'An investigation into the occurrence and removal of pharmaceuticals in Colombian wastewater'

Wastewater surveillance for chronic disease drugs in wastewater treatment plants: Mass load, removal, and sewage epidemiology

As the number of chronic disease patients continues to climb, vast quantities of chronic disease drugs are continuously discharged into the wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) and then are released to the receiving environment. However, the situations of pollution, removal, and consumption of chronic disease drugs in China were not studied. Here we investigated the mass load and removal efficiency of 14 chronic disease drugs in seven wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) of Guangdong Province, China, and estimated the proportional usage of chronic disease drugs and the prevalence of chronic diseases by wastewater-based epidemiology (WBE) method. The results showed that all target chronic disease drugs were detected in the WWTPs, among which gliclazide, valsartan, and bezafibrate were the mainly detected antidiabetic drug, antihypertensive drug, and antihyperlipidemic drug, respectively. The aqueous removal rates of chronic disease drugs ranged from -163 %-100 % in studied WWTPs, and most chronic disease drugs were mainly removed at anaerobic stage in WWTPs that using Anaerobic-Anoxic-Oxic treatment technologies. Mean mass loads of chronic disease drugs in the influent of seven WWTPs ranged at 72-318099 mg·d-1 (valsartan), and mean emission of chronic disease drugs in seven WWTPs ranged at 0-56.3 mg·d-1·1000 inhabitant-1 (valsartan). Based on the WBE method, the prevalence of diabetes, hypertension, and dyslipidemia estimated by gliclazide, glipizide, valsartan, and bezafibrate in this study was consistent with those obtained via cross-sectional survey. The results formulated the contamination characteristics of chronic disease drugs in China and assessed the accuracy of chronic disease drugs used for disease prevalence estimation.

Evaluation of contaminants of emerging concern in surface waters (rivers and lake) from Peru: Occurrence and environmental risk assessment

This study represents one of the first efforts to investigate the presence and environmental risk of contaminants of emerging concern (CECs) in surface water of the main watersheds of the Department of Lima (Rímac River, Chillón River, and Lurin River), Department of Arequipa (Chili-Quilca-Vítor River, Cámana-Majes River, and Tambo River), and Department of Puno (Lake Titicaca) from Peru. Water samples were collected during two sampling campaigns (June and September-October 2023) in Lima and Arequipa, and one sampling campaign (April-May 2023) in Puno. A strategy combining qualitative and quantitative analysis of CECs was applied, based on liquid chromatography coupled to ion mobility-high resolution mass spectrometry (LC-IMS-HRMS) and tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS), respectively. A total of 16 pharmaceutically active compounds (PhACs) and other compounds (sweeteners, stimulants, UV filters, and preservatives) and 16 metabolites were identified by LC-IMS-HRMS with a high level of confidence, in addition to the 39 target PhACs quantified by LC-MS/MS. The watersheds of Lima showed the highest pollution in terms of the number of pharmaceuticals and concentration levels compared to the watersheds of Arequipa and Lake Titicaca (Puno), with antibiotics persisting from the upper watersheds to the lower watersheds in the rivers and the lake. For the environmental risk assessment, five different scenarios were considered depending on the water uses/destinations, and the multicriteria scoring method allowed to identification of relevant/concerning PhACs. Azithromycin, clarithromycin, erythromycin, ciprofloxacin, flumequine, trimethoprim, diclofenac, acetaminophen, losartan, valsartan, atorvastatin and metabolite O-desmethyl venlafaxine posed a high level of risk/concern. This information will facilitate the design of a Watch List for CECs, with future monitoring programs and environment risk assessments to protect vulnerable areas most affected by anthropogenic pollution.

Tracing antibiotics in sewers: Concentrations, measurement techniques, and mathematical approaches

Antibiotic contamination in sewer networks has significant environmental and health concerns worldwide, primarily due to its role in promoting bacterial resistance. In this literature review, antibiotic concentrations reported in urban sewers and hospital effluents, techniques for antimicrobial compound detection and quantification, and current modeling strategies are analyzed and discussed based on 91 papers published between 2014 and 2024. One-hundred and nine antibiotic compounds were reported across 80 studies, with sulfonamides, fluoroquinolones, and macrolides being the most frequently detected classes, while amphenicols and aminocyclitols were the least monitored. Advanced analytical techniques such as liquid chromatography and mass spectrometry are the most common approaches used for antibiotic quantification. Modeling efforts remain limited, with kinetic models, Risk Quotient (RQ) assessments, and Wastewater-Based Epidemiology (WBE) representing the main approaches identified. This review compiles 992 reports into a comprehensive dataset intended to support future research, especially for global monitoring, the development of predictive models, and the formulation of regulatory frameworks for managing antibiotic pollution in sewer systems.

Presence of antibiotics in children's urine: a silent risk beyond drinking water

This study investigated the presence of 32 antibiotic residues in drinking water, their potential association with antibiotic concentrations in children's urine samples, and anthropometric indicators. Water samples were collected from the primary water sources supplying Ilo, Peru (Pacocha and Pampa), and urine samples were analysed from children aged 2 to 10 years using liquid chromatography coupled to tandem mass spectrometry with triple quadrupole. Five antibiotics were detected in drinking water, with three of these representing a health risk due to high concentrations and risk quotients (RQ): Doxycycline (2.30), Sulfamethoxazole (1.04), and Metronidazole (25.68). Furthermore, there was no correlation between the antibiotics found in drinking water and those detected in urine samples, as the types and quantities of antibiotics differed. In urine samples, 21 antibiotics were detected in children from Pacocha and 19 from Pampa. The antibiotics and anthropometric variables did not show any significant correlation. Principal component analysis revealed that antibiotic profiles were highly similar across both areas, suggesting a shared source of contamination independent of drinking water. It is concerning that 100% of the children have at least three antibiotics in their urine, which could affect their health now and later in life.

Comparison of three different zeolites to activate peroxymonosulfate for the degradation of the pharmaceutical ciprofloxacin in water

Zeolites are typically used as adsorbents for the removal of organic pollutants from water but recently are gaining attention as catalysts for the activation of persulfates toward contaminants degradation. In this work, the capability of a zeolite Y (FAU-type) and two zeolites beta (BEA-type) to activate peroxymonosulfate (PMS) toward the degradation of one representative pollutant of a pharmaceutical nature (i.e., ciprofloxacin) was tested and compared. Initially, the characterization of the considered zeolites was carried out, evidencing that they had different Si/Al, surface area, and basicity. Then, the main degradation pathway involved in the target pollutant degradation was determined and the activating ability of three zeolites was compared. It was found that among the three tested materials, zeolite Y had the highest activating capability toward PMS for ciprofloxacin degradation (showing ~ 90% degradation after 10 min of treatment). The synergy (S) of the systems followed the order: zeolites beta/PMS (S, 0.5-1.4) < zeolite Y/PMS (S, 3.9), revealing that the Si/Al ratio has a determinant role in the zeolite/peroxymonosulfate combination, being convenient lower values of such a ratio. In the most adequate combination (i.e., zeolite Y/PMS), the pharmaceutical was attacked by singlet oxygen (coming from the PMS activation by the zeolite via basic sites), which modified ciprofloxacin on its piperazyl ring, producing two intermediates. Theoretical analyses based on the structure suggested that the two intermediates have low toxicity against mammals. Additionally, experimental tests showed that the zeolite Y/PMS process led to a resultant solution without antimicrobial activity against S. aureus. Finally, it can be mentioned that ZY/PMS was used to deal with ciprofloxacin in synthetic hospital wastewater, achieving ~ 40% pollutant elimination after 60 min of treatment.

Biochar for mitigating pharmaceutical pollution in wastewater: A sustainable solution

Pharmaceutical contaminants (PCs), including antibiotics, analgesics, and other medications, pose a growing threat to aquatic ecosystems and human health due to their persistence and bioaccumulation potential. Biochar, a carbonaceous material derived from biomass pyrolysis, has emerged as a sustainable adsorbent for removing PCs from wastewater. Biochar is reported to remove PCs from water with an average range of 58 to 91 %, depending on the nature of feedstock, pyrolysis conditions, and characteristics of the pharmaceuticals. Biochar's effectiveness is attributed to its unique properties, including high porosity, large surface area and diverse functional groups, which enable the adsorption of various pharmaceutical compounds through physical and chemical interactions. Common PCs such as tetracycline, ciprofloxacin, ibuprofen, paracetamol, sulfamethoxazole, and cephalexin can be effectively removed using biochar. The adsorption process involves different mechanisms such as Van der Waals forces, electrostatic interactions, hydrogen bonding, and surface complexation. This review summarizes the current state of knowledge on biochar-based adsorption mechanisms, highlights successful applications in wastewater treatment, and identifies areas for future research. While promising, a deeper understanding of adsorption mechanisms, optimization of biochar production, and the development of effective regeneration methods are crucial for maximizing biochar's efficacy and ensuring its sustainable implementation in wastewater treatment systems.

Pharmaceuticals removal from aqueous solution by water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes): a comprehensive investigation of kinetics, equilibrium, and thermodynamics

This study shows the efficiency of WH-C450, an adsorbent obtained from water hyacinth (WH) biomass, in the removal of sulfamethoxazole (SMX) from aqueous solutions. The process involves calcination of WH at 450 °C to produce an optimal adsorbent material capable of removing up to 73% of SMX and maximum SMX adsorption capacity of 132.23 mg/g. Fourier-transform infrared (FTIR) characterization reveals the involvement of various functional groups in the adsorption process through hydrogen bonds and electron-donor-acceptor (EDA) interactions. X-ray diffraction (XRD) analysis confirms the presence of phases containing CO32-, PO43- ions, as well as elements such as Si and Fe, which contribute to the adsorption mechanism through hydrogen bonding and complexation, respectively. X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) analysis further supports these interactions. Kinetic analysis shows rapid adsorption, which combines physical and chemical processes and leads to rapid attainment of equilibrium. This is due to the high affinity of WH-C450 for SMX, which allows for a fast and efficient adsorption process. Isothermal modeling reveals multilayer adsorption with favorable interactions. Thermodynamic analysis confirms the endothermic and temperature-dependent nature of the process. In addition, pH, adsorbent dose, and initial concentration are important in adsorption. Lower pH levels enhance cationic SMX adsorption, while higher adsorbent doses improve efficiency. Optimal conditions were identified by experimental design, enabling the establishment of a predictive model. Consequently, the SMX removal capacity is strongly correlated with the initial concentration. This research underscores the potential of WH-C450 for antibiotic removal in water treatment applications.

Ten years of monitoring pharmaceuticals and pesticides in the aquatic environment nearby a solid-waste treatment plant: Historical data, trends and risk assessment

The emission of contaminants of emerging concern (CECs) from wastewater treatment plants has been extensively studied; however, less attention has been paid to municipal solid waste treatment plants (MSWTPs), which can also be a potential source for CECs into surface water (SW) and groundwater (GW) ecosystems. In this work, the environmental impact of a MSWTP located in the province of Castelló, Spain, was studied along a period of ten years (from 2012 to 2022). A total of 173 water samples (including SW and GW) collected from the surrounding of this plant were monitored for 93 compounds (pharmaceuticals and pesticides) by using liquid chromatography coupled to tandem mass spectrometry with triple quadrupole. This study reveals the presence of several pharmaceuticals (e.g. primidone, gabapentin, azithromycin, clarithromycin, tramadol), particularly in GW samples collected near areas related to composting and storage of biostabilized material. The presence of antibiotic residues in GW raises concerns about the potential development of antimicrobial resistance. In addition, agricultural activities in the study area emerge as potential contributor to GW pollution by pesticides, as the MSWTP is located in an important agricultural area where citrus is the predominant crop. Some compounds that are currently prohibited for agricultural use (e.g. atrazine, simazine, chlorpyrifos) were also found, which highlights the importance of continuing their monitoring to assess their long-term environmental impacts. Several pesticide and pharmaceutical compounds exceeded the threshold values established by the EU groundwater directive. Therefore, a hazard assessment for GW ecosystems and for humans drinking contaminated GW resources was conducted. Our data indicated that some organophosphate insecticides (i.e., chlorpyrifos, carbofuran, pyridaphention) may pose high risks for groundwater crustaceans, while the risks for the human population were considered to be very low.

Azithromycin removal from water via adsorption on drinking water sludge-derived materials: Kinetics and isotherms studies

In this study, we utilized drinking water treatment sludge (WTS) to produce adsorbents through the drying and calcination process. These adsorbents were then evaluated for their ability to remove azithromycin (AZT) from aqueous solutions. The L-500 adsorbent, derived from the calcination (at 500°C) of WTS generated under conditions of low turbidity in the drinking water treatment plant, presented an increase in the specific surface area from 70.745 to 95.471 m2 g-1 and in the total pore volume from 0.154 to 0.211 cm3 g-1, which resulted in a significant AZT removal efficiency of 65% in distilled water after 60 min of treatment. In synthetic wastewater, the rate of AZT removal increased to 80%, in comparison, in a real effluent of a municipal wastewater treatment plant, an AZT removal of 56% was obtained. Kinetic studies revealed that the experimental data followed the pseudo-second-order model (R2: 0.993-0.999, APE: 0.07-1.30%, and Δq: 0.10-2.14%) suggesting that chemisorption is the limiting step in the adsorption using L-500. This finding aligns with FTIR analysis, which indicates that adsorption mechanisms involve π-π stacking, hydrogen bonding, and electrostatic interactions. The equilibrium data were analyzed using the nonlinear Langmuir, Freundlich, and Langmuir-Freundlich isotherms. The Langmuir-Freundlich model presented the best fitting (R2: 0.93, APE: 2.22%, and Δq: 0.06%) revealing numerous interactions and adsorption energies between AZT and L-500. This adsorbent showed a reduction of 19% in its AZT removal after four consecutive reuse cycles. In line with the circular economy principles, our study presents an interesting prospect for the reuse and valorization of WTS. This approach not only offers an effective adsorbent for AZT removal from water but also represents a significant step forward in advancing sustainable water treatment solutions within the framework of the circular economy.

Comprehensive screening and analysis of pharmaceuticals and pharmaceutically active chemicals in wastewater: health and environmental hazards and removal efficiency of wastewater treatment plant in Malaysia

Wastewater treatment plant (WWTP) is a sustainable technique for making wastewater reusable for non-potable purposes. However, in developing countries, most conventional WWTPs are not equipped to trap all pharmaceutical residues (PRs) and pharmaceutically active chemicals (PhACs). This study aims to perform non-target screening of these contaminants in wastewater and explore health and environmental hazards and the removal efficiency of a WWTP in Malaysia. At Indah Water WWTP, a total of 28 wastewater samples (i.e., 2 L each of 14 influent and 14 effluent) were collected every day for a week from February to April 2023. The supernatant of the centrifuged sample was analyzed with the LCMS-QTOF system. Chromatographic profiles were analyzed, and the compounds were annotated using the METLIN database. Categorical data were statistically analyzed with SPSS 29.0 using a chi-square test and continuous variables using paired t-test and multiple regression. PRs like micronutrient (9, 2.3%) and PhACs like lipid (83, 20.8%) were more frequent. Detection frequencies of PRs and PhACs were 72 (18%) and 328 (82%), respectively. Efficiency of WWTP was 36.4 to 100% for PRs removal (mean ± SD: 65.85 ± 56.43%) and 20 to 100% for PhACs removal (mean ± SD: 49.30 ± 55.94%). A total of 943 (mean ± SD: 67.36 ± 43.28) and 400 (mean ± SD: 28.57 ± 32.44) unique PRs and PhACs were recorded. A total of 40 (10%) PRs and PhACs had the potential to irritate eyes, skin, and respiratory tract, and 46 (11.5%) chemicals needed to be avoided from being discharged into the environment. Though WWTP was 98.0% compliant with environmental standards, its efficiency should still be increased to remove the full range of PRs and PhACs. The research has implications for SDGs 6 and 14.

Assessment of contaminants of emerging concern and antibiotic resistance genes in the Mapocho River (Chile): A comprehensive study on water quality and municipal wastewater impact

The primary objective of this study was to evaluate the persistence and elimination of Contaminants of Emerging Concern (CECs) in municipal wastewater treatment plants (MWWTPs) and their presence in the Mapocho River within the metropolitan area of Santiago, Chile. The use of advanced analytical techniques, based on liquid chromatography coupled to both low and high-resolution mass spectrometry, allowed a comprehensive overview on the presence of CECs in samples. Additionally, a preliminary assessment of the microbiological aspects aimed to determine the presence of indicator microorganisms of fecal contamination, such as Escherichia coli and total coliforms was conducted. Furthermore, a qualitative assessment of Antibiotic Resistant Genes (ARGs) was performed. No CECs were detected upstream to the MWWTPs. However, the results from various wastewater samples (influent, secondary, and tertiary effluents) revealed significant diversity, with 73 CECs detected alongside prevalent ARGs including sulI, sulfII, qnrB, and blaTEM. The presence of CECs and ARGs downstream of the MWWTP in the Mapocho River was mainly attributed to effluent discharge. On the other hand, typical values for a healthy river and a MWWTP with a final disinfection stage were found in terms of fecal contamination. Consequently, the imperative for developing tertiary or quaternary treatments capable of degrading CECs and ARGs to minimize environmental impact is underscored. These findings hold public health significance, offering insights into potential risks and influencing future legislative measures in Chile.

Green adsorbents for pharmaceutics removal from urine: Analysis of isotherms, kinetics, adsorption interactions, cost estimation, and environmental impact

Husks of rice (RH), coffee (CH), and cholupa (CLH) were used to produce natural adsorbents. The natural adsorbents were used to remove pharmaceuticals such as diclofenac, ciprofloxacin, and acetaminophen in a mixture of distilled water. However, CH stood out for its efficiency in removing ciprofloxacin (74%) due to the higher concentration of acidic groups, as indicated by the Boehm method. In addition, CH removed 86% of ciprofloxacin individually. Therefore, CH was selected and used to remove other fluoroquinolones, such as levofloxacin and Norfloxacin. Although electrostatic interactions favored removals, better removal was observed for ciprofloxacin due to its smaller molecular volume. Then, ciprofloxacin was selected, and the effect of pH, matrix, and adsorbent doses were evaluated. In this way, using a pH of 6.2 in urine with a dose of 1.5 g L-1, it is possible to adsorb CIP concentrations in the range (0.0050-0.42 mmol L-1). Subsequently, the high R2 values and low percentages of APE and Δq indicated better fits for pseudo-second-order kinetics, suggesting a two-stage adsorption. At the same time, the Langmuir isotherm recommends a monolayer adsorption with a Qm of 25.2 mg g-1. In addition, a cost of 0.373 USD/g CIP was estimated for the process, where the material can be reused up to 4 times with a CIP removal in the urine of 51%. Consequently, thermodynamics analysis showed an exothermic and spontaneous process with high disorder. Furthermore, changes in FTIR analysis after adsorption suggest that CH in removing CIP in urine involves electrostatic attractions, hydrogen bonds and π-π interactions. In addition, the life cycle analysis presents, for the 11 categories evaluated, a lower environmental impact of the CIP removal in urine with CH than for the preparation of adsorbent, confirming that the adsorption process is more environmentally friendly than materials synthesis or other alternatives of treatments. Furthermore, future directions of the study based on real applications were proposed.

Dilute-and-shoot approach for the high-throughput LC-MS/MS determination of illicit drugs in the field of wastewater-based epidemiology

The determination of illicit drugs in urban influent wastewater (IWW) enables the monitoring of spatial and temporal drug usage trends and assessment of community lifestyle habits. The increasing number of wastewater surveillance studies has emphasized the necessity for the development of rapid, high-throughput methods that maintain high quality data. This work evaluates the use of a dilute-and-shoot methodology, based on direct injection (DI) of centrifuged samples, as an alternative approach to the widely applied sample pre-treatment based on solid-phase extraction, for the liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry determination of seven widely consumed illicit drugs and their metabolites in IWW (amphetamine; cocaine metabolite, benzoylecgonine; ketamine; 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA); methamphetamine; cannabis metabolite, 11-nor-9-carboxy-delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THCCOOH); heroin metabolite, 6-acetylmorphine (6-MAM)). Comparison of both approaches in terms of matrix effects, sensitivity and accuracy, demonstrates the DI method suitability to correctly quantify these analytes in IWW, with a limit of quantification lower than 30 ng L-1 for most compounds. After validation of the method and participation in an interlaboratory exercise, the DI method was applied to the analysis of 54 IWW samples collected from different Spanish wastewater treatment plants. Additionally, quality controls were incorporated in each analysis batch to support the DI method applicability and robustness. The use of a 10 μL-DI reduces time-consuming sample preparation, analysis time and measurement uncertainty. Moreover, it supports green chemistry by reducing the consumption of organic solvents and it facilitates logistics by collecting, transporting, and storing less sample volume. The methodology is therefore especially appropriate for monitoring illicit drugs in large wastewater-based epidemiology sampling campaigns or when fast near real-time results are needed.

Azithromycin removal using pine bark, oak ash and mussel shell

Adsorption is considered an interesting option for removing antibiotics from the environment because of its simple design, low cost, and potential efficiency. In this work we evaluated three by-products (pine bark, oak ash, and mussel shell) as bio-adsorbents for the antibiotic azithromycin (AZM). Furthermore, they were added at doses of 48 t ha-1 to four different soils, then comparing AZM removal for soils with and without bio-adsorbents. Batch-type experiments were used, adding AZM concentrations between 2.5 and 600 μmol L-1 to the different bio-adsorbents and soil + bio-adsorbent mixtures. Regarding the bio-adsorbents, oak ash showed the best adsorption scores (9600 μmol kg-1, meaning >80% retention), followed by pine bark (8280 μmol kg-1, 69%) and mussel shell (between 3000 and 6000 μmol kg-1, 25-50% retention). Adsorption data were adjusted to different models (Linear, Freundlich and Langmuir), showing that just mussel shell presented an acceptable fitting to the Freundlich equation, while pine bark and oak ash did not present a good adjustment to any of the three models. Regarding desorption, the values were always below the detection limit, indicating a rather irreversible adsorption of AZM onto these three by-products. Furthermore, the results showed that when the lowest concentrations of AZM were added to the not amended soils they adsorbed 100% of the antibiotic, whereas when the highest concentrations of AZM were spread, the adsorption decreased to 55%. However, when any of the three bio-adsorbents was added to the soils, AZM adsorption reached 100% for all the antibiotic concentrations used. Desorption was null in all cases for both soils with and without bio-adsorbents. These results, corresponding to an investigation carried out for the first time for the antibiotic AZM, can be seen as relevant in the search of low-cost alternative treatments to face environmental pollution caused by this emerging contaminant.

Pharmaceutical removal from wastewater by introducing cytochrome P450s into microalgae

Pharmaceuticals are of increasing environmental concern as they emerge and accumulate in surface- and groundwater systems around the world, endangering the overall health of aquatic ecosystems. Municipal wastewater discharge is a significant vector for pharmaceuticals and their metabolites to enter surface waters as humans incompletely absorb prescription drugs and excrete up to 50% into wastewater, which are subsequently incompletely removed during wastewater treatment. Microalgae present a promising target for improving wastewater treatment due to their ability to remove some pollutants efficiently. However, their inherent metabolic pathways limit their capacity to degrade more recalcitrant organic compounds such as pharmaceuticals. The human liver employs enzymes to break down and absorb drugs, and these enzymes are extensively researched during drug development, meaning the cytochrome P450 enzymes responsible for metabolizing each approved drug are well studied. Thus, unlocking or increasing cytochrome P450 expression in endogenous wastewater microalgae could be a cost-effective strategy to reduce pharmaceutical loads in effluents. Here, we discuss the challenges and opportunities associated with introducing cytochrome P450 enzymes into microalgae. We anticipate that cytochrome P450-engineered microalgae can serve as a new drug removal method and a sustainable solution that can upgrade wastewater treatment facilities to function as "mega livers".

Preparation of iota-carrageenan@bentonite@4-phenyl-3-thiosemicarbazide ternary hydrogel for adsorption of Losartan potassium and sulfamethoxazole

A rising quantity of drugs has been discharged into the aquatic environment, posing a substantial hazard to public health. In the current work, a novel hydrogel (i.Carr@Bent@PTC), comprised of iota-carrageenan, bentonite, and 4-phenyl-3-thiosemicarbazide, was successfully prepared. The introduction of 4-phenyl-3-thiosemicarbazide and bentonite in iota-carrageenan significantly increased the mechanical strength of iota-carrageenan hydrogel and improved its degree of swelling, which can be attributed to the hydrophilic properties of PTC and Bent. The recorded contact angle was 70.8°, 59.1°, 53.9°, and 34.6° for pristine i.Carr, i.Carr@Bent, and i.Carr@Bent@PTC, respectively. The low contact angle measurement of the Bent and PTC loaded-i.Carr hydrogel was attributed to the hydrophilic Bent and PTC. The ternary i.Carr@Bent@PTC hydrogel demonstrated broad pH adaptability and excellent adsorption capacities for sulfamethoxazole (SMX) and losartan potassium (LP), i.e., 467.61 mg. g-1 and 274.43 mg. g-1 at 298.15 K, respectively. The pseudo-first-order (PSO) model provided a better fit for the adsorption kinetics. The adsorption of SMX and LP can be better explained by employing the Sips and Langmuir isotherm models. As revealed by XPS and FTIR investigations, π-π stacking, complexation, electrostatic interaction, and hydrogen bonding were primarily involved in the adsorption mechanisms.

Application of catalytic ozonation using Y zeolite in the elimination of pharmaceuticals in effluents from municipal wastewater treatment plants

Catalytic ozonation using faujasite-type Y zeolite with two different SiO2/Al2O3 molar ratios (60 and 12) was evaluated for the first time in the removal of 25 pharmaceutical compounds (PhCs) present in real effluents from two municipal wastewater treatment plants both located in the Mediterranean coast of Spain. Additionally, control experiments including adsorption and direct ozonation, were conducted to better understand the fundamental aspects of the different individual systems in wastewater samples. Commercial zeolites were used in sodium form (NaY). The results showed that the simultaneous use of ozone and NaY zeolites significantly improved the micropollutants degradation rate, able to degrade 95 % of the total mixture of PhCs within the early 9 min using the zeolite NaY-12 (24.4 mg O3 L-1 consumed), while 12 min of reaction with the zeolite NaY-60 (31 mg O3 L-1 consumed). In the case of individual experiments, ozonation removed 95 % of the total mixture of PhCs after 25 min (46.2 mg O3 L-1 consumed), while the direct adsorption, after 60 min of contact time, eliminated 30 % and 44 % using the NaY-12 and NaY-60 zeolites, respectively. Results showed that the Brønsted acid sites seemed to play an important role in the effectiveness of the treatment with ozone. Finally, the environmental assessment showed that the total risk quotients of pharmaceuticals were reduced between 87 %-99 % after ozonation in the presence of NaY-60 and NaY-12 zeolites. The results of this study demonstrate that catalytic ozonation using NaY zeolites as catalysts is a promising alternative for micropollutant elimination in real-world wastewater matrices.

Detection of Pharmaceutically Active Compounds in Tap Water Samples by Direct Injection HPLC/MS-MS: A Danger Signal in Deficiency in Residue Management

To date, there is an increased risk to public health and the environment due to the presence of pharmaceutically active compounds within drinking water supply and distribution networks. Owing to this, a direct injection-HPLC/MS-MS method was developed for the simultaneous determination of 16 active pharmaceutical compounds in tap water samples: amoxicillin, ampicillin, cephalexin, cefotaxime, cefuroxime, ciprofloxacin, clarithromycin, clindamycin, chloramphenicol, cyproterone, erythromycin, flutamide, spironolactone, sulfamethoxazole, tamoxifen, and trimethoprim. Limits of detection (LOD) ranged from 0.2 to 6.0 µg/L while quantification limits (LOQ) from 0.3 to 20 µg/L. Recovery percentages were between 70 and 125%. Total analysis time was short, with all compounds being resolved in less than 2.1 min. Of the 22 tap water samples collected and analyzed, the highest concentrations corresponded to amoxicillin (147 µg/L) and ciprofloxacin (44 µg/L). The findings could set a precedent for establishing safe levels of these compounds and increasing standards for tap water quality in this region.

Global insight into the occurrence, treatment technologies and ecological risk of emerging contaminants in sanitary sewers: Effects of the SARS-CoV-2 coronavirus pandemic

The SARS-CoV-2 pandemic caused changes in the consumption of prescribed/non-prescribed drugs and the population's habits, influencing the detection and concentration of emerging contaminants (ECs) in sanitary sewage and harming environmental and health risks. Therefore, the present work sought to discuss current literature data on the effects of the "COVID-19 pandemic factor" on the quality of raw sewage produced over a five-year period (2018-2019: pre-pandemic; 2020-2022: during the pandemic) and biological, physical, chemical and hybrid treatment technologies, influencing factors in the removal of ECs and potential ecological risks (RQs). Seven hundred thirty-one publications correlating sewage and COVID-19 were identified: 184 pre-pandemic and 547 during the pandemic. Eight classes and 37 ECs were detected in sewage between 2018 and 2022, with the "COVID-19 pandemic factor" promoting an increase in estrogens (+31,775 %), antibiotics (+19,544 %), antiepileptics and antipsychotics (+722 %), pesticides (+200 %), analgesics, anti-inflammatories and anticoagulants (+173 %), and stimulant medications (+157 %) in sanitary sewage. Among the treatment systems, aerated reactors integrated into biomembranes removed >90 % of cephalexin, clarithromycin, ibuprofen, estrone, and 17β-estradiol. The absorption, adsorption, and biodegradation mechanisms of planted wetland systems contributed to better cost-benefit in reducing the polluting load of sewage ECs in the COVID-19 pandemic, individually or integrated into the WWTP. The COVID-19 pandemic factor increased the potential ecological risks (RQs) for aquatic organisms by 40 %, with emphasis on clarithromycin and sulfamethoxazole, which changed from negligible risk and low risk to (very) high risk and caffeine with RQ > 2500. Therefore, it is possible to suggest that the COVID-19 pandemic intensified physiological, metabolic, and physical changes to different organisms in aquatic biota by ECs during 2020 and 2022.

Development and Validation of UFLC-MS/MS Analytical Method for the Simultaneous Quantification of Antibiotic Residues in Surface Water, Groundwater, and Pharmaceutical Waste Water Samples from South India

Antibiotic residues in pharmaceutical wastewater pose a significant environmental concern due to their potential role in fostering antimicrobial resistance. South Indian pharmaceutical companies produce a wide range of antibiotics. As a result, the industries that discharge water may include antibiotic residues, which could be harmful to the environment. In this study, a novel, quick, accurate, and sensitive approach for the simultaneous detection of 11 antibiotics was established, and triple quadrupole mass spectrometry, ultra-fast liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (UFLC-MS/MS), and selective solid-phase extraction (SPE) were used for validation. Utilizing a mixed mode reversed-phase/cation-exchange cartridge (SPE using Strata X, 33 μm), the single-cartridge extraction procedure was performed and validated. Relative standard deviations for most of the antibiotics ranged from 3.5 to 0.56 with recoveries ranging from 57 to 85%. The samples were injected into the UFLC-MS/MS apparatus at a volume of 10 μL for analysis. The auto sampler cooler temperature was kept at 150 °C, while the column temperature was kept at 40 °C. After validation, the technique was determined to be linear in the range of 2.0-1000.0 ng/mL. The retention period for antibiotics was between 1.2 and 1.5 min. Antibiotics transitions for multiple reaction monitoring| were between 235.1/105.9 and 711.5/467.9 m/z. The method of analysis took 2.5 min to run completely. Antibiotic residues were efficiently analyzed using the established analytical approach in pharmaceutical wastewater (influent and effluent), surface, and groundwater. Eleven antibiotics were found in the water samples during examination with concentrations ranging between 2.313 and 95.744 ng/L. The procedure was shown to be much more environmentally friendly than other contemporary methods based on the green analytical procedure index's evaluation of greenness. Blue applicability grade index tool indicated the developed method's practicality in comparison with that of other reported method.

Contaminants of emerging concern: Occurrence, analytical techniques, and removal with electrochemical advanced oxidation processes with special emphasis in Latin America

The occurrence of contaminants of emerging concern (CECs) in environmental systems is gradually more studied worldwide. However, in Latin America, the presence of contaminants of emerging concern, together with their environmental and toxicological impacts, has recently been gaining wide interest in the scientific community. This paper presents a critical review about the source, fate, and occurrence of distinct emerging contaminants reported during the last two decades in various countries of Latin America. In recent years, Brazil, Chile, and Colombia are the main countries that have conducted research on the presence of these pollutants in biological and aquatic compartments. Data gathered indicated that pharmaceuticals, pesticides, and personal care products are the most assessed CECs in Latin America, being the most common compounds the followings: atrazine, acenaphthene, caffeine, carbamazepine, ciprofloxacin, diclofenac, diuron, estrone, losartan, sulfamethoxazole, and trimethoprim. Most common analytical methodologies for identifying these compounds were HPLC and GC coupled with mass spectrometry with the potential to characterize and quantify complex substances in the environment at low concentrations. Most CECs' monitoring and detection were observed near to urban areas which confirm the out-of-date wastewater treatment plants and sanitization infrastructures limiting the removal of these pollutants. Therefore, the implementation of tertiary treatment should be required. In this tenor, this review also summarizes some studies of CECs removal using electrochemical advanced oxidation processes that showed satisfactory performance. Finally, challenges, recommendations, and future perspectives are discussed.

Complete abatement of the antibiotic ciprofloxacin from water using a visible-light-active nanostructured photoanode

The wide use of the fluoroquinolone antibiotic ciprofloxacin (CIP), combined with its limited removal in wastewater treatment plants, results in a dangerous accumulation in natural water. Here, the complete degradation of CIP by photoelectrocatalysis (PEC), using an FTO/ZnO/TiO2/Ag2Se photoanode that is responsive to blue light, has been investigated. A slow antibiotic concentration decay was found in 0.050 M Na2SO4 under the oxidizing action of holes and OH photogenerated at the anode surface. The degradation was strongly enhanced in 0.070 M NaCl due to mediated oxidation by electrogenerated active chlorine. The latter process became faster at pH 7.0, with total abatement of CIP at concentrations below 2.5 mg L-1 operating at a bias potential of +0.8 V. The performance was enhanced when increasing the anodic potential and decreasing the initial drug content. The use of solar radiation from a simulator was also beneficial, owing to the greater lamp power. In contrast, the electrochemical oxidation in the dark yielded a poor removal, thus confirming the critical role of oxidants formed under light irradiation. The generation of holes and OH was confirmed from tests with specific scavengers like ammonium oxalate and tert-butanol, respectively. The prolonged usage of the photoanode affected its performance due to poisoning of its active centers by degradation by-products, although a good PEC reproducibility was obtained upon surface cleaning.

Ozonation using a stainless-steel membrane contactor: Gas-liquid mass transfer and pharmaceuticals removal from secondary-treated municipal wastewater

A tubular porous stainless steel membrane contactor was characterized in terms of ozone-water mass transport, as well as its application in removing 23 pharmaceuticals (PhACs) detected in the secondary-treated municipal wastewater, under continuous mode operation. The volumetric mass transfer coefficient (KLa) was evaluated based on liquid flow rate, gas flow rate, and ozone gas concentration. The KLa values were substantially improved with an increment in liquid flow rate (1.6 times from 30 to 70 dm3 h-1) and gas flow rate (3.6 times from 0.30 to 0.85 Ndm3 min-1) due to the improved mixing in the gas-liquid interface. For the lowest liquid flow rate (30 dm3 h-1), the water phase boundary layer (82%) exhibited the major ozone transfer resistance, but it became almost comparable with membrane resistance for the highest liquid flow rate (70 dm3 h-1). Additionally, the influence of the specific ozone dose (0.39, 0.53, and 0.69 g O3 g DOC-1) and ozone inlet gas concentration ( [Formula: see text]  = 27, 80, and 134 g Nm-3) were investigated in the elimination of 23 PhACs found in secondary-treated municipal wastewater. An ozone dose of 0.69 g O3 g DOC-1 and residence time of 60 s resulted in the removal of 12 out of the 23 compounds over 80%, while 17 compounds were abated above 60%. The elimination of PhACs was strongly correlated with kinetic reaction constants values with ozone and hydroxyl radicals (kO3 and kHO•), leading to a characteristic elimination pattern for each group of contaminants. This study demonstrates the high potential of membrane contactors as an appealing alternative for ozone-driven wastewater treatment.

Hydroxylated transformation products of pharmaceutical active compounds: Generation from processes used in wastewater treatment plants and its environmental monitoring

Pharmaceutical active compounds (PhACs) are organic pollutants detected in wastewater and aquatic environments worldwide in concentrations ranging from ng L-1 to μg L-1. Wastewater effluents containing PhACs residues is discharged in municipal sewage and, subsequently collected in municipal wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) where are not entirely removed. Thus, PhACs and its transformation products (TPs) are discharged into water bodies. In the current work, the transformation of PhACs under treatments used in municipal WWTPs such as biological, photolysis, chlorination, and ozonation processes was reviewed. Data set of the major transformation pathways were obtained of studies that performed the PhACs removal and TPs monitoring during batch-scale experiments using gas and liquid chromatography coupled with tandem mass spectrometry (GC/LC-MS/MS). Several transformation pathways as dealkylation, hydroxylation, oxidation, acetylation, aromatic ring opening, chlorination, dehalogenation, photo-substitution, and ozone attack reactions were identified during the transformation of PhACs. Especially, hydroxylation reaction was identified as transformation pathway in all the processes. During the elucidation of hydroxylated TPs several isobaric compounds as monohydroxylated and dihydroxylated were identified. However, hydroxylated TPs monitoring in wastewater and aquatic environments is a topic scarcely studied due to that has no environmental significance, lack of available analytic standars of hydroxylated TPs and lack of analytic methods for their identification. Thus, screening strategy for environmental monitoring of hydroxylated TPs was proposed through target and suspect screening using GC/LC-MS/MS systems. In the next years, more studies on the hydroxylated TPs monitoring are necessary for its detection in WWTPs effluents as well as studies on their environmental effects in aquatic environments.

A case study on pharmaceutical residues and antimicrobial resistance genes in Costa Rican rivers: A possible route of contamination for feline and other species

In this investigation, the presence of antibiotics and pharmaceuticals in Costa Rican surface waters, specifically in regions near feline habitats, was examined. The study revealed that 47% of the water samples contained detectable traces of at least one antibiotic. Ciprofloxacin and norfloxacin were the most frequently detected compounds, each with a detection rate of 27%. Other antibiotics, such as erythromycin, roxithromycin, and trimethoprim, were also found but at lower frequencies, around 14%. Notably, all antibiotic concentrations remained below 10 ng/L, with ciprofloxacin, norfloxacin, and erythromycin showing the highest concentrations. Furthermore, the investigation revealed the presence of non-antibiotic pharmaceutical residues in the water samples, typically at concentrations below 64 ng/L. Tramadol was the most frequently detected compound, present in 18% of the samples. The highest concentrations were observed for acetaminophen and tramadol, measuring 64 and 10 ng/L, respectively. Comparing these findings with studies conducted in treated wastewater and urban rivers, it became evident that the concentrations of antibiotics and pharmaceuticals were notably lower in this study. While previous research reported higher values, the limited number of studies conducted in protected areas raises concerns about the potential environmental impact on biodiversity. In summary, these results emphasize the importance of monitoring pharmaceutical residues and antimicrobial resistance genes ARGs in vulnerable ecosystems, especially those in close proximity to feline habitats in Costa Rica. Additionally, the study delved into the detection of (ARGs). All tested water samples were positive for at least one ARG, with the blaTEM gene being the most prevalent at 82%, followed by tetS at 64% and qnrB at 23%. Moreover, this research shed light on the complexity of evaluating ARGs in environmental samples, as their presence does not necessarily indicate their expression. It also highlighted the potential for co-selection and co-regulation of ARGs, showcasing the intricate behaviors of these genes in aquatic environments.

Unraveling kinetic and synergistic effects during ultrasound-enhanced carbocatalysis for water remediation as a function of ultrasonic frequency

The ability of the ultrasound (US) combined with peroxymonosulfate (PMS), and a carbonaceous material (BC) was evaluated in the degradation of a model pollutant (acetaminophen, ACE). The US/BC/PMS system was compared with other possible systems (US, oxidation by PMS, BC adsorption, BC/PMS, US/PMS, and US/BC. The effect of the ultrasonic frequency (40, 375, and 1135 kHz) on the kinetics and synergy of the ACE removal was evaluated. In the US system, kinetics was favored at 375 kHz due to the increased production of hydroxyl radicals (HO•), but this did not improve in the US/PMS and US/BC systems. However, synergistic and antagonistic effects were observed at the low and high frequencies where the production of radicals is less efficient but there is an activation of PMS through mechanical effects. US/BC/PMS at 40 kHz was the most efficient system obtaining ∼95% ACE removal (40 μM) in the first 10 min of treatment, and high synergy (S = 10.30). This was promoted by disaggregation of the carbonaceous material, increasing the availability of catalytic sites where PMS is activated. The coexistence of free-radical and non-radical pathways was analyzed. Singlet oxygen (1O2) played the dominant role in degradation, while HO• and sulfate radicals (SO4•-), scarcely generated at low frequency, play a minimum role. Performance in hospital wastewater (HWW), urine, and seawater (SW) evidenced the competition of organic matter by BC active sites and reactive species and the removal enhancement when Cl- is present. Besides, toxicity decreased by ∼20% after treatment, being the system effective after three cycles of reuse.

Rice husk-based pyrogenic carbonaceous material efficiently promoted peroxymonosulfate activation toward the non-radical pathway for the degradation of pharmaceuticals in water

Pristine pyrogenic carbonaceous material (BRH) obtained from rice husk and modified with FeCl3 (BRH-FeCl3) were prepared and explored as carbocatalysts for the activation of peroxymonosulfate (PMS) to degrade a model pharmaceutical (acetaminophen, ACE) in water. The BRH-FeCl3/PMS system removed the pharmaceutical faster than the BRH/PMS. This is explained because in BRH-FeCl3, compared to BRH, the modification (iron played a role as a structuring agent mainly) increased the average pore diameter and the presence of functional groups such as -COO-, -Si-O-, or oxygen vacancies, which allowed to remove the pollutant through an adsorption process and significant carbocatalytic degradation. BRH-FeCl3 was reusable during four cycles and had a higher efficiency for activating PMS than another inorganic peroxide (peroxydisulfate, PDS). The effects of BRH-FeCl3 and PMS concentrations were evaluated and optimized through an experimental design, maximizing the ACE degradation. In the optimized system, a non-radical pathway (i.e., the action of singlet oxygen, from the interaction of PMS with defects and/or -COO-/-Si-O- moieties on the BRH-FeCl3) was found. The BRH-FeCl3/PMS system generated only one primary degradation product that was more susceptible to biodegradation and less active against living organisms than ACE. Also, the BRH-FeCl3/PMS system induced partial removals of chemical oxygen demand and dissolved organic carbon. Furthermore, the carbocatalytic system eliminated ACE in a wide pH range and in simulated urine, having a low-moderate electric energy consumption, indicating the feasibility of the carbocatalytic process to treat water polluted with pharmaceuticals.

Degradation of carbamazepine in surface water: performance of Pd-modified TiO2 and Ce-modified ZnO as photocatalysts

Carbamazepine is a widely used antiepileptic drug to control and treat a variety of disorders that is frequently detected in surface water, and in municipal and urban wastewater. This recalcitrant pollutant could be removed by alternative advanced oxidation technology such as heterogeneous photocatalysis. Ce-modified ZnO and Pd-modified TiO2 were synthesized by a microwave-assisted sol-gel method. According to the characterizations (Raman spectroscopy, UV-Vis diffuse reflectance spectroscopy, scanning electron microscopy, and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy), a mixture of oxides was determined in both materials: CeO2/ZnO and PdO/TiO2. Photocatalytic degradation of carbamazepine in pure water under visible light (3 h) was assayed. The degradation percentage obtained with each catalyst was 80%, 53%, 20%, and 9% for ZnO, Ce-modified ZnO, TiO2, and Pd-modified TiO2, respectively. The leaching of Zn as a possible source of water contamination was tested, finding the lowest value for Ce-modified ZnO by adjusting the initial pH up to neutrality. Later, an environmentally relevant concentration of carbamazepine (228 µg L-1) was assayed, using local surface water (pH = 8.3). Despite the presence of other compounds in the real water matrix, after 5 h of photocatalysis, a 56% of degradation of the pharmaceutical and low leaching of Zn were achieved. The use of Ce-modified ZnO activated by visible light is a promising strategy for the abatement of pharmaceutical active compounds.

Emerging micropollutants in aquatic ecosystems and nanotechnology-based removal alternatives: A review

There is a significant concern about the accessibility of uncontaminated and safe drinking water, a fundamental necessity for human beings. This concern is attributed to the toxic micropollutants from several emission sources, including industrial toxins, agricultural runoff, wastewater discharges, sewer overflows, landfills, algal blooms and microbiota. Emerging micropollutants (EMs) encompass a broad spectrum of compounds, including pharmaceutically active chemicals, personal care products, pesticides, industrial chemicals, steroid hormones, toxic nanomaterials, microplastics, heavy metals, and microorganisms. The pervasive and enduring nature of EMs has resulted in a detrimental impact on global urban water systems. Of late, these contaminants are receiving more attention due to their inherent potential to generate environmental toxicity and adverse health effects on humans and aquatic life. Although little progress has been made in discovering removal methodologies for EMs, a basic categorization procedure is required to identify and restrict the EMs to tackle the problem of these emerging contaminants. The present review paper provides a crude classification of EMs and their associated negative impact on aquatic life. Furthermore, it delves into various nanotechnology-based approaches as effective solutions to address the challenge of removing EMs from water, thereby ensuring potable drinking water. To conclude, this review paper addresses the challenges associated with the commercialization of nanomaterial, such as toxicity, high cost, inadequate government policies, and incompatibility with the present water purification system and recommends crucial directions for further research that should be pursued.

Electrochemistry-mass spectrometry bridging the gap between suspect and target screening of valsartan transformation products in wastewater treatment plant effluent

Degradation of xenobiotics in wastewater treatment plants may lead to the formation of transformation products with higher persistence or increased (eco-)toxic potential compared to the parent compounds. Accordingly, the identification of transformation products from wastewater treatment plant effluents has gained increasing attention. Here, we show the potential of electrochemistry hyphenated to liquid chromatography and mass spectrometry for the prediction of oxidative degradation in wastewater treatment plants using the antihypertensive drug valsartan as a model compound. This approach identifies seven electrochemical transformation products of valsartan, which are used to conduct a suspect screening in effluent of the main wastewater treatment plant in the city of Münster in Germany. Apart from the parent compound valsartan, an electrochemically predicted transformation product, the N-dealkylated ETP336, is detected in wastewater treatment plant effluent. Subsequently, a targeted liquid chromatographytandem mass spectrometry method for the detection of valsartan and its electrochemical transformation products is set up. Here, electrochemical oxidation is used to generate reference materials of the transformation products in situ by hyphenating electrochemistry online to a triple quadrupole mass spectrometer. Using this setup, multiple reaction monitoring transitions are set up without the need for laborious and costly synthesis and isolation of reference materials for the transformation products. The targeted method is then applied to extracts from wastewater treatment plant effluent and the presence of ETP336 and valsartan in the samples is verified. The presented workflow can be used to set up targeted analysis methods for previously unknown transformation products even without the need for expensive high-resolution mass spectrometers.

Environmental concerns and bioaccumulation of psychiatric drugs in water bodies - Conventional versus biocatalytic systems of mitigation

The COVID-19 pandemic has brought increments in market sales and prescription of medicines commonly used to treat mental health disorders, such as depression, anxiety, stress, and related problems. The increasing use of these drugs, named psychiatric drugs, has led to their persistence in aquatic systems (bioaccumulation), since they are recalcitrant to conventional physical and chemical treatments typically used in wastewater treatment plants. An emerging environmental concern caused by the bioaccumulation of psychiatric drugs has been attributed to the potential ecological and toxicological risk that these medicines might have over human health, animals, and plants. Thus, by the application of biocatalysis-assisted techniques, it is possible to efficiently remove psychiatric drugs from water. Biocatalysis, is a widely employed and highly efficient process implemented in the biotransformation of a wide range of contaminants, since it has important differences in terms of catalytic behavior, compared to common treatment techniques, including photodegradation, Fenton, and thermal treatments, among others. Moreover, it is noticed the importance to monitor transformation products of degradation and biodegradation, since according to the applied removal technique, different toxic transformation products have been reported to appear after the application of physical and chemical procedures. In addition, this work deals with the discussion of differences existing between high- and low-income countries, according to their environmental regulations regarding waste management policies, especially waste of the drug industry.

Photocatalytic Degradation of Acetaminophen in Aqueous Environments: A Mini Review

Over the past few decades, acetaminophen (ACT), a typical nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID), has gained global usage, positioning itself as one of the most extensively consumed medications. However, the incomplete metabolism of ACT leads to a substantial discharge into the environment, classifying it as an environmental contaminant with detrimental effects on non-target organisms. Various wastewater treatment technologies have been developed for ACT removal to mitigate its potential environmental risk. Particularly, photocatalytic technology has garnered significant attention as it exhibits high efficiency in oxidizing and degrading a wide range of organic pollutants. This comprehensive review aims to systematically examine and discuss the application of photocatalytic technology for the removal of ACT from aqueous environments. Additionally, the study provides a detailed overview of the limitations associated with the photocatalytic degradation of ACT in practical applications, along with effective strategies to address these challenges.

Development of a surface plasmon resonance based immunosensor for diclofenac quantification in water

A Surface Plasmon Resonance (SPR) biosensor based on an inhibition immunoassay was developed for the detection of diclofenac (DCF) in aqueous solution. Due to the small size of DCF, an hapten-protein conjugate was produced by coupling DCF to bovine serum albumin (BSA). DCF-BSA conjugate formation was confirmed via MALDI-TOF mass spectrometry. The resulting conjugate was immobilized onto the surface of a sensor fabricated via e-beam deposition of a 2 nm chromium adhesion layer followed by a 50 nm gold layer onto precleaned BK7 glass slides. Immobilization onto the nano thin gold surface was accomplished by covalent amide linkage through a self-assembled monolayer. Samples were composed of a mixture of antibody at a fixed concentration and DCF at different known concentrations in deionized water, causing the inhibition of anti-DCF on the sensor. The DCF-BSA was obtained with a ratio of 3 DCF molecules per BSA. A calibration curve was performed using concentrations between 2 and 32 μg L^-1. The curve was fitted using the Boltzmann equation, reaching a limit of detection (LOD) of 3.15 μg L^-1 and limit of quantification (LOQ) of 10.52 μg L^-1, the inter-day precision was calculated and an RSD value of 1.96% was obtained; and analysis time of 10 min. The developed biosensor is a preliminary approach to the detection of DCF in environmental water samples, and the first SPR biosensor developed for DCF detection using a hapten-protein conjugate.

The occurrence of emerging compounds in real urban wastewater before and after the COVID-19 pandemic in Cali, Colombia

The COVID-19 pandemic is considered one of the most significant global disasters in the last years. The rapid increase in infections, deaths, treatment, and the vaccination process has resulted in the excessive use of pharmaceuticals that have entered the environment as micropollutants. Considering the prior information about the presence of pharmaceuticals found in the wastewater of Cali, Colombia, which was collected from 2015 to 2022. The data monitored after the COVID-19 pandemic showed an increase in the concentration of analgesics and anti-inflammatory drugs of up to 91%. This increase was associated with the consumption of pharmaceuticals for mild symptoms, such as fever and pain. Moreover, the increase in concentration of pharmaceuticals poses a highly ecological threat, which was up to 14 times higher than that reported before of COVID-19 pandemic. These results showed that the COVID-19 had not only impacted human health but also had an effect on environmental health.

Metal Oxide Nanostructures (MONs) as Photocatalysts for Ciprofloxacin Degradation

In recent years, organic pollutants have become a global problem due to their negative impact on human health and the environment. Photocatalysis is one of the most promising methods for the removal of organic pollutants from wastewater, and oxide semiconductor materials have proven to be among the best in this regard. This paper presents the evolution of the development of metal oxide nanostructures (MONs) as photocatalysts for ciprofloxacin degradation. It begins with an overview of the role of these materials in photocatalysis; then, it discusses methods of obtaining them. Then, a detailed review of the most important oxide semiconductors (ZnO, TiO₂, CuO, etc.) and alternatives for improving their photocatalytic performance is provided. Finally, a study of the degradation of ciprofloxacin in the presence of oxide semiconductor materials and the main factors affecting photocatalytic degradation is carried out. It is well known that antibiotics (in this case, ciprofloxacin) are toxic and non-biodegradable, which can pose a threat to the environment and human health. Antibiotic residues have several negative impacts, including antibiotic resistance and disruption of photosynthetic processes.

Occurrence, consumption level, fate and ecotoxicology risk of beta-agonist pharmaceuticals in a wastewater treatment plant in Eastern China

Beta-agonist pharmaceuticals are widely used in humans and livestock for disease treatment, legal or illegal growth promotion in food animals, bodybuilding, weight loss, and sports doping. The occurrence of beta-agonists in wastewater treatment plants and their subsequent environmental impacts require greater attention. This study determined the levels of 12 beta-agonists in a wastewater treatment plant and evaluated their ecotoxicological risks as well as consumption levels and risks to human health. Among the 12 selected beta-agonists, all were detected in wastewater and 11 in sludge. In most cases, the concentrations of beta-agonists were higher in spring than in summer. Their total average daily mass loads per capita in the influent and effluent were 1.35 μg/d/p and 2.11 μg/d/p, respectively. The overall removal efficiencies of individual beta-agonists ranged from -295.3 to 71.2%. Ecotoxicological risk assessment revealed a low risk to daphnid and green algae from the levels of fenoterol and the mixture of 12 selected beta-agonists in the effluent. The daily consumption levels of individual beta-agonists per capita were 0.028-1.200 μg/d/p. Regular monitoring of beta-agonists in municipal sewage systems and their risk assessment based on toxicological data are urgently required in the future.

Seasonal distribution and dynamic evolution of antibiotics and evaluation of their resistance selection potential and ecotoxicological risk at a wastewater treatment plant in Jinan, China

The seasonal distribution and dynamic evolution of antibiotics in wastewater from main treatment areas and in sludge and their resistance selection potential and ecotoxicological risk were studied at a municipal wastewater treatment plant in Jinan, East China. Ten antibiotics were selected, and all were detected in wastewater and sludge samples, with fluoroquinolones showing the highest detection concentrations and frequencies. Seasonal fluctuations in the antibiotic concentrations in the influent, effluent, and sludge were observed, with the highest values in winter in most cases. The dynamic evolution of antibiotics during the treatment process differed among the seasons. The antibiotic removal efficiencies were incomplete, ranging from - 40.47 to 100%. Mass balance analysis showed that sulfonamides, roxithromycin, and metronidazole were mainly removed through biological processing, whereas fluoroquinolones, doxycycline, and chloramphenicol were removed through sludge adsorption. Levofloxacin, as well as a mixture of the 10 antibiotics from the effluent, could pose a low ecotoxicological risk to Daphnia in the receiving waters. Additionally, levofloxacin and ciprofloxacin in the effluent and ciprofloxacin and metronidazole in the sludge may facilitate the selection of antibiotic-resistant bacteria in the environment.

Wastewater generation and treatment by various eco-friendly technologies: Possible health hazards and further reuse for environmental safety

The discharge of untreated wastewater as a result of various developmental activities such as urbanization, industrialization and changes in lifestyle poses great threats to aquatic ecosystems as well as humans. Currently, ∼380 billion m³ (380 trillion liters) of wastewater is generated globally every year. Around 70% of freshwater withdrawals are used for agricultural production throughout the world. The wastewater generated through agricultural run-off further pollutes freshwater resources. However, only 24% of the total wastewater generated from households and industries is treated before its disposal in rivers or reused in agriculture. The most problematic contaminants associated with ecological toxicity are heavy metals such as Cd, Cr, Cu, Ni, Zn, Fe, Pb, Hg, As and Mn. One of the most important issues linked with wastewater generation is the residual presence of pathogenic microorganisms which pose potential health hazards to consumers when they enter into the food chain. It is estimated that in India almost USD 600 million (48.60 billion INR) is spent per year to tackle waterborne diseases (WBD). In light of this, immediate action is needed to effectively treat wastewater and develop safer reuse prospects. Various wastewater treatment technologies have been established and they work well to provide an alternative water source to meet the growing demand. The main concern towards treating wastewater is to eliminate inorganic and organic substances and lower the nutrient concentration, total solids, and microbial pathogens to prevent freshwater pollution and health risks.

Analytical key issues and challenges in the LC-MS/MS determination of antibiotics in wastewater

The research on antibiotics occurrence in the aquatic environment has become a hot topic in the last years due to their potential negative effects, associated to possible bacterial antibiotic-resistance, after continuous exposure to these compounds. Most of antibiotic residues are not completely removed in the wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) and end up in the aquatic environment through treated wastewater (WW). The development of reliable analytical methodologies for the determination of antibiotics in influent (IWW) and effluent wastewater (EWW) is needed with different purposes, among others: monitoring their occurrence in the aquatic environment, performing environmental risk assessment, estimating removal efficiencies of WWTPs, or estimating the consumption of these compounds. In this paper, we perform an in-depth investigation on analytical key issues that pose difficulties in the determination of antibiotics in complex matrices, such as WW, and we identify challenges to be properly addressed for successful analysis. The analytical technique selected was liquid chromatography coupled to tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS), as it is the most powerful and widely applied at present for antibiotic residues determination. The mass spectrometric behavior of 18 selected antibiotics, the chromatographic performance, ion ratio variations associated to the sample matrix when using different precursor ions or protomers, and the macrolides adsorption to glass vial, were some of the issues studied in this work. On the basis of the detailed study performed, an analytical LC-MS/MS method based on sample direct injection has been developed for quantification of 18 antibiotics in IWW and EWW, allowing their determination at low ng L^-1 levels.

Assessing the Persistence and Mobility of Organic Substances to Protect Freshwater Resources

Persistent and mobile organic substances are those with the highest propensity to be widely distributed in groundwater and thereby, when emitted at low-levels, to contaminate drinking water extraction points and freshwater environments. To prevent such contamination, the European Commission is in the process of introducing new hazard classes for persistent, mobile, and toxic (PMT) and very persistent and very mobile (vPvM) substances within its key chemical regulations CLP and REACH. The assessment of persistence in these regulations will likely be based on simulated half-life, t _1/2, thresholds; the assessment of mobility will likely be based on organic carbon-water distribution coefficient, K _OC, thresholds. This study reviews the use of t _1/2 and K _OC to describe persistence and mobility, considering the theory, history, suitability, data limitations, estimation methods, and alternative parameters. For this purpose, t _1/2, K _OC, and alternative parameters were compiled for substances registered under REACH, known transformation products, and substances detected in wastewater treatment plant effluent, surface water, bank filtrate, groundwater, raw water, and drinking water. Experimental t _1/2 values were rare and only available for 2.2% of the 14 203 unique chemicals identified. K _OC data were only available for a fifth of the substances. Therefore, the usage of alternative screening parameters was investigated to predict t _1/2 and K _OC values, to assist weight-of-evidence based PMT/vPvM hazard assessments. Even when considering screening parameters, for 41% of substances, PMT/vPvM assessments could not be made due to data gaps; for 23% of substances, PMT/vPvM assessments were ambiguous. Further effort is needed to close these substantial data gaps. However, when data is available, the use of t _1/2 and K _OC is considered fit-for-purpose for defining PMT/vPvM thresholds. Using currently discussed threshold values, between 1.9 and 2.6% of REACH registered substances were identified as PMT/vPvM. Among the REACH registered substances detected in drinking water sources, 24-30% were PMT/vPvM substances.

Literature Review: Evaluation of Drug Removal Techniques in Municipal and Hospital Wastewater

There are several techniques for the removal of pharmaceuticals (drugs) from wastewater; however, strengths and weaknesses have been observed in their elimination processes that limit their applicability. Therefore, we aimed to evaluate the best techniques for the removal of pharmaceuticals from municipal and hospital wastewater. For this, a non-experimental, descriptive, qualitative-quantitative design was used, corresponding to a systematic review without meta-analysis. Based on established inclusion and exclusion criteria, 31 open-access articles were selected from the Scopus, ProQuest, EBSCOhost, and ScienceDirect databases. The results showed that high concentrations of analgesics such as naproxen (1.37 mg/L) and antibiotics such as norfloxacin (0.561 mg/L) are frequently found in wastewater and that techniques such as reverse osmosis, ozonation, and activated sludge have the best removal efficiency, achieving values of 99%. It was concluded that reverse osmosis is one of the most efficient techniques for eliminating ofloxacin, sulfamethoxazole, carbamazepine, and diclofenac from municipal wastewater, with removal rates ranging from 96 to 99.9%, while for hospital wastewater the activated sludge technique proved to be efficient, eliminating analgesics and antibiotics in the range of 41-99%.

Chemical characterization of riverine sediments affected by wastewater treatment plant effluent discharge

This study was aimed at assessing the contribution of wastewater treatment effluents to the contamination profile of the sediments of receiving waterways. Three wastewater treatment plants (WWTP) were addressed, encompassing different population equivalent sizes, urbanization degrees and treatment methods translating differences in expected contamination patterns. Within each WWTP system, the assessment targeted the effluent and sediment samples collected upstream and downstream the effluent discharge point; contaminants belonging to several concerning chemical classes (metals and metalloids; pesticides; pharmaceuticals and personal care products, PPCPs; and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, PAHs) were quantified both in effluent and sediment samples. Clear associations between contaminants present in the effluent and corresponding sediment samples were not always verified. In fact, a noticeable difference between the number or abundance of contaminants detected in effluents and in sediments, suggesting that effluents are not always the most likely source (e.g. PAHs). However, sediment contaminants that were likely sourced by the effluents were also identified (e.g. PPCPs). Sediment analysis offers an important historical view of contamination, especially in flowing recipient ecosystems where any characterization over the water matrix is ephemeral and linking exclusively to the moment of sampling. Hence, sediments should be considered for the establishment of WWTP operational benchmarks regulating the emission of contaminants, which is currently focused mostly on effluent composition thus potentially over/underestimating the longer-term impact of effluent discharge in the recipient waterways.

Occurrence, distribution and risk of pharmaceutical and personal care products in the Haihe River sediments, China

In the aquatic environment, pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs) detected in sediments are rising health concerns to human and aquatic ecosystem. The migration of PPCPs in the sediments poses a potential risk to surface water and groundwater environment. Insight on the spatial distribution and vertical profile of PPCPs in sediments at the regional scale is valuable for comprehensive prevention of PPCP risk. The Haihe River is one of the major water systems for the rapid development of urbanization, industrialization and agriculture in Northern China. The study aimed to characterize the occurrence, distribution and ecological risks of PPCPs in the sediments of the Haihe River, especially to investigate the vertical distribution of PPCPs using core sediments. High performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (HPLC-MS/MS) was used to analyze 24 selected PPCPs in sediment samples. In total, 11 PPCPs were detected, and the detected concentrations (0-1.26 ng g^-1) were, lower than in other water bodies in literature (0-24.4 ng g^-1). The sediments of the Haihe River located in the Tianjin downtown were most-severely polluted, with the highest cumulative concentration of PPCPs of 9.45 ng g^-1, indicating the relatively high contribution of human consumption of PPCPs for the megacity. Spearman correlation analysis shows that both of the TOC contents and particle size distribution can influence the migration and deposition of PPCPs. The risk assessment results showed that the current level of PPCPs has no severe adverse effects on aquatic organisms in the Haihe River. However, special attention should be paid to the environmental risks caused by the migration of PPCPs with high loading and mobility (such as sulfamethoxazole).

Solution blow spinning polysulfone-Aliquat 336 nanofibers: synthesis, characterization, and application for the extraction and preconcentration of losartan from aqueous solutions

Nanofibers are materials used in a wide range of applications due to their unique physicochemical properties. As an alternative to the most common method of its manufacturing (electrospinning) blow spinning has been used since it has greater production efficiency and simplicity. A wide variety of polymers is used for its preparation and can be modified to improve the interaction and selectivity toward specific analytes. Thereby nanofibers have been used for the extraction or removal of organic compounds such as drugs but there are still few reports of drug extractions like losartan. In this work polysulfone-Aliquat 336 nanofibers were prepared using the blow spinning method to extract and preconcentrate losartan. The studies showed that Aliquat 336 incorporation significantly improve the extraction of losartan with polysulfone fibers. Adsorption process was thermodynamically favorable with an adsorption capacity of 15.45 mg·g−1. Thus, it was possible to extract more than 92% of initial losartan using 10 mg of polysulfone-Aliquat 336 fibers (9 and 3.5% (w/v)), at pH 6 from deionized water and synthetic wastewater. Finally, losartan preconcentration was evaluated to facilitate its quantification using ultraviolet–visible spectrometry (UV-Vis), which allowed the determination of this drug at concentrations below the detection limit.

Ozonation and UV photolysis for removing anticancer drug residues from hospital wastewater

The present study investigates the use of UV light and the ozone process for doxorubicin, daunorubicin, epirubicin, and irinotecan degradation. The process was carried out using different pH values in hospital wastewater. The use of UV radiation reduces the concentration of anticancer drugs, but in all cases, this technology was not able enough to remove on the whole these contaminants from hospital wastewater. The best condition was achieved when using pH 9 for most of the analytes. Doxorubicin, daunorubicin, and epirubicin were degraded at 97.3%, 88.3%, and 99.0%, respectively. Irinotecan showed the lowest degradation, just 55.6%; a slightly higher degradation (63.8%) was obtained when pH 5 was used. Complete removal of doxorubicin, daunorubicin, epirubicin, and irinotecan was achieved when ozone treatment was used for all the pH studied. The results indicated that UV light and the ozone process can be used as a tertiary treatment to reduce the concentration of anticancer drugs in the effluents. Ozonation, therefore, proved to be more efficient than the photolysis process, when considering the percentual degradation of the original compounds in shorter timespans.

Improvement of solar photo-Fenton by extracts of amazonian fruits for the degradation of pharmaceuticals in municipal wastewater

Extracts of copoazu (Theobroma gramdiflorum), canangucha (Maurita Flexuosa), and coffee (Coffea arabica) were explored as enhancers of the solar photo-Fenton process to eliminate acetaminophen, sulfamethoxazole, carbamazepine, and diclofenac in raw municipal wastewater. The process, at pH 6.2 and 5 mg L^-1 of iron without the presence of extracts, had a very limited action (~35% of the pollutants degradation at 90 min of treatment) due to the iron precipitation. Interestingly, the extract addition increased the soluble iron forms, but only copoazu extract improved the pollutant degradation (~95% of elimination at 20 min of the process action). The copoazu extract components acted as natural complexing agents, maintaining the soluble iron up to 2 mg L^-1 even after 90 min and, consequently, enhancing the pollutant degradation. The effect of copoazu extract dose on the process performance was also assessed, finding that an iron:polyphenols (from the copoazu extract) at a molar ratio equal to 1:0.16 was the most favorable condition. Then, the process improved by copoazu extract was applied to raw municipal wastewater. Remarkably, the process led to ~90% of total pharmaceuticals degradation at 20 min of treatment. This work evidenced the feasibility of amazonian fruit extracts to improve the solar photo-Fenton process to degrade pharmaceuticals in aqueous matrices at near-neutral pH.