Pesticide residues in human breast milk: risk assessment for infants from Punjab, India

Beta-cyfluthrin impairs implantation process by inducing mitochondrial defects and changes in reactive oxygen species-mediated signaling pathways in porcine trophectoderm and uterine luminal epithelial cells

Pyrethroid insecticides, such as beta-cyfluthrin, are used extensively globally, including in households and agriculture, and have been detected in the milk and urine of humans and cattle. Beta-cyfluthrin exhibits toxic effects, including neurotoxicity and male reproductive toxicity; however, few studies have investigated female reproductive toxicity despite its wide environmental distribution. The present study investigates effects of beta-cyfluthrin on implantation in porcine cells (pTr from the trophectoderm and pLE from the endometrial luminal epithelium). To identify the various physiological changes induced by beta-cyfluthrin, such as apoptosis and lipid peroxidation, flow cytometry analysis and immunofluorescence were performed with various reagents. In addition, the expression of genes and proteins associated with intracellular changes was confirmed using qRT-PCR and western blotting. Beta-cyfluthrin induced cell-cycle arrest and altered intracellular calcium flux. It also disrupted the mitochondrial function and promoted reactive oxygen species (ROS) production, leading to lipid peroxidation. Moreover, ROS induced by beta-cyfluthrin altered mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) pathways and decreased cell migration capability. The expression levels of genes that are significant during early pregnancy were altered by beta-cyfluthrin in both cell lines. The changes resulted in apoptosis and diminished cell proliferation of pTr and pLE. Collectively, the results imply that beta-cyfluthrin disrupts the implantation process by affecting the physiology of the trophectoderm and endometrial luminal epithelial cells. The present study is the first to reveal the cellular mechanisms of beta-cyfluthrin on the female reproductive system and highlights the need for further in-depth research into its hazards.

Agricultural habitat use affects infant survivorship in an endangered macaque species

Infant survival is a major determinant of individual fitness and constitutes a crucial factor in shaping species' ability to maintain viable populations in changing environments.1 Early adverse conditions, such as maternal loss, social isolation, and ecological hazards, have been associated with reduced rates of infant survivorship in wild primates.2,3,4 Agricultural landscapes increasingly replacing natural forest habitats may additionally threaten the survival of infants through exposure to novel predators,5 human-wildlife conflicts,6,7 or the use of harmful chemicals.8,9 Here, we investigated potential links between agricultural habitat use and high infant mortality in wild southern pig-tailed macaques (Macaca nemestrina) inhabiting a mosaic landscape of rainforest and oil palm plantation in Peninsular Malaysia. Longitudinal data revealed that 57% of all infants born during the study period (2014-2023) died before the age of 1 year, far exceeding mortality rates reported for other wild primates.10,11,12,13,14 Importantly, prolonged time spent in the plantation during infancy decreased the likelihood of infant survival by 3-fold, likely caused by increased exposure to the threats inherent to this environment. Further, mortality risk was elevated for infants born to primiparous mothers and predicted by prolonged maternal interbirth intervals, suggesting potential long-term effects attributed to the uptake and/or accumulation of pesticides in mothers' bodies.15,16,17 Indeed, existing literature reports that pesticides may cross the placental barrier, thus impacting fetal development during pregnancy.18,19,20 Our findings emphasize the importance of minimizing anthropogenic threats to wildlife in agricultural landscapes by establishing environmentally friendly cultivation practices that can sustain wildlife populations in the long term.

Maternal exposure to organochlorine pesticides and anthropometrics of newborns - a hospital-based cross-sectional study in rural and urban settings in Armenia

The study objective was to determine a possible association between maternal exposure to organochlorine pesticides (OCPs) and anthropometric measures at birth in group of postpartum women in urban and rural areas of Armenia. The anthropometric measures of infants were obtained from birth records and gamma-hexachlorocyclohexane (γ-HCH), dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT), dichlorodiphenyldichloroethylene, and dichlorodiphenyldichloroethane were measured in breast milk. Gas-liquid chromatography with electron capture detection was used to identify OCPs. Total OCPs and DDTs were calculated, and the anthropometrics were analyzed for sex and areas, and group differences were compared (Student's t-test). Both individual OCPs and total OCPs and DDTs were significantly higher in rural samples than in urban ones (P < 0.01-0.000), with lower and upper quartiles differing by 2.6-fold and 3.1-fold, respectively (P < 0.000). There was no association between the anthropometrics and OCPs levels in rural or urban areas. However, this does not rule out the possibility of OCPs impact on health later in life. To our knowledge, this was the first study addressing these issues in Armenia. The results obtained will provide data on the current situation regarding birth outcomes in terms of prenatal exposure to OCPs in Armenia and will contribute to the available results from previous studies.

Assessment of endocrine disrupting chemicals in breast milk: Association with dietary habits and duration of lactation

The present study was aimed to assess infant safety associated with the presence of persistent organochlorine pesticides (OCPs) in breast milk, a possible route of transfer of endocrine-disrupting chemicals to newborns in North India. Colostrum and breast milk samples (n = 130) were collected at different stages of lactation. Pesticides analysis was performed using gas chromatography mass spectrometry (GC-MS). We observed that of all the samples analysed, OCPs concentration was higher in breast milk than in colostrum, suggesting pesticides contamination increases over lactation period. As far as OCPs are concerned, dieldrin [1196.64 ± 673.75 ng/g lipid weight (lw)], and β-HCH [1107.78 ± 1301.72 ng/g lw], were the predominant OCPs, followed by aldrin [977.09 ± 707.69 ng/g lw], α-HCH [948.04 ± 476.65 ng/g lw] and 1,1'-(2,2-Dichloroethene-1,1-diyl)bis(4-chlorobenzene) (p,p'DDE) [790.11 ± 399.35 ng/g lw]. The association between OCPs levels and women dietary habits were also explored, and all the OCPs were grouped and compared to each other by consumption level of fish, meat, sea foods, eggs, and dairy products. We found that women consuming non vegetarian food, like fish and meat, were exposed 3.5 times more to OCPs than women consuming vegetarian food. In addition, we also observed that factors like mother's age was positively (<0.005 - <0.001) correlated while gestational age and infant birth weight were negatively (<0.005) associated with the levels of OCPs in colostrum and breast milk, respectively. Unfortunately, neither any standards nor guidelines are available for the use of pesticides, therefore, it is suggested that careless use of OCPs should be checked and suitable remedial measures be taken to decrease human contamination. Moreover, further studies are warranted to elucidate relationship between pesticide residues in breast milk and the maternal and child health.

Persistent Organic Pollutant Levels in Maternal and Cord Blood Plasma and Breast Milk: Results from the Rio Birth Cohort Pilot Study of Environmental Exposure and Childhood Development (PIPA Study)

Levels of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCB) and organochlorine pesticides (OCP) were evaluated in the breast milk and maternal and umbilical cord blood of pregnant women and their newborns in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. The concentration of 11 PCB and 17 OCP were measured in 135 samples of maternal, and 116 samples of cord blood plasma, as well as 40, 47, and 45 samples of breast milk at 1st, 3rd, and 6th months after birth, respectively, using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS-MS). Women were asked to answer an enrollment questionnaire with reproductive, lifestyle, residential and sociodemographic questions. The most commonly detected OCPs and PCBs in the maternal and cord blood were 4,4'-DDE; β-HCH; ɣ-HCH; and PCB 28. 4,4'-DDE was also the most commonly detected OCP in breast milk samples. Although not statistically significant, ∑DDT levels were higher among women with pregestational BMI ≥ 30, and who were non-white and older (age > 40). Newborns with an Apgar score ≤ 8 at minute 5 of life showed significantly higher levels of ∑DDT in the cord blood. Persistent OCPs and PCBs were still detected in maternal and umbilical cord blood and breast milk, even after decades of their banishment in Brazil. They may pose a risk to maternal, fetal and children's health.

Exposure patterns, chemical structural signatures, and health risks of pesticides in breast milk: A multicenter study in China

China is the world's largest pesticide user. These chemicals are bioaccumulative in the human body, and eventually could be transferred from the mother to the fetus/infant via placental and breastfeeding transport, which might pose developmental deficiency risks. In this study, human biomonitoring of legacy pesticides was conducted in three Chinese cities using 60 breast milk samples. The patterns, chemical structural signatures, and the estimated daily intake of pesticides were assessed. The median concentration of HCB (57.8 ng g^-1 lw, Interquartile range: 28.5-76.9 ng g^-1 lw) was the highest among all pesticides, whereas the HCHs, DDXs, TCVP, and heptachlor were also detected. A significantly different pattern of pesticides was found among three sampling cities: the Mianyang cases were mostly DDXs oriented while the Wuhan and Hangzhou cases were under HCB, HCHs, TCVP, and heptachlor influences. Maternal age and pre-pregnancy BMI were found to be the influencing factors for the pesticides in the breast milk, and dietary preferences were an important factor in the exposure scenario. Chemical structural signatures indicated that for HCHs and DDXs the exposure was mostly historical, while the lindane and dicofol exposure may exist among the volunteering mothers. The EF for chiral pesticides did not deviate significantly from the racemic value. The risk from breastfeeding was negligible according to the Chinese and UN standard, while some cases from Hangzhou and Wuhan exceeded the Canadian restrictions. Thus, the adverse health effects of chemical exposure by dietary intake for infants need to be closely monitored in future studies.

Oxidative stress is involved in the activation of NF-κB signal pathway and immune inflammatory response in grass carp gill induced by cypermethrin and/or sulfamethoxazole

At present, the concentration of environmental pollutants, such as pesticides and antibiotics exposed in environment, especially in aquatic environment is increasing. Research on environmental pollutants has exploded in the last few years. However, studies on the combined effects of pesticides and antibiotics on fish are rare, especially the toxic damage to gill tissue is vague. In this paper, cypermethrin (CMN) and sulfamethoxazole (SMZ) were analyzed and found that there was a strong correlation between the pathways affected by the first 30 genes regulated by CMN and SMZ, respectively. Therefore, the toxic effects of CMN (0.651 μg L^-1) and/or SMZ (0.3 μg L^-1) on grass carp gill were studied in this paper. Histopathology, quantitative real-time PCR, and other methods were used to detect the tissue morphology, oxidative stress level, inflammation, and apoptosis-related indicators of the fish gills after exposure of 42 days. It was found that compared with the single exposure (CMN/SMZ) group, the combined exposure (MIX) group had a more pronounced oxidative stress index imbalance. At the same time, nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB) signal pathway was activated and immuno-inflammatory reaction appeared in MIX group. The expression of tumor necrosis factor (TNF-α) in the rising range is 2.94 times that of the C group, while the expression of interleukin 8 (IL-8) is as high as 32.67 times. This study reveals the harm of CMN and SMZ to fish, and provides a reference and basis for the rational use of pesticides and antibiotics.

Intra- and Inter-Day Element Variability in Human Breast Milk: Pilot Study

For infants in the first months of life, breast milk is a complete source of nutrition; however, it can also contain elements that are harmful to the infant. It is therefore critical for infant health to characterize breast milk. The aim of this study was to determine the intra- and inter-day variation of elements in breast milk, for which there is currently limited information, as a pilot study for a larger study. Firstly, we developed a simple and robust analytical method for the determination of multiple elements in breast milk. It was accurate (accuracy ranged from 98% to 107%) for measurement of 26 elements in breast milk by quadrupole inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry. Intra- and inter-day variation of elements, protein, and fat in breast milk was determined by analyzing breast milk collected from 11 women at 12 sampling points over three days and calculating intraclass correlation coefficients. Intraclass correlation coefficients showed that while some elements were consistent across time points (e.g., Sr, Ca, and Cu), others showed very high variability (e.g., As, Cd, and Ni). Correlation analyses between elements in breast milk showed strong relationships between those including Fe and Mo, Ca and Sr, and Cd and Fe.

Environmental contaminants and the disproportionate prevalence of type-2 diabetes mellitus among Indigenous Cree women in James Bay Quebec, Canada

Indigenous populations are disproportionately affected by type 2 diabetes (T2DM) compared to non-Indigenous people. Of importance, the prevalence of T2DM is greater amongst females than males in First Nations communities, in contrast to higher male prevalence reported in non-Indigenous Canadians. Therefore, in this study we extend our previously published work with respect to females, and the potential association between environmental exposures to organochlorine pesticides, such as dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT), and dichlorodiphenyldichloroethylene (DDE) to explain the greater prevalence of T2DM among Indigenous females compared to males. Using data from the Multi-Community Environment-and-Health Study, Principal Component Analysis (PCA), examined 9-polychlorinated biphenyl congeners, 7-organic pesticides, and 4-metal/metalloids. Modified Poisson regression with robust error variance estimated adjusted prevalence ratios (PR) and corresponding 95% confidence intervals (95% CI), regressing prevalent T2DM on the newly derived principal components (PC), adjusting for a priori covariates, including parity. We further examined the relationship between high detection concentrations of DDT and tertials of categorized DDE exposures on T2DM among Indigenous Cree women. Among 419 female participants, 23% (n = 95) had physician-diagnosed T2DM. PCA analysis show that DDT and Lead (Pb) loaded highly on the second axis (PC-2), although in opposite directions, indicating the different exposure sources. As previously published, T2DM was significantly associated with PC-2 across adjusted models, however, after further adjusting for parity in this analysis, T2DM was no longer significantly associated with increasing PC-2 scores (PR = 0.88, 95% 0.76, 1.03). Furthermore, we found that the highest detectable levels of DDT, and tertiles of DDE were significantly associated with prevalent T2DM in the fully adjusted model (PR = 1.93, 1.17, 3.19), and (PR = 3.58, 1.10, 11.70), respectively. This cross-sectional analysis suggests organochlorines, specifically, detectable high exposure concentrations of DDT and DDE are associated with prevalent type 2 diabetes, signifying a possible important link between parity and environmental organochlorines pesticides among Indigenous Cree women.

Cypermethrin triggers YY1-mediated testosterone biosynthesis suppression

Cypermethrin (CYP), an extensively-used broad-spectrum pyrethroid pesticide, is regarded as a potential environmental endocrine disruptor with the anti-androgenic characteristic. To explore underlying roles of non-coding RNAs and the Jak/Stat pathway in CYP-mediated testosterone biosynthesis suppression, SD rats and Leydig cells were employed in this work. Results displayed that β-CYP decreased plasma testosterone levels and led to abnormal alterations of testicular histomorphology and ultrastructures. LncRNA XIST and miR-142-5p were co-localized in the cytoplasm of Leydig cells, but the expression of XIST was inhibited by β-CYP while that of miR-142-5p was induced. Then overexpressed miR-142-5p dampened the Jak1/Stat1 pathway by directly targeting Jak1. Transcription factors NFκB and YY1 impeded by β-CYP were positively regulated by the Jak1/Stat1 pathway. Bidirectional Co-IP and ChIP assays demonstrated that NFκB interacted with and modulated YY1 by directly binding to the promoter region of YY1. ChIP, qPCR, and YY1 knockdown/overexpression assays indicated that YY1 acted as a transcriptional activator to directly modulate steroidogenic StAR and 3β-HSD in Leydig cells. Taken together, miR-142-5p sponged by lncRNA XIST directly targets the Jak1/Stat1 pathway, which regulates steroidogenic StAR and 3β-HSD via NFκB and YY1, and ultimately dampens testosterone production in Leydig cells.

Exposure of infants to organochlorine pesticides from breast milk consumption in southwestern Ethiopia

Breast milk is often used as an environmental bioindicator since it serves as an important medium to accumulate organochlorine pesticides. The main aim of this study is to determine the level of organochlorine pesticides in human breast milk collected from three districts of southwestern Ethiopia (Asendabo, Deneba, and Serbo) at three times points baselines (1st month), midline ( six months), and end line (12 months) and risk of infants’ exposure. A longitudinal study was conducted to assess pesticide residues in human breast milk samples and evaluate the risk-exposure of infants to these pesticides from consumption of mother’s milk in Ethiopia. Breast milk samples were collected from 168 mothers at three time points and pesticides were extracted using the quick, easy, cheap, effective, rugged, and safe (QuEChERS) method. The level of pesticide residues in human milk samples and exposure of infants to the pesticides was evaluated by calculating the estimated daily intake and compared with the provisional tolerable daily intake of the pesticides under study. The results indicated that, from the eight organochlorine pesticides analyzed in 447 breast milk samples at three sampling times, DDT and its metabolites were detected. p,p′-DDE and p,p′-DDT were detected in all (100%) of the breast milk samples while, p,p-DDD, and o,p-DDT were detected in 53.9%, and 42.7%, respectively. The mean concentration of total DDT at three time points(baseline, midline and endline) were 2.25, 1.68 and 1.32 µg/g milk fat, respectively. The mean concentration of total DDT from the three districts was 1.85 µg/g milk fat which is above the maximum residue limit (MRL = 0.02 µg/g milk fat set by FAO/WHO). The mean ratio of DDT/DDE for the three areas was calculated less than five (< 5) indicates historical DDT use in the study area. The estimated daily intake of infants at the first month of breastfeeding was 11.24 µg/kg-BW/day, above the provisional tolerable daily intake (PTDI) for total DDT set by FAO/WHO, which is 10 µg/kg body weight. An intake of OCPs is a big concern for infants' health in Ethiopia and countries with a similar condition, particularly at the first month of lactation. Strict regulations of the health-threatening pesticide by the regulatory body (Environment, Forest and Climate Change Commission) at the country and regional levels is advocated.

Endocrine disrupting chemicals and breast cancer cells

Many hundreds of endocrine disrupting chemicals (EDCs) have been measured as entering human breast tissue from a range of environmental sources, and this review focuses on discussion of mechanisms by which such EDCs may be contributing to the globally rising incidence of breast cancer. Many of the distinguishing features of breast cancer may be accounted for by EDC exposure, including, but not limited to, the fact that many EDCs possess estrogenic activity and exposure to estrogen is a main risk factor for breast cancer. Studies of the actions of EDCs in human breast cancer cells are aided by use of the conceptual framework of the hallmarks of cancer, and, acting by a variety of genomic and nongenomic mechanisms, EDCs have now been shown to enable all the hallmarks of cancer to develop in human breast cancer cells. Many studies report that hallmarks can develop at concentrations which are within the range of those measured in human breast tissues, especially when added as mixtures. The varied levels of different EDCs measured in individual breast tissue samples together with the overlapping and complementary mechanisms of action of the EDCs imply that thematic mechanisms will be driven inevitably by different chemical mixtures. Despite the complexity, EDCs do need to now be acknowledged as a risk factor for breast cancer in order for preventative strategies to include reduction in EDC exposure.

Quantification of Nonpersistent Pesticides in Small Volumes of Human Breast Milk with Ultrahigh Performance Liquid Chromatography Coupled to Tandem Mass Spectrometry

Existing methods for the analysis of pesticides in human breast milk involve multiple extraction steps requiring large sample and solvent volumes, which can be a major obstacle in large epidemiologic studies. Here, we developed a simple, low-volume method for extracting organophosphates, pyrethroids, carbamates, atrazine, and imidacloprid from 100 to 200 μL of human breast milk. Multiple extraction protocols were tested including microwave-assisted acid/base digestion and double-solvent extraction with 2 or 20 mL of 2:1 (v/v) dichloromethane/hexane, with or without subsequent solid-phase extraction (SPE) cleanup. Samples were analyzed by liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry. Analyte recoveries and reproducibility were highest when 100-200 μL of milk were extracted with 2 mL of dichloromethane/hexane without subsequent SPE steps. Analysis of 79 breast milk samples using this method revealed the presence of carbamates, organophosphates, pyrethroids, and imidacloprid at detection frequencies of 79-96, 53-90, 1-7, and 61%, respectively. This study demonstrates the feasibility of a simple low-volume extraction method for measuring pesticides in human breast milk.

Levels of pesticide residues in breast milk and the associated risk assessment

The aim of this study was to determine the types and levels of organochlorine pesticides (OCPs) present in the human milk collected from cities in eastern and central Saudi Arabia. This study is part of assessment of various persistent organic pollutants (POPs) in human milk in four cities of eastern and central Saudi Arabia, namely, Riyadh, Al-Kharj, Al-Jobail and Al-Dammam. Milk samples were collected from 50 donors according to the WHO/UNEP protocol for monitoring human milk for POPs. The OCPs in each of the 50 milk samples were analyzed using as triple quadrupole gas chromatography mass spectrometry-mass spectrometry detection (GC–MS/MS). Quality assurance included the analysis of blank, spiked and reference samples. Sixteen different OCPs were identified namely: aldrin, dieldrin, endrin, hexachlorobenzene, alpha, beta, gamma and delta hexachlorocycohexame, pp’-,op’-DDT, pp’-DDE, pp’-DDD, alpha and gamma chlordane, heptachlor, mirex and methoxychlor. The results of the analysis OCPs in human milk samples indicated that the tested positive samples for one or more pesticide at the limits of determination used in this study. As required by the Stockholm Convention on POPs, the levels of certain POPs in human milk will serve as an indicator of the effectiveness of the treaty in eliminating or reducing emissions of selected POPs. This study contributes to that effort by providing seline data on current levels of OPCs in human milk in Saudi Arabia.

Early embryonic exposure to chlorpyrifos-cypermethrin combination induces pattern deficits in the heart of domestic hen

Exposure to chlorpyrifos-cypermethrin combination during early development resulted in defective looping and ventricular noncompaction of heart in domestic chicken. The study was extended to elucidate the molecular basis of this novel observation. The primary culture of chicken embryonic heart cells showed a concentration-dependent loss of viability when challenged with this combination of technical-grade insecticides. Comet assay, DNA ladder assay, and analyses of appropriate markers at transcript and protein levels, revealed that chlorpyrifos-cypermethrin combination induced cell death by activating apoptosis. Parallelly, the tissues derived from control and experimental group hearts were checked for apoptotic markers, and the result was much similar to that of the in-vitro study. Further analysis showed that chlorpyrifos-cypermethrin combination deranged the expression pattern of the transcriptional regulators of cardiogenesis, namely TBX20, GATA5, HAND2, and MYOCD. This, together with heightened apoptosis, could well be the reason behind the observed structural anomalies in the heart of chlorpyrifos-cypermethrin poisoned embryos.

Human exposure to organochlorine, pyrethroid and neonicotinoid pesticides: Comparison between urban and semi-urban regions of India

In developing countries, urban areas may be at greater risk of pesticide exposure compared to semi-urban agricultural regions. To investigate this, concentrations of selected pesticides were measured in 81 human milk samples collected in urban Kolkata and semi-urban Nadia in West Bengal, India. Three classes of pesticides were investigated - legacy organochlorines and emerging pyrethroids and neonicotinoids. The average concentration of the majority of the chemicals (DDT, its metabolites, HCH isomers, bifenthrin, endosulfan), showed a clear urban > semi-urban trend. Compared with previous measurements in other Indian cities and developing nations, current HCH and DDT concentrations in urban Kolkata were high. These chemicals were detected in 100% of the samples in both the urban and the semi-urban region. Also in both regions, the Estimated Daily Intake of DDTs, HCHs, aldrin, dieldrin and the pyrethroid bifenthrin for breastfed infants exceeded the Tolerable Daily Intake in a number of samples. Three pyrethroids were detected in human milk samples in India for the first time. This indicates a shift in the usage pattern of pesticides in India from organochlorines to pyrethroids. These findings may be used to drive targeted regulation of pesticides in developing countries with similar histories of pesticide use.

Levels and profiles of persistent organic pollutants in breast milk in China and their potential health risks to breastfed infants: A review

Although some persistent organic pollutants (POPs) were prohibited or limited in use several decades ago, they are still frequently detected in the human body. The purpose of this study was to understand the levels and profiles of POPs in breast milk in China and assess their potential health risks among breastfed infants under six months of age. A literature review focused on China was performed for studies published from 2001 to 2020. The POP levels in breast milk along with other important variables were extracted, and then the average individual POP levels in breast milk were estimated. This review summarises the distribution of traditional and new POPs, including polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), organochlorine pesticides (OCPs), legacy brominated flame retardants (BFRs), perfluorinated compounds (PFCs), and chlorinated paraffins (CPs) and reported notably high levels of short-chain chlorinated paraffins and 1,1-dichloro-2,2-bis (p-chlorophenyl) ethylene (p,p'-DDE) in breast milk. Although the levels of traditional POPs generally declined over time, especially p,p'-DDE and beta-hexachlorocyclohexane (β-HCH), women living in coastal areas, urban areas, and southern China still have a high body burden of certain POPs. In the present study, the estimated daily intake (EDI) of POPs through breastfeeding was used to evaluate the health risk for infants by comparing with acceptable levels. The findings suggested that infants born in coastal areas most likely suffered potential health risk from exposure to DDT, and the health risk of hexachlorobenzene (HCB) in infants in most nationwide regions remains a concern. More importantly, the EDI of PCBs for infants exceeds the safe limit on a national scale. Continuous surveillance of PCBs in breast milk is critical to evaluate the potential health effects on humans.

Endocrine-Disrupting Organochlorine Pesticides in Human Breast Milk: Changes during Lactation

The aim of the present study was to assess infant safety associated with the occurrence of endocrine-disrupting organochlorine pesticides (OCP) in breast milk. Moreover, the association between pregnant mothers' dietary habits and these compounds levels in breast milk was investigated. Breast milk was collected at various stages of lactation. The samples were analyzed by the GC-MS method. The OCP concentrations ranged from < limit of detection (LOD) to 6.81 ng/g lipids. The highest OCP concentrations in breast milk occurred primarily within the first month of lactation, and decreased over the lactation period. It was found that the maternal consumption of certain food products-in particular pork, beef, poultry, eggs, and dairy products-could have affected the content of 1,1'-(2,2,2-Trichloroethane-1,1-diyl)bis(4-chlorobenzene), called DDT and its metabolites in the breast milk. The levels of beta-endosulfan were positively correlated with fish and poultry consumption. The redundancy analysis indicated that the diets of the pregnant women had an important impact on pesticide residues in the breast milk. There is a potential possibility of lowering the content of organochlorine compounds in breast milk by adhering to nutritional recommendations, e.g., avoiding the excessive consumption of fish and other raw food materials of unknown origin.

Screening of lactic acid bacteria for their capacity to bind cypermethrin in vitro and the binding characteristics and its application

In this study, the cypermethrin binding characteristics of lactic acid bacteria were investigated for the first time. Two strains, Lactobacillus plantarum RS60 and Pediococcus acidilactici D15, possessed the highest cypermethrin removal capacity and good tolerance to simulated digestive juices. They were employed for further studies on cypermethrin binding characteristics. 55.06% and 56.46% of cypermethrin were removed within 0.25 h by strains RS60 and D15, respectively. The effect of pH on binding capacity was negligible. Heat treatment enhanced cypermethrin binding rate. Moreover, inactive cells were capable of removing cypermethrin from fruit and vegetable juices, with over 60% cypermethrin reduction within 2 h. No adverse effect was found on the quality of juice during the biosorption process. Besides, these two strains also could bind other several pyrethroids and 3-phenoxybenzoic acid. These findings indicated that L. plantarum RS60 and P. acidilactici D15 may be useful to reduce cypermethrin in contaminated foods.

A mixed-methods study of pesticide exposures in Breastmilk and Community & Lactating Women's perspectives from Haryana, India

BACKGROUND

Population growth which has resulted in a need for increased crop yields to sustain food security, in addition to the effects of climate change, have led to the widespread use of chemical pesticides. The indiscriminate use of pesticides has in turn led to contamination of the environment, food commodities and bioaccumulation in human tissues, particularly in agrarian regions of India including the northern state of Haryana.

METHODS

We conducted a pilot screening study to investigate the presence of organochlorine, organophosphate, and pyrethroid pesticides in breastmilk samples (n = 75) from Haryana, India. Pesticide analyses were conducted using gas chromatography mass spectrometry (GC-MS) for OC and OP pesticides and GC-electron capture detector for pyrethroids. The study was complemented by a qualitative evaluation of maternal and community perceptions, knowledge, attitudes and practices associated with pesticide use and risk of exposure (n = 30 in-depth interviews; n = 9 focus group discussions).

RESULTS

Analysis of breastmilk showed the presence of p,p'-dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT) and p,p'-dichlorodiphenyldichloroethylene (DDE) in 4% (range:

CONCLUSIONS

In our small sample, breastmilk pesticide concentrations were low and did not pose a risk to infants. Based on the persistent nature of many organic pollutants and reported widespread use, we recommend more comprehensive and longitudinal investigation of upstream pesticide contamination in the food supply and exposures among mothers and children.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

CTRI/2017/01/007636 , Date Registered: 06/01/2017. CTRI website: http://ctri.nic.in/Clinicaltrials/pdf_generate.php?trialid=17249&EncHid=&modid=&compid=%27,%2717249det%27.

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Key Words

• Focus groups
• In-depth interviews
• Organochlorines
• Organophosphates
• Pyrethroids, Pesticides, Breastmilk

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MESH Headings

• Child, Preschool
• Female
• Humans
• Hydrocarbons, Chlorinated/analysis
• India
• Infant
• Infant, Newborn
• Lactation
• Male
• Milk, Human/chemistry
• Pesticide Residues/analysis
• Pesticides/analysis
• Pregnancy

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Grants

• R21 HD080107 NICHD NIH HHS
• National Institutes of Health (US)
• International Society for Research in Human Milk and Lactation
• Emory Institute for Developing Nations
• Emory University Research Committee

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Affiliation(s)

Rukshan V. Mehta Doctoral Program in Nutrition and Health Sciences, Laney Graduate School, Emory University, Atlanta, GA USA Rollins School of Public Health, Emory University, Claudia Nance Rollins Building, 5th Floor, 1518 Clifton Road, Atlanta, GA 30329 USA
M. A. Sreenivasa Council for Scientific and Industrial Research – Central Food Technological Research Institute, Mysuru, India
Mathen Mathew Council for Scientific and Industrial Research – Central Food Technological Research Institute, Mysuru, India
Amy Webb Girard Doctoral Program in Nutrition and Health Sciences, Laney Graduate School, Emory University, Atlanta, GA USA The Hubert Department of Global Health, Rollins School of Public Health, Emory University, Atlanta, GA USA
Sunita Taneja Society for Applied Studies, Centre for Health Research and Development, New Delhi, India
Samriddhi Ranjan Society for Applied Studies, Centre for Health Research and Development, New Delhi, India
Usha Ramakrishnan Doctoral Program in Nutrition and Health Sciences, Laney Graduate School, Emory University, Atlanta, GA USA The Hubert Department of Global Health, Rollins School of Public Health, Emory University, Atlanta, GA USA
Reynaldo Martorell Doctoral Program in Nutrition and Health Sciences, Laney Graduate School, Emory University, Atlanta, GA USA The Hubert Department of Global Health, Rollins School of Public Health, Emory University, Atlanta, GA USA
P. Barry Ryan Gangarosa Department of Environmental Health, Rollins School of Public Health, Emory University, Atlanta, GA USA
Melissa F. Young Doctoral Program in Nutrition and Health Sciences, Laney Graduate School, Emory University, Atlanta, GA USA The Hubert Department of Global Health, Rollins School of Public Health, Emory University, Atlanta, GA USA

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Fishing with Pesticides Affects River Fisheries and Community Health in the Indio Maíz Biological Reserve, Nicaragua

The practice of harvesting fish and crustaceans by using pesticides is understudied and under-reported in tropical inland fisheries yet poses a significant threat to freshwater biodiversity and community health. This research provides a brief review of the practice and an in-depth case study from southeast Nicaragua. In 2019, 86 interviews and 5 focus groups were conducted in remote communities in the Indio Maíz Biological Reserve (IMBR) and nearby surrounding area and combined with 4 years of local Indigenous Rama and Afrodescendent Kriol community forest ranger data. Forest rangers and 74% of interviewees reported that fishing with pesticides occurs in their communities, including both inside the IMBR and in the nearby surrounding area. The practice is primarily used by illegal settlers, and not by Rama and Kriol communities who have rights to the land in the IMBR. It entails the release of liquid pesticides in water or mixing powdered pesticides with corn flour and using the mixture as bait. Of seven chemicals reported, Cypermethrin, Deltamethrin, and Aluminum Phosphide were most common. The use of ichthyotoxic woody plants was more rarely reported. Habitats targeted ranged from swift headwaters to slow pools in small creeks to larger rivers, depending on target species. Main uses reported for the catch were food for family, bait to catch larger fish, and for sale. The main motivation was increased catch efficiency. Many interviewees attributed stomach issues, diarrhea, cough, convulsions, and miscarriage to exposure to poisoned river water. Twenty-five interviewees blamed poisoned rivers for livestock miscarriages or death. Severe local losses of fish and shrimp populations were reported. Rama and Kriol interviewees describe the practice as a threat to their river-based food security. Despite its illegality, no study participant knew a case of pesticide fishing that had been prosecuted. This destructive fishing practice has significant implications for conservation of the intact river systems of the primary rainforests of southeast Nicaragua, and to the local traditional fisheries they support.

Human milk contamination by nine organochlorine pesticide residues (OCPs)

Organochlorine pesticides (OCPs) are widely used around the world as insecticides, herbicides, fungicides, nematicides, and rodenticides. Despite banned in Brazil, the usage remains occurring in many countries. The persistence and extreme mobility of OCPs contribute to the contamination of the environment and the human body. The OCPs bioaccumulation in adipose tissue triggers the excretion into human milk during breastfeeding. Hence, the present study determined eighteen OCPs residues in the breast milk of mothers from the Western Region of Bahia State, Brazil. Nine different residue species were found, including beta-Hexachlorocyclohexane (9.24 ± 0.00 ng g^-1 fat), delta- Hexachlorocyclohexane (22.15 ± 10.48 ng g^-1 fat), Heptachlor (58.08 ± 74.13 ng g^-1 fat), Aldrin (142.65 ± 50.65 ng g^-1 fat), Dieldrin (774.62 ± 472.68 ng g^-1 fat), Endosulfan I (408.44 ± 245.51 ng g^-1 fat), Dichloro-diphenyl-dichloro-ethylene (29.17 ± 22.42 ng g^-1 fat), Dichloro-diphenyl-trichloro-ethane (28.87 ± 0.00 ng g^-1 fat) and Methoxychlor (1699.67 ± 797.43 ng g^-1 fat). The Methoxychlor presence in all samples may reveal a recent exposure, while Dieldrin and Endosulfan I analyses can point to distant past exposure.

Pesticide Residues in Peri-Urban Bovine Milk from India and Risk Assessment: A Multicenter Study

Pesticides residue poses serious concerns to human health. The present study was carried out to determine the pesticide residues of peri-urban bovine milk (n = 1183) from five different sites (Bangalore, Bhubaneswar, Guwahati, Ludhiana and Udaipur) in India and dietary exposure risk assessment to adults and children. Pesticide residues were estimated using gas chromatography with flame thermionic and electron capture detectors followed by confirmation on gas chromatography-mass spectrometer. The results noticed the contamination of milk with hexachlorocyclohexane (HCH), dichloro-diphenyl trichloroethane (DDT), endosulfan, cypermethrin, cyhalothrin, permethrin, chlorpyrifos, ethion and profenophos pesticides. The residue levels in some of the milk samples were observed to be higher than the respective maximum residue limits (MRLs) for pesticide. Milk samples contamination was found highest in Bhubaneswar (11.2%) followed by Bangalore (9.3%), Ludhiana (6.9%), Udaipur (6.4%) and Guwahati (6.3%). The dietary risk assessment of pesticides under two scenarios i.e. lower-bound scenario (LB) and upper-bound (UB) revealed that daily intake of pesticides was substantially below the prescribed acceptable daily intake except for fipronil in children at UB. The non-cancer risk by estimation of hazard index (HI) was found to be below the target value of one in adults at all five sites in India. However, for children at the UB level, the HI for lindane, DDT and ethion exceeded the value of one in Ludhiana and Udaipur. Cancer risk for adults was found to be in the recommended range of United States environment protection agency (USEPA), while it exceeded the USEPA values for children.

Cypermethrin exposure during perinatal period affects fetal development and impairs reproductive functions of F1 female rats

Cypermethrin (CYP) is a ubiquitously present synthetic pyrethroid insecticide. It has endocrine disrupting activities which may adversely affect reproductive development and functions of offspring if exposed during critical developmental period. The present study was undertaken to delineate the effects of CYP exposure in pregnant female rats during perinatal period on the sexual maturation, hormonal regulation, reproductive development and fertility of F1 female offspring and its molecular mechanism of action. Pregnant rats (F0) were gavaged daily with 0, 1, 10, 25 mg/kg bw/day CYP and 10 μg/kg bw/day Diethylstilbestrol (DES; positive control) from gestation day (GD) 6 to postnatal day (PND) 21. The reproductive development and function parameters were evaluated at PND 45 and 75. Reduced body weight, delayed vaginal opening, and disrupted estrous cyclicity were observed at 25 mg/kg CYP dose. CYP exposure significantly affected the reproductive organ development and their functions at all doses. Significant alterations in ovarian and uterine histology such as luteinization, reduction of primordial follicular reserves, presence of multi-oocyte follicles and thin degenerative luminal and glandular uterine epithelium were observed at adulthood. Altered circulatory steroid hormone levels and expression of ovarian and uterine steroid hormone receptors were observed at PND 75 in the F1 female offspring. Expression of HOXA10 and α-SMA which are important for uterine integrity and functions, were found to be altered at PND 75. Increased pre-implantation loss (PIL%), post-implantation loss (POL%), and reduced litter size in F1 females when cohabitated with unexposed fertile male rats were observed. Overall, perinatal exposure of pregnant rats to CYP led to significant long lasting effects on the reproductive functions of F1 female offspring. The adverse effects were passed on to F2 generation via female germ line and posed developmental anomalies. The present finding necessitates additional molecular studies to understand its trans-generational mechanism of action via female germline.

Bioaccumulation of POPs in human breast milk from south of the Russian Far East and exposure risk to breastfed infants

The present study is a stage of the regular POP monitoring conducted in the framework of the Russian Federation's National Implementation Plan under the Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants. The POPs concentration (ΣHCH+ΣDDT+ΣPCB) in the samples ranged from 23 to 878 (with a mean of 151.4) ng/g lipid. The ranges of concentrations of OCPs (ΣHCH+ΣDDT) and PCBs were 2.8-291 and 3.2-720 ng/g lipid, respectively. The mean values of OCPs and PCBs amounted to 80.1 and 74.9 ng/g lipid, respectively. As suggested by the results of the EDI calculation, intake of PCBs is slightly high in infants. The fact that most studies have associated PCB with effects, such as development of congenital deformity, reduced immunity, lower weight, and small baby size at birth, makes it an alarming situation.

Health Risk Assessment of Occupationally Pesticide-Exposed Population of Cancer Prone Area of Punjab

The alarming health issues especially the unusually high number of cancer cases in agriculture community of Bathinda district of Punjab (India) is a serious concern. There is limited knowledge about the role of gene-environment interactions in oncogenesis prevalent in this area. The aim of this study was to evaluate the association of oxidative stress with CYP1A2, CYP2B6, CYP2C9, CYP3A4, and PON1 genetic variation in the pesticide-exposed (occupationally) population of Bathinda district of Punjab (India). This study demonstrated significantly elevated relative risk (RR) of lower antioxidant defense mechanism (Glutathione, Catalase, Superoxide Dismutase, Glutathione peroxidases, and Glutathione Reductase) in occupationally pesticide-exposed group (n = 120) as compared with unexposed group (n = 84) from Bathinda district of Punjab (India). Our data shows pesticide exposure to be a major risk factor leading to increased oxidative stress inside the body. Gas chromatographic analysis revealed the residues of organophosphates (chlorpyriphos, dichlorvos, ethoprophos) and herbicides (atrazine, butachlor, alachlor, metolachlor) in the blood samples of the exposed population. In vitro results showed a dose dependent decrease in cell viability following treatment of pesticides detected in blood samples in hPBMCs and A549 cell line. Genetic variation analysis revealed missense mutations in CYP2B6 (2 mutations), CY3A4 (1 mutation), and CYP2C9 (2 mutations). The observed mutations have been predicted to cause structural and conformation change in protein structure which could result in altered stability. In first of its kind of study, our data reveal oxidative stress and pesticide residue accumulation inside the body to be the major reasons for health concerns in Bathinda district.

Genomic alterations associated with HER2+ breast cancer risk and clinical outcome in response to trastuzumab

Human epidermal growth factor receptor 2 positive (HER2+) breast cancer (BC) is an aggressive BC subtype characterized by HER2 overexpression/amplification. Genomic alterations of HER2 and others have been reported to be associated with, HER2 overexpression and prediction of trastuzumab-response. Here, we aimed at identifying germline and somatic alterations associated with HER2+ BC and evaluating their association with clinical outcome in response to trastuzumab therapy given to HER2+ BC patients. Global Sequencing Array (GSA) and polymerase chain reaction-restriction length polymorphism (PCR-RFLP) techniques were used to determine alterations in HER2 and other HER2-interacting as well as signaling-related genes in HER2+ BC. In addition, 20 formalin fixed paraffin-embedded tissue samples were also evaluated by GSA for identifying significant variations associated with HER + BC as well as response to trastuzumab therapy. A germline variant in HER2 (I655V) was found to be significantly associated with the risk of the disease (p < 0.01). A nonsense mutation in PTPN11 (K99X), a pathogenic CCND1 splice site variant (P241P), a hotspot missense mutation in PIK3CA (E542K) and a hotspot missense mutation in TP53 (R249S); were observed in 25%, 75%, 30% and 40% of the HER2+ BC tissue samples, respectively. Mutant CCND1 (P241P) and PIK3CA (E542K) were found to be significantly associated with reduced disease-free survival (DFS) in patients treated with trastuzumab (p: 0.018 and 0.005, respectively). These results indicate that HER2, PTPN11, CCND1 and PIK3CA genes are important biomarkers in HER2+ BC. Moreover, the patients harboring mutant CCND1 and PIK3CA exhibit a poorer clinical outcome as compared to those carrying wild-type CCND1 and PIK3CA.

Organochlorines in urban soils from Central India: probabilistic health hazard and risk implications to human population

This study presents distribution of organochlorines (OCs) including HCH, DDT and PCBs in urban soils, and their environmental and human health risk. Forty-eight soil samples were extracted using ultrasonication, cleaned with modified silica gel chromatography and analyzed by GC-ECD. The observed concentrations of ∑HCH, ∑DDT and ∑PCBs in soils ranged between < 0.01-2.54, 1.30-27.41 and < 0.01-62.8 µg kg^-1, respectively, which were lower than the recommended soil quality guidelines. Human health risk was estimated following recommended guidelines. Lifetime average daily dose (LADD), non-cancer risk or hazard quotient (HQ) and incremental lifetime cancer risk (ILCR) for humans due to individual and total OCs were estimated and presented. Estimated LADD were lower than acceptable daily intake and reference dose. Human health risk estimates were lower than safe limit of non-cancer risk (HQ < 1.0) and the acceptable distribution range of ILCR (10^-6-10^-4). Therefore, this study concluded that present levels of OCs (HCH, DDT and PCBs) in studied soils were low, and subsequently posed low health risk to human population in the study area.

Persistent Organic Pollutants Residues in Human Breast Milk from Bathinda and Ludhiana Districts of Punjab, India

In the present study, persistent organic pollutants (POPs), including six congeners of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and organochlorine pesticides, were estimated in human breast milk samples collected from two districts of Punjab (India). The mean concentrations of POP residues were recorded higher in Bathinda district (PCBs: 33.7; DDTs: 519.2; HCHs: 46.6 ng g^-1 lipid wt.) than Ludhiana (PCBs: 24.2; DDTs; 415.3; HCHs; 35.5 ng g^-1 lipid wt.). Levels of PCBs and DDTs were observed higher in primiparas, whereas HCHs residues were seen more in multiparas. Risk analysis to POPs exposure through breast milk reflected that the daily intake for some infants was close to or above the tolerable daily intake limit for detrimental effects, which may raise a health concern. Comparative evaluation of present data indicated that DDT and HCHs residue levels in human breast milk from Punjab, India were among the lowest values reported for developing countries. The first-order kinetic reaction at a steady-state condition used to estimate the half-life of DDT and HCH suggested that DDT levels have declined from 18,211 to 490 ng g^-1 lipid wt. with a half-life (Tdec_1/2) of 3.25 years over a span of 15 years. Similarly, HCH levels have decreased from 8609 to 46.6 ng g^-1 in this duration with Tdec_1/2 of 2.25 years. Because some infants are still at risk, continuous monitoring of POPs in human milk is needed for surveillance and interpretation of time trends and for linkage to strict enforcement of agricultural regulations.

Pyrethroid pesticide residues in the global environment: An overview

Pyrethroids are synthetic organic insecticides with low mammalian toxicity that are widely used in both rural and urban areas worldwide. After entering the natural environment, pyrethroids circulate among the three phases of solid, liquid, and gas and enter organisms through food chains, resulting in substantial health risks. This review summarized the available studies on pyrethroid residues since 1986 in different media at the global scale and indicated that pyrethroids have been widely detected in a range of environments (including soils, water, sediments, and indoors) and in organisms. The concentrations and detection rates of agricultural pyrethroids, which always contain α-cyanogroup (α-CN), such as cypermethrin and fenvalerate, decline in the order of crops > sediments > soils > water. Urban pyrethroids (not contain α-CN), such as permethrin, have been detected at high levels in the indoor environment, and 3-phenoxybenzoic acid, a common pyrethroid metabolite in human urine, is frequently detected in the human body. Pyrethroid pesticides accumulate in sediments, which are a source of pyrethroid residues in aquatic products.

Endosulfan Toxicity to Anabas testudineus and Histopathological Changes on Vital Organs

The toxicity of endosulfan, an organochlorine type insecticide to a commonly consumed freshwater fish species, A. testudineus (40.68±9.03 g; 13.49±0.99 cm), was investigated under static conditions. The nominal endosulfan concentrations ranging from 10 to 80 μg/L subjected to the fish population results in 96-hour median lethal concentration, LC50, of 35.2±3.99 μg/L. The toxicity is a function of both endosulfan concentration and exposure time (p>0.05). Histopathological analysis on vital organs exposed to sublethal concentrations indicates that structural changes started at sublethal dose and the effects aggravated with increasing endosulfan concentration. Gill was found to experience aneurism, hyperplasia in lamellar and autolysis of mast cell. Pyknotic nuclei and necrosis were observed in liver cell, while the lumen of renal tubule was found to narrow and haemorrhage was observed in cytoplasm cell. High LC50 compared to other fishes indicates that A. testudineus has high tolerant to endosulfan, however, endosulfan slowly alters the fish biochemistry and is potentially transferable to human

Intake of DDT and its metabolites through food items among reproductive age women in Bangladesh

This study was conducted to make clear the major intake route of DDT in Bangladesh people to develop strategy and policy that could lead to a reduction in body burden especially in the reproductive age women. The concentrations of several POPs (DDT, PCBs, chlordanes, HCHs, HCB, and PeCB) were quantified in food items, human breast milk and house dust collected in Bangladesh in 2011-2012. Among the POPs analyzed in this study, DDT and its metabolites (ΣDDT) showed the highest concentration. The highest median ΣDDT concentration was found in meat (1.3-1100 ng g^-1 wet weight) and house dust (30-1100 ng g^-1 dry weight), and followed by human breast milk (20-55 ng g^-1 wet weight). Estimated daily intake (EDI) was calculated using the DDT concentrations in food items. The highest intake of DDT was found in an infant and 99% of it was via breast milk feeding. DDT intake via consumption of beef accounted for 69% and 72% of that found in children and adults, respectively. The total EDI of DDT did not exceed the tolerable daily intake proposed by the WHO, but the EDI of p,p'-DDT exceeded the oral reference dose proposed by the US Environmental Protection Agency. Further research is required to clarify the reason for the high levels of DDT in beef, which seems to be the major intake route of DDT for women of reproductive age in Bangladesh.

Perinatal exposure of pregnant rats to cypermethrin delays testicular descent, impairs fertility in F1 male progeny leading to developmental defects in F2 generation

Cypermethrin (CYP) is a widely used synthetic pyrethroid insecticide and regarded as a potential endocrine disruptor. CYP exposure may pose a great risk to human health including adverse effect on their reproductive functions. This study aimed to delineate the effects of perinatal exposure of rats to CYP on the sexual maturation and fertility of F1 male progeny. Pregnant rats (F0) were gavaged daily with CYP (0, 1, 10, 25 mg/kg BW/day) and Diethylestilbestrol (DES, 10 μg/kg BW/day), as positive control from gestation day 6 to postnatal day 21. The effects of CYP on body weight gain and reproductive functions were evaluated at the Juvenile (PND 22), peri-pubertal (PND 45) and adult (PND 75) stages of development. A significant delay in the age of testicular descent and prepuce separation was observed at 1 and 25 mg/kg doses of CYP. At the same dose level, reproductive organ development and their functions were also affected. A significant alteration in testicular histology, expression of steroid hormone receptors, and circulatory steroid hormones was observed throughout development. Reduced sperm count and motility were observed at PND 75 leading to subfertility and reduced litter size. These adult male rats when cohabitated with unexposed normal cycling females, the F2 fetuses exhibited developmental defects. Taken together, CYP perinatal exposure caused significant long lasting effects of the reproductive functions of F1 generation male rats, which were vertically transmitted to F2 generation leading to developmental defects. The mechanism of transgenerational effects needs to be explored in details.

Organochlorine pesticides (OCPs) and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) in human breast milk and associated health risks to nursing infants in Northern Tanzania

This is the first study to report organochlorines (OCs), including chlorinated pesticides (OCPs) and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) in human milk from Tanzania. The main aims of this study were to assess the level of contamination and the possible health risks related to OC exposure in nursing infants from the Northern parts of Tanzania. Ninety-five healthy mother-infant couples attending Mount Meru Regional Referral Hospital (MMRRH), Arusha, Tanzania, were assessed for associations between maternal/infant characteristics, i.e. mother's age, BMI, gestational weight gain, occupation, residence and fetal growth parameters and breast milk levels of OCPs, such as dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT) and its metabolites, dieldrin and PCBs. p,p'-DDE and p,p'-DDT were detected in 100% and 75% of the breast milk samples, respectively, and ranged between 24 and 2400ng/g lipid weight (lw) and <LOD and 133ng/g lw, respectively. Dieldrin was detected in 66% of the samples in levels up to 937ng/g lw. ∑7PCBs ranged between <LOD and 157ng/g lw. Other OCPs were detected in low levels. For assessment of health risks, the Hazard Quotient (HQ) was calculated by comparing estimated daily intakes of OCPs and PCBs with health based guidance values. The estimated daily intake (ng/kg body weight/day) of ∑DDTs, dieldrin and nondioxin-like PCBs (∑6PCBs) exceeded the provisional tolerable daily intake (PTDI) in two, six and forty-eight of the nursing infants, respectively, suggesting potential health risks. In addition, head circumference were negatively associated with p,p´-DDE in female infants, suggesting that OC exposure during pregnancy may influence fetal growth.

Levels of persistent organic pollutants in breast milk of Maya women in Yucatan, Mexico

In this study, 24 breast milk samples, obtained from rural Maya women, from municipalities of Yucatan, Mexico, were analyzed for organochlorine pesticide (OCP) residues by gas chromatography. Recent studies have shown that Maya communities have a poor perception about the proper usage and handling of OCP. The karstic soil in this area has a high vulnerability to groundwater pollution by the use of OCP in agriculture and livestock activities. The impact of the ecosystem on human health is much more critical due to the prevailing poverty and a very low educational level of these communities. About 30% of the Maya population consumes water directly from contaminated wells and sinkholes, resulting in a chronic exposure to OCP. The samples served to identify and quantify high levels of OCP residues (18.43 mg/kg of heptachlor epoxide and 1.92 mg/kg of endrin in the metropolitan zone; 2.10 mg/kg of dieldrin, 0.117 mg/kg of endosulfan II, 0.103 mg/kg of heptachlor, 0.178 mg/kg of endrin, and 0.127 mg/kg of endrin aldehyde in the main agricultural zone and on the west coast). The detected levels of OCP residues are a major concern and represent a potential risk to women and children in the region. This could be associated with the high rates of cervical uterine and breast cancer mortality in Yucatan. Thus, regulations on the usage of OCP and their enforcement are necessary, and it is important to establish a yearly monitoring program for OCP residues in breast milk and groundwater, as well as to implement health promotion programs for women in particular and the general population in general.

Pesticides in human milk of Western Australian women and their influence on infant growth outcomes: A cross-sectional study

Persistent organic pollutants in human milk (HM) at high levels are considered to be detrimental to the breastfed infant. To determine the pesticide concentration in HM, a pilot cross-sectional study of 40 Western Australian (WA) women was carried out. Gas chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (GC-MS/MS) with a validated QuEChERS was used for the analysis of 88 pesticides in HM. p,p'-dichlorodiphenyldichloroethylene (p,p'-DDE) with a mean concentration of 62.8 ± 54.5 ng/g fat was found, whereas other organochlorines, organophosphates, carbamates and pyrethroids were not detected in HM. Overall, no association was observed between HM p,p'-DDE concentrations and maternal age, parity, body mass index and percentage fat mass. Furthermore, for the first time no significant association was found between p,p'-DDE concentrations in HM and infant growth outcomes such as weight, length, head circumference and percentage fat mass. The calculated daily intake was significantly different to the estimated daily intake of total DDTs and was well below the guideline proposed by WHO. The DDTs levels in WA have also significantly decreased by 42 - fold since the 1970s and are currently the lowest in Australia.

Longitudinal study of pesticide residue levels in human milk from Western Australia during 12 months of lactation: Exposure assessment for infants

The presence of pesticides in human milk (HM) is of great concern due to the potential health effects for the breastfed infant. To determine the relationships between HM pesticides and infant growth and development, a longitudinal study was conducted. HM samples (n = 99) from 16 mothers were collected at 2, 5, 9 and 12 months of lactation. A validated QuEChERS method and Gas chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (GC-MS/MS) were used for the analysis of 88 pesticides in HM. Only p,p’-DDE, p,p’-DDT and β-HCH were detected with a mean concentration (±SD) of 52.25 ± 49.88 ng/g fat, 27.67 ± 20.96 ng/g fat and 48.00 ± 22.46 ng/g fat respectively. The concentrations of the detected pesticides decreased significantly throughout the first year of lactation. No significant relationships between HM p,p’-DDE and infant growth outcomes: weight, length, head circumference and percentage fat mass were detected. The actual daily intake (ADI) of total DDTs in this cohort was 14–1000 times lower than the threshold reference and significantly lower than the estimated daily intake (EDI). Further, the ADI decreased significantly throughout the first 12 months of lactation.

Occurrence and spatial distribution of pesticide residues in butter and ghee (clarified butter fat) in Punjab (India)

The present study was undertaken to monitor organochlorine, organophosphate, and synthetic pyrethroid pesticide residues in butter (n = 55) and ghee (n = 56) samples collected from three different regions of Punjab. The estimation of pesticide residues was done by multiple residue analytical technique using gas chromatography equipped with GC-ECD and GC-FTD. The confirmation of residues was done on gas chromatography mass spectrometry in both selective ion monitoring (SIM) and scan mode. Results indicated the presence of hexacholorocyclohexane (HCH) and p,p' DDE as predominant contaminant in both butter and ghee. Residues of HCH were detected in 25 and 23% samples of butter and ghee, respectively, while residues of p,p' DDE were recorded in 29 and 25% of butter and ghee samples, respectively. None of the butter and ghee sample violated the MRL values of 200 ng g(-1) for HCH and 1250 ng g(-1) for dichorodiphenyl tricholorethane (DDT). The presence of endosulfan, cypermethrin, fenvalerate, deltamethrin, and chlorpyrifos were observed in a few butter and ghee samples at traces. The spatial variation for comparative occurrence of pesticide residues indicated higher levels in the south-western region of Punjab. Additionally, the temporal variation indicated the significant reduction of HCH and DDT levels in butter and ghee in Punjab.

Levels and patterns of DDTs in maternal colostrum from an island population and exposure of neonates

Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT) was heavily used in the past in many regions of the world. The occurrence of DDTs in island populations may be elevated if the island is adjacent to major DDT consumption estuaries, such as the Yangtze River Delta. In this study, colostrum samples were collected from maternal-neonate pairs (n = 106) from the Shengsi Island, located directly downstream from the Yangtze River outlet. DDT isomers and enantiomer compositions were analyzed by gas chromatography equipped with mass spectrometer (GC/MS) and GC/MS-MS. The average levels of p,p'-DDE, o,p'-DDD, p,p'-DDD, o,p'-DDT, p,p'-DDT and total DDTs were 1.32, 0.03, 0.09, 0.08, 0.48, and 1.93 μg g(-1) lipid weight, respectively. Maternal age and pregnancy body mass index (BMI) were positively associated with levels of DDTs (p < 0.05). High (DDE+DDD)/DDT and p,p'-DDE/p,p'-DDT ratios suggested that current DDT residues originated primarily from historical use of DDT products, but new sources may also contribute partially to some high o,p'-DDT/p,p'-DDT ratios. Enantiomeric enrichment was found for the (-)-enantiomer of o,p'-DDD and the (+)-enantiomer of o,p'-DDT, suggesting stereoselective attenuation. Based on breast milk consumption, the average daily intake of DDTs by neonates was 8.33 ± 7.34 μg kg(-1)bw per day, which exceeded the WHO's tolerable daily intake guideline of 0.01 mg kg(-1) bw per day by 25%, implying some neonates in the Yangtze River region are potentially at high risk from exposure to DDTs.

In utero exposure of neonatal buffalo calves to pesticide residues and the alterations within their reproductive tract

In utero exposure of neonates to pesticide residues could be damaging to the reproductive tract. Hence, the present study assessed the circulating concentrations of pesticide residues in buffalo and their neonatal calves as well as in the reproductive tract tissue samples of same calves. Also, histopathological alterations were revealed in the reproductive tract of calves. Pesticide residues were high (P<0.05) in the reproductive tract of calves (119.5 ± 20.2 ng/g, 35% positive) in comparison to their blood (32.1 ± 8.4 ng/ml, 15% positive) or blood of their dams (41.5 ± 8.3 ng/ml, 25% positive). The number of histopathological alterations were high (P<0.05) in the reproductive tract of a calf contaminated with high concentrations of pesticide residues (3.43 ± 1.29) in comparison to a tract positive for low residue concentrations (1.57 ± 0.60) or pesticide negative tract (0.28 ± 0.10). In conclusion, in utero exposure of neonatal buffalo calves to pesticide residues may be associated with damaging alterations in their reproductive tract.

Pesticide Residues in Bovine Milk in Punjab, India: Spatial Variation and Risk Assessment to Human Health

In the present study, gas chromatographic analysis of pesticide residues in bovine milk (n = 312) from Punjab, India, showed chlorpyrifos, DDT, and γ-HCH as the predominant contaminants. In addition, the presence of β-endosulfan, endosulfan suphate, cypermethrin, cyhalothrin, fenvalerate, deltamethrin, malathion, profenofos, and ethion was reported in milk samples. In this study, it was observed that 12 milk samples exceeded the maximum residue limits (MRLs) for γ-HCH (lindane), 18 for DDT and chlorpyrifos, and 1 sample each for endosulfan, cypermethrin, and profenophos. In India, DDT is still permitted for a malaria control program, which may be the plausible reason for its occurrence in milk samples. The spatial variation for presence of pesticide residues in milk indicated greater levels in cotton-growing areas of Punjab. At current levels of pesticide residues in bovine milk, the human health risk assessment in terms of noncancer and cancer hazard was calculated based on both lower-bound [LB (mean residue levels)] and upper-bound [UP (95th percentile level)] limits. It was noticed that cancer and noncancer risk were within United States Environmental Protection Agency prescribed limits for both adults and children at the LB, but children were being exposed to greater risk for DDT and HCH at the 95th-percentile UB level.

Monitoring of pesticide residues in human blood from Punjab, India

In the present study, the current levels of pesticide residues were studied in the human populace of Punjab state. A total of 111 human blood samples were analyzed by gas chromatography and pesticide residues were detected in 35 % of the blood sample(s). Residues of alpha-hexachlorocyclohexane (α-HCH), beta-hexachlorocyclohexane (β-HCH), p,p'-dichlorodiphenyldichloroethane (p,p' DDD), p,p' dichlorodiphenyldichloroethylene (p,p' DDE), p,p' dichlorodiphenyldichloroethane (p,p' DDT), β-endosulfan, monocrotophos, profenophos and phosalone were found in human blood samples with mean levels of 1.11, 5.89, 0.51, 3.88, 0.39, 34.90, 0.79, 0.39 and 6.76 ng ml(-1), respectively, with β-endosulfan as a leading pesticide residue. A paradigm shift in the pattern of the pesticide usage was observed with a shift from organochlorine pesticides to organophosphates.