-neurological activity and are associated with pathological features like amyloid-β plaques and hyperphosphorylated tau protein are found to be critically regulated by these two target proteins. This comprehensive analysis provides a clue for further investigation of these natural compounds' inhibitory activity in drug discovery for AD treatment.

Ginger potency on the prevention and treatment of breast cancer

BACKGROUND

Cancer is a type of disease caused by the uncontrolled growth of abnormal cells that can destroy body tissues. The use of traditional medicine naturally uses plants from ginger with the maceration method. The ginger plant is a herbaceous flowering plant with the Zingiberaceacea group.

METHODS

This study uses the literature review method by reviewing 50 articles from journals and databases.

RESULTS

A review of several articles, namely ginger has bioactive components such as gingerol. Ginger is used as a treatment in complementary therapies using plants. Ginger is a strategy with many benefits and functions as a nutritional complement to the body. This benefit has shown the effect of anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and anticancer against nausea and vomiting due to chemotherapy in breast cancer.

CONCLUSION

Anticancer in ginger is shown by polyphenols associated with anti-metastatic, anti-proliferative, antiangiogenic, anti-inflammatory, cell cycle arrest, apoptosis, and autophagy. Therefore, consuming ginger regularly affects natural herbal therapy with the prevention and treatment of breast cancer and serves as a prevention against the effects of chemotherapy.

Topiramate potential neurotoxicity and mitigating role of ginger oil in mice brain

Topiramate has multiple pharmacological mechanisms that are efficient in treating epilepsy and migraine. Ginger has been established to have gingerols and shogaols that cause migraine relief. Moreover, Topiramate has many off-label uses. Thus, it was necessary to explore the possible neurotoxicity of Topiramate and the role of ginger oil in attenuating the Topiramate neurotoxicity. Male albino mice were orally gavaged with Topiramate, ginger oil (400 mg/kg), and Topiramate plus ginger oil with the same pattern for 28 days. Oxidative stress markers, acetylcholinesterase (AchE), gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA), and tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α) were examined. Histopathological examination, immunohistochemical glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP), and Bax expression analysis were detected. The GABAAR subunits, Gabra1, Gabra3, and Gabra5 expression, were assessed by RT-qPCR. The investigation showed that Topiramate raised oxidative stress markers levels, neurotransmitters, TNF-α, and diminished glutathione (GSH). In addition, Topiramate exhibited various neuropathological alterations, strong Bax, and GFAP immune-reactivity in the cerebral cortex. At the same time, the results indicated that ginger oil had no neurotoxicity. The effect of Topiramate plus ginger oil alleviated the changes induced by Topiramate in the tested parameters. Both Topiramate and ginger oil upregulated the mRNA expression of gabra1 and gabra3, while their interaction markedly downregulated them. Therefore, it could be concluded that the Topiramate overdose could cause neurotoxicity, but the interaction with ginger oil may reduce Topiramate-induced neurotoxicity and should be taken in parallel.

Trichosanthis Semen and Zingiberis Rhizoma Mixture Ameliorates Lipopolysaccharide-Induced Memory Dysfunction by Inhibiting Neuroinflammation

Neuroinflammation, a key pathological contributor to various neurodegenerative diseases, is mediated by microglial activation and subsequent secretion of inflammatory cytokines via the mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) signaling pathway. Moreover, neuroinflammation leads to synaptic loss and memory impairment. This study investigated the inhibitory effects of PNP001, a mixture of Trichosanthis Semen and Zingiberis Rhizoma in a ratio of 3:1, on neuroinflammation and neurological deficits induced by lipopolysaccharide (LPS). For the in vitro study, PNP001 was administered in LPS-stimulated BV2 microglial cells, and reduced the pro-inflammatory mediators, such as nitric oxide, inducible nitric oxide synthase, and cyclooxygenase-2 by downregulating MAPK signaling. For the in vivo study, ICR mice were orally administered PNP001 for 18 consecutive days, and concurrently treated with LPS (1 mg/kg, i.p.) for 10 days, beginning on the 4th day of PNP001 administration. The remarkably decreased number of activated microglial cells and increased expression of pre- and post-synaptic proteins were observed more in the hippocampus of the PNP001 administered groups than in the LPS-treated group. Furthermore, daily PNP001 administration significantly attenuated long-term memory decline compared with the LPS-treated group. Our study demonstrated that PNP001 inhibits LPS-induced neuroinflammation and its associated memory dysfunction by alleviating microglial activation and synaptic loss.

Effect of Ginger on Inflammatory Diseases

Ulcerative colitis, Crohn's disease, rheumatoid arthritis, psoriasis, and lupus erythematosus are some of common inflammatory diseases. These affections are highly disabling and share signals such as inflammatory sequences and immune dysregulation. The use of foods with anti-inflammatory properties such as ginger (Zingiber officinale Roscoe) could improve the quality of life of these patients. Ginger is a plant widely used and known by its bioactive compounds. There is enough evidence to prove that ginger possesses multiple biological activities, especially antioxidant and anti-inflammatory capacities. In this review, we summarize the current knowledge about the bioactive compounds of ginger and their role in the inflammatory process and its signaling pathways. We can conclude that the compounds 6-shoagol, zingerone, and 8-shoagol display promising results in human and animal models, reducing some of the main symptoms of some inflammatory diseases such as arthritis. For lupus, 6-gingerol demonstrated a protective attenuating neutrophil extracellular trap release in response to phosphodiesterase inhibition. Ginger decreases NF-kβ in psoriasis, and its short-term administration may be an alternative coadjuvant treatment. Ginger may exert a function of supplementation and protection against cancer. Furthermore, when receiving chemotherapy, ginger may reduce some symptoms of treatment (e.g., nausea).

Elucidating the Beneficial Effects of Ginger (Zingiber officinale Roscoe) in Parkinson's Disease

Parkinson's disease (PD) is the second most common neurodegenerative disorder after Alzheimer's disease (AD), and its pathogenesis remains obscure. Current treatment approaches mainly including levodopa and dopamine agonists provide symptomatic relief but fail to halt disease progression, and they are often accompanied by severe side effects. In this context, natural phytochemicals have received increasing attention as promising preventive or therapeutic candidates for PD, given their multitarget pharmaceutical mechanisms of actions and good safety profile. Ginger (Zingiber officinale Roscoe, Zingiberaceae) is a very popular spice used as a medicinal herb throughout the world since the ancient years, for a wide range of conditions, including nausea, diabetes, dyslipidemia, and cancer. Emerging in vivo and in vitro evidence supports the neuroprotective effects of ginger and its main pharmaceutically active compounds (zingerone, 6-shogaol, and 6-gingerol) in PD, mainly via the regulation of neuroinflammation, oxidative stress, intestinal permeability, dopamine synaptic transmission, and possibly mitochondrial dysfunction. The regulation of several transcription factors and signaling pathways, including nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB), p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK), phosphatidylinositol-3-kinase (PI3K)/Ak strain transforming (Akt), extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) 1/2, and AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK)/proliferator-activated receptor gamma coactivator 1 alpha (PGC1α) have been shown to contribute to the protective effects of ginger. Herein, we discuss recent findings on the beneficial role of ginger in PD as a preventive agent or potential supplement to current treatment strategies, focusing on potential underlying molecular mechanisms.

Integrative analyses of widely targeted metabolomic profiling and derivatization-based LC-MS/MS reveals metabolic changes of Zingiberis Rhizoma and its processed products

Zingiberis Rhizoma (ZR) has nutritional value and application potentiality, while Zingiberis Rhizoma Praeparatum (ZRP) and Carbonised Ginger (CG) are two main processed products of ZR based on different methods. Here, we performed a widely targeted metabolomics method with Sequential Windowed Acquisition of all Theoretical fragment ions (SWATH) mode to analyze differential metabolites in ZR, ZRP and CG. Additionally, the chemical derivatization was applied to characterize different submetabolomes and improve the separation effect and MS response of metabolites. In total, 369 metabolites were identified and divided into 14 categories, 104 of which were differential metabolites. Our results suggest that carbohydrates, nucleotides, organic acids, vitamins, lipids, indoles, alkaloids, and terpenes contributed to a downward trend after processing, but the maximum content of flavanones, phenylpropanes and polyphenols appeared in ZRP, and that of alcohols appeared in CG. These findings serve as promising perspectives for developing functional food in ZR, ZRP and CG.

Polyphenol-Rich Ginger (Zingiber officinale) for Iron Deficiency Anaemia and Other Clinical Entities Associated with Altered Iron Metabolism

Ginger (Zingiber officinale) is rich in natural polyphenols and may potentially complement oral iron therapy in treating and preventing iron deficiency anaemia (IDA). This narrative review explores the benefits of ginger for IDA and other clinical entities associated with altered iron metabolism. Through in vivo, in vitro, and limited human studies, ginger supplementation was shown to enhance iron absorption and thus increase oral iron therapy's efficacy. It also reduces oxidative stress and inflammation and thus protects against excess free iron. Ginger's bioactive polyphenols are prebiotics to the gut microbiota, promoting gut health and reducing the unwanted side effects of iron tablets. Moreover, ginger polyphenols can enhance the effectiveness of erythropoiesis. In the case of iron overload due to comorbidities from chronic inflammatory disorders, ginger can potentially reverse the adverse impacts and restore iron balance. Ginger can also be used to synthesise nanoparticles sustainably to develop newer and more effective oral iron products and functional ingredients for IDA treatment and prevention. Further research is still needed to explore the applications of ginger polyphenols in iron balance and anaemic conditions. Specifically, long-term, well-designed, controlled trials are required to validate the effectiveness of ginger as an adjuvant treatment for IDA.

Bioactive Compounds from the Zingiberaceae Family with Known Antioxidant Activities for Possible Therapeutic Uses

The Zingiberaceae family is a rich source of diverse bioactive phytochemicals. It comprises about 52 genera and 1300 species of aromatic flowering perennial herbs with characteristic creeping horizontal or tuberous rhizomes. Notable members of this family include ginger (Zingiber officinale Roscoe), turmeric (Curcuma longa L.), Javanese ginger (Curcuma zanthorrhiza Roxb.), and Thai ginger (Alpinia galanga L.). This review focuses on two main classes of bioactive compounds: the gingerols (and their derivatives) and the curcuminoids. These compounds are known for their antioxidant activity against several maladies. We highlight the centrality of their antioxidant activities with notable biological activities, including anti-inflammatory, antidiabetic, hepatoprotective, neuroprotective, antimicrobial, and anticancer effects. We also outline various strategies that have been applied to enhance these activities and make suggestions for research areas that require attention.

Plants of the Genus Zingiber: A Review of Their Ethnomedicine, Phytochemistry and Pharmacology

Plant of the genus Zingiber (Zingiberaceae) have primarily distributed in subtropical and tropical Asia, South America and Africa. The species of this genus have been widely used as food and in folk with a long history for treating various diseases. Reports related to the phytochemistry and phytochemistry of Zingiber species are numerous, but articles on the summary of the genus Zingiber remain scarce. This review aims at presenting comprehensive information about the genus Zingiber and providing a reference for the future application by systematically reviewing the literature from 1981 to 2020. Currently, a total of 447 phytochemical constituents have been isolated and identified from this genus, in which volatile oils, diarylheptanoids, gingerols, flavonoids and terpenoids are the major components. Gingerols, which are the main functional components, are the spicy and aromatic ingredients in the Zingiber species. Extracts and single compounds from Zingiber plants have been discovered to possess numerous biological functions, such as anti-inflammatory, anticancer, antimicrobial, larvicidal, antioxidant and hypoglycemic activities. This review provides new insights into the ethnomedicine, phytochemistry and pharmacology of the genus Zingiber and brings to the forefront key findings on the functional components of this genus in food and pharmaceutical industries.

Potential Role of Ginger (Zingiber officinale Roscoe) in the Prevention of Neurodegenerative Diseases

Ginger is composed of multiple bioactive compounds, including 6-gingerol, 6-shogaol, 10-gingerol, gingerdiones, gingerdiols, paradols, 6-dehydrogingerols, 5-acetoxy-6-gingerol, 3,5-diacetoxy-6-gingerdiol, and 12-gingerol, that contribute to its recognized biological activities. Among them, the major active compounds are 6-shogaol and 6-gingerol. Scientific evidence supports the beneficial properties of ginger, including antioxidant and anti-inflammatory capacities and in contrast, a specific and less studied bioactivity is the possible neuroprotective effect. The increase in life expectancy has raised the incidence of neurodegenerative diseases (NDs), which present common neuropathological features as increased oxidative stress, neuroinflammation and protein misfolding. The structure-activity relationships of ginger phytochemicals show that ginger can be a candidate to treat NDs by targeting different ligand sites. Its bioactive compounds may improve neurological symptoms and pathological conditions by modulating cell death or cell survival signaling molecules. The cognitive enhancing effects of ginger might be partly explained via alteration of both the monoamine and the cholinergic systems in various brain areas. Moreover, ginger decreases the production of inflammatory related factors. The aim of the present review is to summarize the effects of ginger in the prevention of major neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease and multiple sclerosis.

Zingerone Modulates Neuronal Voltage-Gated Na+ and L-Type Ca2+ Currents

Zingerone (ZO), a nontoxic methoxyphenol, has been demonstrated to exert various important biological effects. However, its action on varying types of ionic currents and how they concert in neuronal cells remain incompletely understood. With the aid of patch clamp technology, we investigated the effects of ZO on the amplitude, gating, and hysteresis of plasmalemmal ionic currents from both pituitary tumor (GH₃) cells and hippocampal (mHippoE-14) neurons. The exposure of the GH₃ cells to ZO differentially diminished the peak and late components of the I_Na. Using a double ramp pulse, the amplitude of the I_Na(P) was measured, and the appearance of a hysteresis loop was observed. Moreover, ZO reversed the tefluthrin-mediated augmentation of the hysteretic strength of the I_Na(P) and led to a reduction in the I_Ca,L. As a double ramp pulse was applied, two types of voltage-dependent hysteresis loops were identified in the I_Ca,L, and the replacement with BaCl₂-attenuated hysteresis of the I_Ca,L enhanced the I_Ca,L amplitude along with the current amplitude (i.e., the I_Ba). The hysteretic magnitude of the I_Ca,L activated by the double pulse was attenuated by ZO. The peak and late I_Na in the hippocampal mHippoE-14 neurons was also differentially inhibited by ZO. In addition to acting on the production of reactive oxygen species, ZO produced effects on multiple ionic currents demonstrated herein that, considered together, may significantly impact the functional activities of neuronal cells.

6-Gingerol, a functional polyphenol of ginger, reduces pulmonary fibrosis by activating Sirtuin1

Pulmonary fibrosis in general is the final common outcome of various interstitial lung diseases. In recent years, the incidence of pulmonary fibrosis has been rising with poor prognosis. 6-gingerol is deemed as a functional polyphenol of ginger. The aim of the present study was to investigate the effect of 6-gingerol, on pulmonary fibrosis. Mice were randomly divided into four groups: control, bleomycin, bleomycin + 6-gingerol 100 mg/kg, bleomycin + 6-gingerol 250 mg/kg, and the survival rates of the groups were recorded. Pathological and fibrotic changes in the lungs were identified by H&E and Masson staining, respectively. The levels of hydroxyproline and protein deposited in lung tissues were then, respectively, determined by colorimetry and western blotting. Subsequently, the proportion of cells and inflammatory factors in the alveolar lavage fluid were estimated. Following the identification of the possibility of Sirtuin1 (SIRT1) in the pharmacological mechanism through molecular docking and western blotting, human embryonic lung fibroblasts MRC-5 were treated with TGF-β1 and SIRT1 inhibitor to study the role of SIRT1 in the regulatory effect of 6-gingerol. From the results, 6-gingerol was found to increase the survival rate of mice and reduce lung pathology and fibrosis in mice. And, it significantly reduced the levels of hydroxyproline and the proteins deposited in lung tissues. Moreover, the number of neutrophils, basophils, monocytes, and the levels of inflammatory factors in the alveolar lavage fluid were also reduced. SIRT1 inhibitor blocked the function of 6-gingerol to inhibit fibrosis. To sum up, 6-gingerol relieves pulmonary fibrosis via activating SIRT1. This finding expands the pharmacological effect of 6-gingerol, and it is expected to advance the development of treatments for pulmonary fibrosis.

10-gingerol, a natural AMPK agonist, suppresses neointimal hyperplasia and inhibits vascular smooth muscle cells proliferation

Background: Abnormal proliferation of vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMCs) in the intimal region is a key event in the development of neointimal hyperplasia. 10-G, a bioactive compound found in ginger,...

Zingiber officinale: A Systematic Review of Botany, Phytochemistry and Pharmacology of Gut Microbiota-Related Gastrointestinal Benefits

Ginger (Zingiber officinale Rosc.) is a traditional edible medicinal herb with a wide range of uses and long cultivation history. Fresh ginger (Zingiberis Recens Rhizoma; Sheng Jiang in Chinese, SJ) and dried ginger (Zingiberis Rhizoma; Gan Jiang in Chinese, GJ) are designated as two famous traditional Chinese herbal medicines, which are different in plant cultivation, appearances and functions, together with traditional applications. Previous researches mainly focused on the differences in chemical composition between them, but there was no systematical comparison on the similarity concerning research achievements of the two herbs. Meanwhile, ginger has traditionally been used for the treatment of gastrointestinal disorders, but so far, the possible interaction with human gut microbiota has hardly been considered. This review comprehensively presents similarities and differences between SJ and GJ retrospectively, particularly proposing them the significant differences in botany, phytochemistry and ethnopharmacology, which can be used as evidence for clinical application of SJ and GJ. Furthermore, the pharmacology of gut microbiota-related gastrointestinal benefits has also been discussed in order to explore better ways to prevent and treat gastrointestinal disorders, which can be used as a reference for further research.

The Effect of 6-gingerol on Growth Factors and Apoptosis Indices in Rats Exposed to Gold Nanoparticles

Introduction

Research has shown that gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) can damage the physiological processes of brain tissue. Given the antioxidant properties of Gingerol (GING), this study aimed to determine the protective effect of 6-gingerol on hippocampal levels of Brain-Derived Neurotrophic Factor (BDNF), Nerve Growth Factor (NGF), DNA oxidative damage, and the amount of Bax and Bcl2 apoptosis indices of rats exposed to AuNPs.

Methods

A total of 42 male Wistar rats were divided into four groups: control (30 days 0.5 mL saline), AuNPs (one time injection of 0.5 mL AuNPs, 200 ppm and 60 Nm + 30 days 0.5 mL saline), AuNPs+GING 50 (one time injection of 0.5 mL AuNPs, 200 ppm and 60 Nm + 30 days 0.5 mL density of gingerol 50 mg/kg), and AuNPs+GING100 (one time injection of 0.5 mL AuNPs, 200 ppm and 60 Nm + 30 days 0.5 mL density of gingerol 100 mg/kg). At the end of the treatment period, the hippocampal levels of NGF, BDNF, 8-hydroxy-desoxyguanosine (8-HOdG), and apoptotic indices of Bax and Bcl-2 were assessed with the ELISA method.

Results

Compared with the AuNPs group, hippocampal levels of BDNF, NGF, and Bcl-2 in rats in the AuNPs+GING 50 and AuNPs+GING 100 groups significantly increased dose-dependently. However, the hippocampal levels of Bax and 8-HOdG significantly decreased dose-dependently (P<0.05).

Conclusion

According to obtained results, gingerol may improve hippocampal BDNF and NGF levels in rats exposed to AuNPs, probably by reducing apoptosis and oxidative DNA damage.

Construction of an Artificial Biosynthetic Pathway for Zingerone Production in Escherichia coli Using Benzalacetone Synthase from Piper methysticum

Zingerone (vanillylacetone; 4-hydroxy-3-methoxyphenylethyl methyl ketone) is a key component responsible for the pungency of ginger (Zingiber officinale). In this study, it was confirmed that a type III polyketide synthase (PKS) gene (pmpks) from Piper methysticum exhibits feruloyl-CoA-preferred benzalacetone synthase (BAS) activity. Based on these results, we constructed an artificial biosynthetic pathway for zingerone production from supplemented ferulic acid with 4-coumarate CoA ligase (4CL), PmPKS, and benzalacetone reductase (BAR). Furthermore, a de novo pathway for the production of zingerone was assembled using six heterologous genes, encoding tyrosine ammonia-lyase (optal), cinnamate-4-hydroxlase (sam5), caffeic acid O-methyltransferase (com), 4CL (4cl2nt), BAS (pmpks), and BAR (rzs1), in Escherichia coli. Using the engineered l-tyrosine-overproducing E. coli ΔCOS4 strain as a host, a maximum yield of 24.03 ± 2.53 mg/L zingerone was achieved by complete de novo synthesis.

Integrated network pharmacology and cellular assay for the investigation of an anti-obesity effect of 6-shogaol

This study explored the anti-obesity effect of 6-shogaol and the underlying mechanisms by using Network pharmacology for the prediction and verification of molecular targets and pathways of 6-shogaol against obesity. Furthermore, the results were verified by molecular docking and cell experiments. A total of 86 core targets of 6-shogaol towards obesity were identified. Among them, AKT1 and PIK3CA were confirmed by using the molecular docking. In 3T3-L1 preadipocyte model, 6-shogaol significantly inhibited proliferation and differentiation, reducing the accumulation of lipid droplets. Compared with the control group, the inhibition rates of 6-shogaol on TG and TC were 90.8% and 40.0%, respectively. Additionally, 6-shogaol down-regulated the expression of PPAR-γ and C/EBP-α, while it decreased the phosphorylation of IRS-1, PI3K and AKT. This study, for the first time, confirmed the effect of 6-shogaol on improving obesity through PI3K/AKT pathway. An anti-obesity bioactivity study was further recommended for the development of novel anti-obesity products.

Therapeutic Potential of Ursolic Acid in Cancer and Diabetic Neuropathy Diseases

Ursolic acid (UA) is a pentacyclic triterpenoid frequently found in medicinal herbs and plants, having numerous pharmacological effects. UA and its analogs treat multiple diseases, including cancer, diabetic neuropathy, and inflammatory diseases. UA inhibits cancer proliferation, metastasis, angiogenesis, and induced cell death, scavenging free radicals and triggering numerous anti- and pro-apoptotic proteins. The biochemistry of UA has been examined broadly based on the literature, with alterations frequently having been prepared on positions C-3 (hydroxyl), C12-C13 (double bonds), and C-28 (carboxylic acid), leading to several UA derivatives with increased potency, bioavailability and water solubility. UA could be used as a protective agent to counter neural dysfunction via anti-oxidant and anti-inflammatory effects. It is a potential therapeutic drug implicated in the treatment of cancer and diabetic complications diseases provide novel machinery to the anti-inflammatory properties of UA. The pharmacological efficiency of UA is exhibited by the therapeutic theory of one-drug → several targets → one/multiple diseases. Hence, UA shows promising therapeutic potential for cancer and diabetic neuropathy diseases. This review aims to discuss mechanistic insights into promising beneficial effects of UA. We further explained the pharmacological aspects, clinical trials, and potential limitations of UA for the management of cancer and diabetic neuropathy diseases.

6-Shogaol promotes bone resorption and accelerates orthodontic tooth movement through the JNK-NFATc1 signaling axis

INTRODUCTION

Corticotomy is widely used in clinical practice to accelerate tooth movement and shorten the duration of orthodontic treatment. It is effective, but an invasive surgery is needed to induce alveolar bone osteopenia that enable rapid tooth movement. In this study, we discovered the potential of 6-shogaol as a more patient-friendly non-invasive alternative to induce transient osteopenia and accelerate tooth movement.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The effects of 6-shogaol on the bone marrow macrophages (BMM) proliferation and osteoclast differentiation, and bone resorption were determined in vitro. Sprague-Dawley rats were distributed into three groups: CON, IPinj or Localinj and euthanized at day 28. Micro-CT, histology, immunohistological, and TUNEL analysis were performed to evaluate the tooth movement acceleration effect of 6-shogaol.

RESULTS

In vitro, 6-shogaol promotes osteoclast differentiation and functional demineralization of alveolar bone. RANKL-induced mRNA expression of osteoclastic-specific genes was significantly higher in the presence of 6-shogaol. A dose-dependent increase in the area of TRAP-positive cells was observed with 6-shogaol treatment. F-actin ring formation and increased bone resorption confirmed that osteoclasts treated with 6-shogaol were mature and functional. 6-shogaol stimulated JNK activation and NFATc1 expression during osteoclast differentiation. In vivo, 6-shogaol promotes alveolar bone transient osteopenia and accelerates orthodontic tooth movement. Alveolar bone mass was reduced, more osteoclasts were observed in bone resorption lacunae on the compression side, and the expression of RANKL and sclerostin were higher than the control group. In conclusion, our results suggest that 6-shogoal accelerates tooth movement by inducing osteopenia by a mechanism similar to surgically induced bone injury.

Therapeutic potential of ginger against COVID-19: Is there enough evidence?

In addition to the respiratory system, severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) strikes other systems, including the digestive, circulatory, urogenital, and even the central nervous system, as its receptor angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) is expressed in various organs, such as lungs, intestine, heart, esophagus, kidneys, bladder, testis, liver, and brain. Different mechanisms, in particular, massive virus replication, extensive apoptosis and necrosis of the lung-related epithelial and endothelial cells, vascular leakage, hyper-inflammatory responses, overproduction of pro-inflammatory mediators, cytokine storm, oxidative stress, downregulation of ACE2, and impairment of the renin-angiotensin system contribute to the COVID-19 pathogenesis. Currently, COVID-19 is a global pandemic with no specific anti-viral treatment. The favorable capabilities of the ginger were indicated in patients suffering from osteoarthritis, neurodegenerative disorders, rheumatoid arthritis, type 2 diabetes, respiratory distress, liver diseases and primary dysmenorrheal. Ginger or its compounds exhibited strong anti-inflammatory and anti-oxidative influences in numerous animal models. This review provides evidence regarding the potential effects of ginger against SARS-CoV-2 infection and highlights its antiviral, anti-inflammatory, antioxidative, and immunomodulatory impacts in an attempt to consider this plant as an alternative therapeutic agent for COVID-19 treatment.

Ginger, a Possible Candidate for the Treatment of Dementias?

As the human life expectancy increases, age-linked diseases have become more and more frequent. The worldwide increment of dementia cases demands medical solutions, but the current available drugs do not meet all the expectations. Recently the attention of the scientific community was attracted by natural compounds, used in ancient medicine, known for their beneficial effects and high tolerability. This review is focused on Ginger (Zingiber officinale) and explore its properties against Alzheimer's Disease and Vascular Dementia, two of the most common and devastating forms of dementia. This work resumes the beneficial effects of Ginger compounds, tested in computational in vitro and in vivo models of Alzheimer's Disease and Vascular Dementia, along with some human tests. All these evidences suggest a potential role of the compounds of ginger not only in the treatment of the disease, but also in its prevention.

Ginger (Zingiber Officinale Roscoe) Extract Protects the Heart Against Inflammation and Fibrosis in Diabetic Rats

BACKGROUND

Fibrosis and inflammation in the heart of patients with diabetes mellitus alongside increased production of free radicals and collagen are together known as diabetic cardiomyopathy. Ginger rhizome has antidiabetic, antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects. Thus, we investigated the effect of ginger extract on diabetes-induced cardiomyopathy in streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats.

METHODS

Animals were divided into 7 groups: control; diabetic; diabetic treated with different doses of ginger extract of 100, 200 and 400 mg/kg; metformin (200 mg/kg); and metformin-valsartan (200 and 30 mg/kg, respectively). Serum levels of glucose, aspartate aminotransferase, lactate dehydrogenase and creatine kinase-muscle/brain were measured. Fibrosis and inflammation were determined by histologic assessment. Gene expression of transforming growth factor (TGF)-β1, TGF-β3 and angiotensin II type 1 receptor was evaluated by real-time polymerase chain reaction in heart tissue.

RESULTS

Serum glucose level in all treated groups, except for the ginger extract 100-mg/kg group, was significantly lower than in the diabetic group. Serum levels of aspartate aminotransferase, lactate dehydrogenase and creatine kinase-muscle/brain were significantly reduced in all treated groups compared with the diabetic group. In the study of fibrosis, collagen amount in the heart tissue of all treated groups, except the ginger extract 100-mg/kg group, was significantly lower than in the diabetic group. Inflammatory cell infiltrates were decreased, and disarrangement was improved in cardiac tissues of all treated groups compared with the diabetic group. Expression of angiotensin II type 1 receptor and TGF-β1 and TGF-β3 genes in all treated groups downregulated compared with the diabetic group.

CONCLUSIONS

Treatment by ginger extract reduced myocardial fibrosis and inflammation in the course of diabetic cardiomyopathy, possibly through regulation of the expression of genes involved in the SMAD/TGF-β pathway.

Rapid and practical qualitative and quantitative evaluation of non-fumigated ginger and sulfur-fumigated ginger via Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy and chemometric methods

A strategy was developed to distinguish and quantitate nonfumigated ginger (NS-ginger) and sulfur-fumigated ginger (S-ginger), based on Fourier transform near infrared spectroscopy (FT-NIR) and chemometrics. FT-NIR provided a reliable method to qualitatively assess ginger samples and batches of S-ginger (41) and NS-ginger (39) were discriminated using principal component analysis and orthogonal partial least squares discriminant analysis of FT-NIR data. To generate quantitative methods based on partial least squares (PLS) and counter propagation artificial neural network (CP-ANN) from the FT-NIR, major gingerols were quantified using high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) and the data used as a reference. Finally, PLS and CP-ANN were deployed to predict concentrations of target compounds in S- and NS-ginger. The results indicated that FT-NIR can provide an alternative to HPLC for prediction of active components in ginger samples and was able to work directly on solid samples.

Micropropagation of Ginger (Zingiber officinale Roscoe) 'Bentong' and Evaluation of Its Secondary Metabolites and Antioxidant Activities Compared with the Conventionally Propagated Plant

‘Bentong’ ginger is the most popular variety of Zingiber officinale in Malaysia. It is vegetatively propagated and requires a high proportion of rhizomes as starting planting materials. Besides, ginger vegetative propagation using its rhizomes is accompanied by several types of soil-borne diseases. Plant tissue culture techniques have been applied in many plant species to produce their disease-free planting materials. As ‘Bentong’ ginger is less known for its micropropagation, this study was conducted to investigate the effects of Clorox (5.25% sodium hypochlorite (NaOCl)) on explant surface sterilization, effects of plant growth regulators, and basal media on shoots’ multiplication and rooting. The secondary metabolites and antioxidant activities of the micropropagated plants were evaluated in comparison with conventionally propagated plants. Rhizome sprouted buds were effectively sterilized in 70% Clorox for 30 min by obtaining 75% contamination-free explants. Murashige and Skoog (MS) supplemented with 10 µM of zeatin was the suitable medium for shoot multiplication, which resulted in the highest number of shoots per explant (4.28). MS medium supplemented with 7.5 µM 1-naphthaleneacetic acid (NAA) resulted in the highest number of roots per plantlet. The in vitro-rooted plantlets were successfully acclimatized with a 95% survival rate in the ex vitro conditions. The phytochemical analysis showed that total phenolic acid and total flavonoid content and antioxidant activities of the micropropagated plants were not significantly different from the conventionally propagated plants of ‘Bentong’ ginger. In conclusion, the present study’s outcome can be adopted for large-scale propagation of disease-free planting materials of ‘Bentong’ ginger.

Zingerone improves the immune responses in an animal model of breast cancer

OBJECTIVES

The potent anti-tumorigenic effects were attributed to ginger and there are some reports regarding the anti-cancer and immunomodulatory properties ginger-derived components. This study aimed to investigate the effects of zingerone on some immune-related parameters in an animal model of breast cancer.

METHODS

The breast cancer was established in female BALB/c mice using a carcinogenic 4T1 cell line. At day 10 after cancer induction, tumor-bearing mice were divided into five groups and treated intraperitoneal (daily from days 11-30) with saline or zingerone (at doses 10, 20, 50 and 100 mg/kg/day). The mice were sacrificed on day 31 and the number of splenic Th1- and Treg cells, the expression of IFN-γ and TGF-β in the blood mononuclear cells, the antibody production against sheep red blood cell (SRBC) were determined using flow cytometry, real time-PCR and a standard hemagglutination assay, respectively.

RESULTS

Zingerone at doses 50 and 100 mg/kg enhanced the number of splenic Th1 cells (p<0.03 and 0.007, respectively); at doses 10, 20, 50 and 100 mg/kg reduced the number of splenic Treg cells (p<0.02, 0.01, and 0.01, respectively), at doses 50 and 100 mg/kg enhanced the expression of IFN-γ (p<0.03), at doses 50 and 100 mg/kg reduced the expression of TGF-β, at doses 50 mg/kg reduced the titer of anti-SRBC antibody (p<0.05).

CONCLUSIONS

Zingerone improve the T cell-mediated and antibody responses in a mouse model of breast cancer. The immunotherapeutic potentials of zingerone in cancers need more considerations.

A recent update on the multifaceted health benefits associated with ginger and its bioactive components

Due to recent lifestyle shifts and health discernments among consumers, synthetic drugs are facing the challenge of controlling disease development and progression. Various medicinal plants and their constituents are recognized for their imminent role in disease management via modulation of biological activities. At present, research scholars have diverted their attention on natural bioactive entities with health-boosting perception to combat the lifestyle-related disarrays. In particular, Zingiber officinale is a medicinal herb that has been commonly used in food and pharmaceutical products. Its detailed chemical composition and high value-added active components have been extensively studied. In this review, we have summarized the pharmacological potential of this well-endowed chemo preventive agent. It was revealed that its functionalities are attributed to several inherent chemical constituents, including 6-gingerol, 8-gingerol, 10-gingerol, 6-shogaol, 6-hydroshogaol, and oleoresin, which were established through many studies (in vitro, in vivo, and cell lines). In this review, we also focused on the therapeutic effects of ginger and its constituents for their effective antioxidant properties. Their consumption may reduce or delay the progression of related diseases, such as cancer, diabetes, and obesity, via modulation of genetic and metabolic activities. The updated data could elucidate the relationship of the extraction processes with the constituents and biological manifestations. We have collated the current knowledge (including the latest clinical data) about the bioactive compounds and bioactivities of ginger. Their detailed mechanisms, which can lay foundation for their food and medical applications are also discussed.

Effects of Spices (Saffron, Rosemary, Cinnamon, Turmeric and Ginger) in Alzheimer's Disease

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is the most prevalent dementia in the elderly, causing disability, physical, psychological, social, and economic damage to the individual, their families, and caregivers. Studies have shown some spices, such as saffron, rosemary, cinnamon, turmeric, and ginger, have antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties that act in inhibiting the aggregation of acetylcholinesterase and amyloid in AD. For this reason, spices have been studied as beneficial sources against neurodegenerative diseases, including AD. In this sense, this study aims to present a review of some spices (Saffron, Rosemary, Cinnamon, Turmeric and Ginger) and their bioactive compounds, most consumed and investigated in the world regarding AD. In this article, scientific evidence is compiled in clinical trials in adults, the elderly, animals, and in vitro, on properties considered neuroprotective, having no or negative effects on neuroprotection of these spices and their bioactive compounds. The importance of this issue is based on the pharmacological treatment for AD that is still not very effective. In addition, the recommendations and prescriptions of these spices are still permeated by questioning and lack of robust evidence of their effects on neurodegeneration. The literature search suggests all spices included in this article have bioactive compounds with anti-inflammatory and antioxidant actions associated with neuroprotection. To date, the amounts of spice ingestion in humans are not uniform, and there is no consensus on its indication and chronic consumption guarantees safety and efficacy in neuroprotection. Therefore, clinical evidence on this topic is necessary to become a formal adjuvant treatment for AD.

Zingiber officinale ameliorates Alzheimer's disease and Cognitive Impairments: Lessons from preclinical studies

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a neurodegenerative condition mostly communal in people of advanced years accompanying various dysfunctionalities especially cognitive impairments. A number of cellular damages, such as amyloid-beta aggregation, tau protein hyperphosphorylation, some neurotransmitter imbalances, apoptosis, oxidative stress, and inflammatory responses are responsible for AD incidence. As a reason for inadequate efficacy, side effects, and pharmacokinetic problems of conventional drugs used for AD, the discovery of novel therapeutic agents with multi-targeted potential is desirable. Protective properties of phytochemicals combat numerous diseases and their vast acceptance and demand in human beings encouraged scientists to assess their effective activities. Zingiber officinale, gingerol, shogaol, and borneol were evaluated against memory impairments. Online databases including; Web of Science, Scopus, Embase, Pubmed, ProQuest, ScienceDirect, and Cochrane Library were searched until 3th February 2020. In vitro, in vivo, and clinical studies are included after screening their eligibility. Mostly interventive mechanisms such as; oxidative stress, neuroinflammation, and apoptosis are described. Correlation between the pathogenesis of AD and signaling pathways is explicated. Results and scores of cognition measurements are clarified due to in vivo studies and clinical trials. Some traditional aspects of consuming ginger in AD are also mentioned in the present review. In accumulation ginger and its components possess great potency for improving and abrogating memory dysfunctions but conducting further studies to evaluate their pharmacological and pharmaceutical aspects is required.

Nutritional implications of ginger: chemistry, biological activities and signaling pathways

Ginger (Zingiber officinale Roscoe) has been used as a food, spice, supplement and flavoring agent and in traditional medicines due to its beneficial characteristics such as pungency, aroma, nutrients and pharmacological activity. Ginger and ginger extracts were reported to have numerous effects, such as those on diabetes and metabolic syndrome, cholesterol levels and lipid metabolism, and inflammation, revealed by epidemiological studies. To understand the beneficial characteristics of ginger, especially its physiological and pharmacological activities at the molecular level, the biological effects of ginger constituents, such as monoterpenes (cineole, citral, limonene and α/β-pinenes), sesquiterpenes (β-elemene, farnesene and zerumbone), phenolics (gingerols, [6]-shogaol, [6]-paradol and zingerone) and diarylheptanoids (curcumin), and the associated signaling pathways are summarized. Ginger constituents are involved in biological activities, such as apoptosis, cell cycle/DNA damage, chromatin/epigenetic regulation, cytoskeletal regulation and adhesion, immunology and inflammation, and neuroscience, and exert their effects through specific signaling pathways associated with cell functions/mechanisms such as autophagy, cellular metabolism, mitogen-activated protein kinase and other signaling, and development/differentiation. Estrogens, such as phytoestrogens, are one of the most important bioactive materials in nature, and the molecular mechanisms of estrogen actions and the assays to detect them have been discussed. The molecular mechanisms of estrogen actions induced by ginger constituents and related applications, such as the chemoprevention of cancers, and the improvement of menopausal syndromes, osteoporosis, endometriosis, prostatic hyperplasia, polycystic ovary syndrome and Alzheimer's disease, were summarized by a comprehensive search of references to understand more about their health benefits and associated health risks.

Zingiber officinale Roscoe rhizome extract alleviates neuropathic pain by inhibiting neuroinflammation in mice

BACKGROUND

Current therapies for neuropathic pain are generally symptomatic and possess several side effects, limiting their prolonged usage.

HYPOTHESIS/PURPOSE

Thus, it is urgent to develop novel and safe candidates for the management of this chronical condition. For this purpose, we investigated the analgesic effect of a standardized extract from Zingiber officinale Roscoe rhizomes (ZOE) obtained by CO2 supercritical extraction, in a mice model of peripheral neuropathy. We also explored the mechanism of action of ZOE and its main constituents using an in vitro model of neuroinflammation.

METHODS

Peripheral mono-neuropathy was induced in mice, by spared nerve injury (SNI). The analgesic effect of ZOE after oral administration was assessed by measuring mechanical and thermal allodynia in SNI mice. The mechanism of action of ZOE and its main constituents were investigated using spinal cords samples and in an in vitro model of neuroinflammation by ELISA, western blotting and immunofluorescence techniques.

RESULTS

Oral administration of ZOE 200 mg kg-1 ameliorated mechanical and thermal allodynia in SNI mice, with a rapid and a long-lasting effect. ZOE did not alter locomotor activity. In BV2 cells and spinal cord samples, ZOE, 6-gingerol and 6-shogaol reduced pERK levels, whereas ZOE and terpene fraction reduced HDAC1 protein levels, inhibited NF-κB signalling activation and decreased IL-1β, TNF-α and IL-6 release. ZOE and each tested constituent had a positive effect on inflammation-impaired SH-SY5Y cell viability.

CONCLUSIONS

The oral administration of ZOE attenuated SNI-induced neuropathic pain symptoms by reducing spinal neuroinflammation, suggesting ZOE as a novel and interesting candidate for the management of neuropathic pain.

Effect of ginger (Zingiber officinale) on inflammatory markers: A systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials

The aim of this systematic review and meta-analysis was to investigate the efficacy of ginger supplementation on circulating levels of C-reactive protein (CRP), high sensitivity C-reactive protein (hs-CRP), tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α), soluble intercellular adhesion molecule (sICAM), and interleukin-6 (IL-6) concentrations in randomized controlled trials (RCTs). The search included PubMed-Medline, EMBASE, Scopus, Web of Science and Cochrane Library databases to identify randomized clinical trials on the effect of ginger supplementation on circulation levels of CRP, hs-CRP, IL-6, sICAM, and TNF-α published up until February 1st, 2020. We did not restrict articles based on language of publication. Standard mean differences and 95% confidence intervals were calculated for net changes in inflammatory mediators using a random-effects model. Sixteen RCTs comprising 1010 participants were found to be eligible for this meta-analysis. There was a significant reduction of circulating CRP (SMD: -5.11, 95% CI: -7.91, -2.30, I2 = 98.1%), hs-CRP (SMD: -0.88, 95% CI: -1.63, -0.12, I2 = 90.8%) and TNF-α levels (SMD: -0.85, 95% CI: -1.48, -0.21, I2 = 89.4%) following ginger supplementation. However, meta-analysis results did not show any significant impact of ginger supplementation on IL-6 (SMD: -0.45, 95% CI: -1.29, 0.38, I2 = 89.2%), and sICAM levels (SMD: -0.05, 95% CI: -0.36, 0.26, I2 = 00.0%). This systematic review and meta-analysis of RCTs demonstrates a significant impact of ginger in lowering circulating CRP, hs-CRP and TNF-α levels. Large-scale RCTs are still needed to draw concrete conclusions about the effect of ginger on other inflammatory mediators.

Herb-Derived Products: Natural Tools to Delay and Counteract Stem Cell Senescence

Cellular senescence plays a very important role in organismal aging increasing with age and in age-related diseases (ARDs). This process involves physiological, structural, biochemical, and molecular changes of cells, leading to a characteristic trait referred to "senescence-associated secretory phenotype (SASP)." In particular, with aging, stem cells (SCs) in situ exhibit a diminished capacity of self-renewal and show a decline in their functionality. The identification of interventions able to prevent the accumulation of senescent SCs in the organism or to pretreat cultured multipotent mesenchymal stromal cells (MSCs) prior to employing them for cell therapy is a main purpose of medical research. Many approaches have been investigated and resulted effective to prevent or counteract SC senescence in humans, as well as other animal models. In this work, we have reviewed the chance of using a number of herb-derived products as novel tools in the treatment of cell senescence, highlighting the efficacy of these agents, often still far from being clearly understood.

Zingerone suppresses cell proliferation via inducing cellular apoptosis and inhibition of the PI3K/AKT/mTOR signaling pathway in human prostate cancer PC-3 cells

Prostate cancer (PCa) is both the foremost and second cause of cancer death in the male population. Patients with hormone-dependent PCa are initially sensitive to androgen-deprivation therapy, later the cancer progress to a hormone-independent state and fails to respond and progress to the metastatic stage, where the cells gain the ability to escape cell death and develop resistance to current therapies, thereby leading to migration, invasion, and metastasis of cancer. Many clinical trials using nutraceuticals on cancer using human subjects have also been extensively studied, these studies confirm the efficacy of drugs tested in in vitro and in vivo preclinical models. Among various dietary phytochemicals, ginger is commonly used in the diet and possesses many active principles that act against cancer. Among various active principles, zingerone is a key active phenolic compound present in Zingiber officinale (Ginger), it has potent antioxidant property and it acts against carcinogens. The present study evaluated the efficacy of zingerone at different doses on the PCa cell line regarding apoptosis, upstream signing molecules such as Akt/mTOR, and migration metastasis. A cell viability assay using MTT was performed to estimate the percentage of viability of zingerone-treated PC-3 cells. The mitochondrial membrane potential, intracellular reactive oxygen species, and apoptosis induction in the zingerone-treated PC-3 cells were studied by using different fluorescence staining techniques. The expression patterns of PI3K, AKT, p-AKT, mTOR, and p-mTOR were investigated through the Western blot analysis assay. Zingerone induces apoptosis and alters Akt/mTOR molecules; it also inhibits cell adhesion and migration of PCa cells. From the present study, it is concluded that zingerone effectively induces apoptosis and inhibits cancer signaling, thereby acting as a potent drug against PCa.

Fatty acid synthase, a novel poor prognostic factor for acute lymphoblastic leukemia which can be targeted by ginger extract

Altered metabolism of fatty acid synthesis is considered a hallmark characteristic of several malignancies, including acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL). To evaluate the impact of fatty acid synthase (FASN) on drug resistant ALL, bone marrow samples were collected from 65 pediatric ALLs, including 40 de novo and 25 relapsed patients. 22 non-cancer individuals were chosen as controls. Quantitative RT-PCR showed increased expression levels of FASN in drug resistant patients compared with the therapy responders. Single and combined treatment of malignant cells were analyzed using Annexin-V/PI double staining and MTT assays. Incubation of resistant primary cells with ginger showed simultaneous increased apoptosis rates and reduced FASN expression levels. Furthermore, docking studies demonstrated high affinity bindings between ginger derivatives and FASN thioesterase and ketosynthase domains, compared with their known inhibitors, fenofibrate and morin, respectively. Finally, combined treatment of in-house multidrug resistant T-ALL subline with ginger and dexamethasone induced drug sensitivity and down regulation of FASN expression, accordingly. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first study that introduces FASN upregulation as a poor prognostic factor for drug resistant childhood ALL. Moreover, it was revealed that FASN inhibition may be applied by ginger phytochemicals and overcome dexamethasone resistance, subsequently.

Zingerone Mitigates Carrageenan-Induced Inflammation Through Antioxidant and Anti-inflammatory Activities

Inflammation is the body's response against various pathogens and has a critical role in numerous diseases. Zingerone (Zing), a bioactive substance derived from ginger root, has a variety of pharmacological properties, such as reducing inflammation, and antioxidant effects. We aimed to evaluate the beneficial effects of Zing in a carrageenan-induced inflammation model. Paw edema induced by carrageenan (100 μl of 1%) was used to induce acute inflammation in rats. Different doses of Zing (10, 20, and 40 mg/kg) were administered intraperitoneally. Paw tissue levels of MDA, NO, CAT, SOD, GPx, GSH, COX-2, PGE₂, TNF-α, and IL-1β were estimated. Our results showed that Zing, especially at the highest dose of 40 mg/kg, significantly reduced paw swelling in carrageenan-injected animals. Zing significantly increased paw enzymatic and nonenzymatic antioxidants except CAT. It also decreased paw levels of MDA, NO, COX-2, PGE₂, TNF-α, and IL-1β. The results of this study show that Zing may provide an alternative for the clinical control of inflammation through antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activities.