Plasma cytokine profiles in elderly humans

Sweet Aging: Glycocalyx and Galectins in CNS Aging and Neurodegenerative Disorders

Aging and aging-related neurodegenerative disorders, such as Alzheimer's disease, are characterized by chronic inflammation that progressively damages nervous tissue within the central nervous system (CNS). In addition to cytokines, lectin-like carbohydrate recognition molecules play a critical role in modifying cellular communication during inflammation. Among these, galectins-particularly anti-inflammatory galectin-1 and pro-inflammatory galectin-3-stand out due to their immunological functions and specificity for N-acetyllactosamine structures. Almost every cell type within the CNS can express and recognize galectins, influencing various essential cellular functions. N-acetyllactosamines, the ligand structures recognized by galectins, are found beneath sialylated termini in protein-linked oligosaccharides. During aging, protein-linked oligosaccharide structures become shorter, exposing N-acetyllactosamines on protein surfaces, which enhances their availability as binding sites for galectins. Genomic studies indicate that the number of galectin-1- and galectin-3-expressing microglial cells increases with age- or age-related disease (Alzheimer's disease), reflecting an aging-associated rise in galectin concentrations within the CNS. This increase parallels a rise in free N-acetyllactosamine-like ligands, suggesting that galectin-N-acetyllactosamine interactions gain prominence and play a more significant role in aging-related CNS disorders. Understanding these interactions and their molecular implications offers potential avenues for targeted therapeutic strategies in combating aging-related CNS inflammation and neurodegeneration.

Inflamm-ageing: How cytokines and nutrition shape the trajectory of ageing

Population ageing is increasing in prevalence in most developed countries. Ageing is the decline of functional properties at the cellular, tissue, and organ level. Biochemical changes that occur in all organisms that experience biological ageing are referred to as the "Hallmarks of ageing". Inflammation is a common denominator of the hallmarks of ageing, being mechanistically involved in most age-related health consequences. Inflamm-ageing refers to age-related changes in the inflammatory and immune systems which somehow drive the ageing process towards healthy or unhealthy ageing. Current evidences, support that, reversing the age-related pro-inflammatory status of inflamm-ageing, is able to modulate most hallmarks of ageing. Inflamm-ageing is associated with increased levels of pro-inflammatory molecules (e.g. cytokines, chemokines), ultimately producing a chronic low-grade inflammatory state typically observed in older individuals. It is commonly accepted that, the balance between pro- and anti-inflammatory cytokines/chemokines is one of the factors determining whether healthy or unhealthy ageing occurs. Malnutrition and nutritional imbalances, are highly prevalent in the elderly, playing a role in driving the balance of pro- and anti-inflammatory immunoactive molecules. In particular, malnutrition is a major risk factor for sarcopenia, a phenomenon characterized by loss of muscle mass, which is often referred to as the biological basis for frailty. Given the close relationship between malnutrition and sarcopenia, there is also evidence for a link between malnutrition and frailty. Indeed, changes in cytokine/chemokine levels in elderly patients with malnutrition were demonstrated. The demonstration that specific cytokines play a role in modulating appetite and nutrient sensing and taste reception, provided further evidence for the existence of a link between inflamm-ageing, nutrition and cytokines in shaping the trajectory of ageing. The present review will overview current evidence supporting the role of specific circulating cytokines and chemokines in the relationship between ageing, inflammation, and malnutrition.

Aging: A struggle for beneficial to overcome negative factors made by muscle and bone

Musculoskeletal health is strongly influenced by regulatory interactions of bone and muscle. Recent discoveries have identified a number of key mechanisms through which soluble factors released during exercise by bone exert positive effects on muscle and by muscle on bone. Although exercise can delay the negative effects of aging, these beneficial effects are diminished with aging. The limited response of aged muscle and bone tissue to exercise are accompanied by a failure in bone and muscle communication. Here, we propose that exercise induced beneficial factors must battle changes in circulating endocrine and inflammatory factors that occur with aging. Furthermore, sedentary behavior results in the release of negative factors impacting the ability of bone and muscle to respond to physical activity especially with aging. In this review we report on exercise responsive factors and evidence of modification occurring with aging.

Rpl13a snoRNAs-regulated NADPH oxidase 1-dependent ROS generation: A novel RBC pathway mediating complement C3a deposition and triggering thrombosis in aging and venous blood clotting disorders

Adults older than 45 years old are at higher risk of developing venous blood clotting known as venous thrombosis/thromboembolism than a cohort <45 years old. Complement activation, which can be mediated by oxidative stress, plays a central role in venous thrombosis. Yet, whether RBCs contribute to complement activation triggering thrombosis in aging and in patients with venous thrombosis/thromboembolism remains an open question. RBCs from healthy Mid-life stage (55-68 years old) adults and patients with venous thrombosis/thromboembolism showed higher deposition of the complement C3 and the anaphylatoxin C3a, and NADPH oxidase (Nox)1 expression than a younger cohort (21-30 years old). Increased C3/C3a deposition on RBCs from mid-life stage adults and patients with venous thrombosis/thromboembolism triggered prothrombin activation via Nox1-dependent reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation, and G protein-coupled receptor kinase 2 (GRK2) activation. Interaction of C3/C3a positive RBCs from mid-life stage adults with endothelial cells led to increased endothelial ROS production. TGF-β1-stimulated GRK2 and Nox1 activation in RBCs from the younger and older adults exacerbated RBC C3/C3a deposition and C3/C3a-mediated prothrombotic activation, which appears to result from ROS-mediated increased RBC phosphatidylserine exposure. Using human RBCs, and Rpl13a snoRNA knockout aged mice, we show that Rpl13a snoRNAs, the master regulators of ROS levels and oxidative stress response, regulate human and murine RBC C3a deposition and prothrombic activation in aging by modulating Nox1 mRNA expression. In vivo Rpl13a snoRNA knockout in aged mice decreased thrombi size by blunting RBC C3a deposition, and RBCs-triggering prothrombin activation. These findings point out to a novel role of RBC Rpl13a snoRNAs in dysregulating RBC ROS-induced C3a deposition promoting venous thrombosis in aging.

Targeting senescence to prevent diabetic kidney disease: Exploring molecular mechanisms and potential therapeutic targets for disease management

BACKGROUND/AIMS

As a microvascular complication, diabetic kidney disease is the leading cause of chronic kidney disease and end-stage renal disease worldwide. While the underlying pathophysiology driving transition of diabetic kidney disease to renal failure is yet to be fully understood, recent studies suggest that cellular senescence is central in disease development and progression. Consequently, understanding the molecular mechanisms which initiate and drive senescence in response to the diabetic milieu is crucial in developing targeted therapies that halt progression of renal disease.

METHODS

To understand the mechanistic pathways underpinning cellular senescence in the context of diabetic kidney disease, we reviewed the literature using PubMed for English language articles that contained key words related to senescence, inflammation, fibrosis, senescence-associated secretory phenotype (SASP), autophagy, and diabetes.

RESULTS

Aberrant accumulation of metabolically active senescent cells is a notable event in the progression of diabetic kidney disease. Through autocrine- and paracrine-mediated mechanisms, resident senescent cells potentiate inflammation and fibrosis through increased expression and secretion of pro-inflammatory cytokines, chemoattractants, recruitment of immune cells, myofibroblast activation, and extracellular matrix remodelling. Compounds that eliminate senescent cells and/or target the SASP - including senolytic and senomorphics drugs - demonstrate promising results in reducing the senescent cell burden and associated pro-inflammatory effect.

CONCLUSIONS

Here we evidence the link between senescence and diabetic kidney disease and highlight underlying molecular mechanisms and potential therapeutic targets that could be exploited to delay disease progression and improve outcomes for individuals with the disease. Trials are now required to translate their therapeutic potential to a clinical setting.

Serum interleukin-10 level is increased and correlated positively with disease severity in patients with dipeptidyl peptidase-4 inhibitor-related bullous pemphigoid

Bullous pemphigoid (BP) is an autoimmune subepidermal blistering disease with a linear deposit of autoantibodies at the epidermal basement membrane zone. It was reported that diabetes patients who took a dipeptidyl peptidase-4 inhibitor (DPP4i), an oral antidiabetic drug, had an increased incidence of BP. However, data on DPP4i-related BP are limited. In our study, we measured serum levels of various cytokines using LEGENDplex and assessed correlations of these serum levels with clinical severity and laboratory data. Serum samples obtained from BP patients who visited our hospital from June 2016 to February 2023 were collected in this study. Patients' background, characteristics, and clinical data were retrospectively collected from their charts. Serum samples from 27 patients with DPP4i-unrelated BP, 17 patients with DPP4i-related BP, and 13 healthy controls were analyzed. Patients with DPP4i-related BP had lower score of Bullous Pemphigoid Disease Area Index (BPDAI)-erythema/urticaria, lower number of circulating eosinophils, and lower titer of anti-BP180 antibody than patients with DPP4i-unrelated BP. The serum interleukin (IL)-6 level was significantly higher in patients with DPP4i-related BP than in healthy controls (P = 0.0037). The serum IL-10 level was significantly higher in patients with DPP4i-related BP than in patients with DPP4i-unrelated BP and in healthy controls (P = 0.0006, P = 0.0448), and was positively correlated with the BPDAI-blister/erosions score (r = 0.757, P = 0.001), BPDAI-erythema/urticaria score (r = 0.616, P = 0.013), and BPDAI-total score (r = 0.833, P < 0.001) in patients with DPP4i-related BP. In conclusion, patients with DPP4i-related BP had increased serum levels of IL-6 and IL-10 compared with healthy controls and positive correlations between the serum IL-10 level and BPDAI scores reflecting clinical severity, indicating that the serum IL-10 level is a potential objective biomarker of disease severity in patients with DPP4i-related BP.

Eye on the horizon: The metabolic landscape of the RPE in aging and disease

To meet the prodigious bioenergetic demands of the photoreceptors, glucose and other nutrients must traverse the retinal pigment epithelium (RPE), a polarised monolayer of cells that lie at the interface between the outer retina and the choroid, the principal vascular layer of the eye. Recent investigations have revealed a metabolic ecosystem in the outer retina where the photoreceptors and RPE engage in a complex exchange of sugars, amino acids, and other metabolites. Perturbation of this delicate metabolic balance has been identified in the aging retina, as well as in age-related macular degeneration (AMD), the leading cause of blindness in the Western world. Also common in the aging and diseased retina are elevated levels of cytokines, oxidative stress, advanced glycation end-products, increased growth factor signalling, and biomechanical stress - all of which have been associated with metabolic dysregulation in non-retinal cell types and tissues. Herein, we outline the role of these factors in retinal homeostasis, aging, and disease. We discuss their effects on glucose, mitochondrial, lipid, and amino acid metabolism in tissues and cell types outside the retina, highlighting the signalling pathways through which they induce these changes. Lastly, we discuss promising avenues for future research investigating the roles of these pathological conditions on retinal metabolism, potentially offering novel therapeutic approaches to combat age-related retinal disease.

Cancer cachexia: biomarkers and the influence of age

Cancer cachexia (Ccx) is a complex metabolic condition characterized by pronounced muscle and fat wasting, systemic inflammation, weakness and fatigue. Up to 30% of cancer patients succumb directly to Ccx, yet therapies that effectively address this perturbed metabolic state are rare. In recent decades, several characteristics of Ccx have been established in mice and humans, of which we here highlight adipose tissue dysfunction, muscle wasting and systemic inflammation, as they are directly linked to biomarker discovery. To counteract cachexia pathogenesis as early as possible and mitigate its detrimental impact on anti-cancer treatments, identification and validation of clinically endorsed biomarkers assume paramount importance. Ageing was recently shown to affect both the validity of Ccx biomarkers and Ccx development, but the underlying mechanisms are still unknown. Thus, unravelling the intricate interplay between ageing and Ccx can help to counteract Ccx pathogenesis and tailor diagnostic and treatment strategies to individual needs.

The activity of early-life gene regulatory elements is hijacked in aging through pervasive AP-1-linked chromatin opening

A mechanistic connection between aging and development is largely unexplored. Through profiling age-related chromatin and transcriptional changes across 22 murine cell types, analyzed alongside previous mouse and human organismal maturation datasets, we uncovered a transcription factor binding site (TFBS) signature common to both processes. Early-life candidate cis-regulatory elements (cCREs), progressively losing accessibility during maturation and aging, are enriched for cell-type identity TFBSs. Conversely, cCREs gaining accessibility throughout life have a lower abundance of cell identity TFBSs but elevated activator protein 1 (AP-1) levels. We implicate TF redistribution toward these AP-1 TFBS-rich cCREs, in synergy with mild downregulation of cell identity TFs, as driving early-life cCRE accessibility loss and altering developmental and metabolic gene expression. Such remodeling can be triggered by elevating AP-1 or depleting repressive H3K27me3. We propose that AP-1-linked chromatin opening drives organismal maturation by disrupting cell identity TFBS-rich cCREs, thereby reprogramming transcriptome and cell function, a mechanism hijacked in aging through ongoing chromatin opening.

Novel protective effect of the FOXO3 longevity genotype on mechanisms of cellular aging in Okinawans

The genetic association of FOXO3 genotypes with human longevity is well established, although the mechanism is not fully understood. We now report on the relationship of the FOXO3 longevity variant rs2802292 with telomere length, telomerase activity, FOXO3 expression, and inflammatory cytokine levels in men and women. In agreement with earlier work, the FOXO3 longevity variant conferred protection against telomere shortening of peripheral blood mononuclear cells from adults aged 55 years and older. This was accompanied by higher levels of telomerase activity in mononuclear cells for carriers of the longevity-associated FOXO3 G-allele of SNP rs2802292 (P = 0.015). FOXO3 mRNA expression increased slightly with age in both young (P = 0.02) and old (P = 0.08) G-allele carriers. Older female G-allele carriers displayed a modest decline in levels of pro-inflammatory cytokine IL-6 with age (P = 0.07). In contrast, older male G-allele carriers displayed an age-dependent increase in levels of anti-inflammatory cytokine IL-10 with age (P = 0.04). Thus, FOXO3 may act through several different pro-longevity mechanisms, which may differ by age and sex.

Exploring the emerging bidirectional association between inflamm-aging and cellular senescence in organismal aging and disease

There is strong evidence that most individuals in the elderly population are characterized by inflamm-aging which refers to a subtle increase in the systemic pro-inflammatory environment and impaired innate immune activation. Although a variety of distinct factors are associated with the progression of inflamm-aging, emerging research is demonstrating a dynamic relationship between the processes of cellular senescence and inflamm-aging. Cellular senescence is a recognized factor governing organismal aging, and through a characteristic secretome, accumulating senescent cells can induce and augment a pro-inflammatory tissue environment that provides a rationale for immune system-independent activation of inflamm-aging and associated diseases. There is also accumulating evidence that inflamm-aging or its components can directly accelerate the development of senescent cells and ultimately senescent cell burden in tissues in a likely vicious inflammatory loop. The present review is intended to describe the emerging senescence-based molecular etiology of inflamm-aging as well as the dynamic reciprocal interactions between inflamm-aging and cellular senescence. Therapeutic interventions concurrently targeting cellular senescence and inflamm-aging are discussed and limitations as well as research opportunities have been deliberated. An effort has been made to provide a rationale for integrating inflamm-aging with cellular senescence both as an underlying cause and therapeutic target for further studies.

Type 1 interferons and Foxo1 down-regulation play a key role in age-related T-cell exhaustion in mice

Foxo family transcription factors are critically involved in multiple processes, such as metabolism, quiescence, cell survival and cell differentiation. Although continuous, high activity of Foxo transcription factors extends the life span of some species, the involvement of Foxo proteins in mammalian aging remains to be determined. Here, we show that Foxo1 is down-regulated with age in mouse T cells. This down-regulation of Foxo1 in T cells may contribute to the disruption of naive T-cell homeostasis with age, leading to an increase in the number of memory T cells. Foxo1 down-regulation is also associated with the up-regulation of co-inhibitory receptors by memory T cells and exhaustion in aged mice. Using adoptive transfer experiments, we show that the age-dependent down-regulation of Foxo1 in T cells is mediated by T-cell-extrinsic cues, including type 1 interferons. Taken together, our data suggest that type 1 interferon-induced Foxo1 down-regulation is likely to contribute significantly to T-cell dysfunction in aged mice.

A New Cell Model Overexpressing sTGFBR3 for Studying Alzheimer's Disease In vitro

BACKGROUND

Recent studies have suggested that abnormal microglial hyperactivation has an important role in the progression of Alzheimer's disease (AD). sTGFBR3 (a shed extracellular domain of the transforming growth factor type III receptor) is a newly identified target of microglia polarization dysregulation, whose overexpression can cause abnormal accumulation of transforming growth factor β1 (TGF-β1), promoting Aβ, tau, and neuroinflammatory pathology.

OBJECTIVE

The objective of this study is to develop and validate a new cell model overexpressing sTGFBR3 for studying AD in vitro.

METHODS

BV2 cells (a microglial cell derived from C57/BL6 murine) were used as a cell model. Cells were then treated with different concentrations of lipopolysaccharide (LPS) (0, 1, or 0.3 μg/mL) for 12, 24, or 48h and then with or without sodium pervanadate (100 μM) for 30 min. Next, the effect surface optimization method was used to determine optimal experimental conditions. Finally, the optimized model was used to assess the effect of ZQX series compounds and vasicine on cell viability and protein expression. Expression of TGFBR3 and TNF-α was assessed using Western blot. MTT assay was used to assess cell viability, and enzyme- linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) was employed to evaluate extracellular TGF-β1 and sTGFBR3.

RESULTS

LPS (0.3 μg/mL) treatment for 11 h at a cell density of 60% and pervanadate concentration (100 μM) incubation for 30 min were the optimal experimental conditions for increasing membrane protein TGFBR3 overexpression, as well as extracellular sTGFBR3 and TGF-β1. Applying ZQX-5 and vasicine reversed this process by reducing extracellular TGF-β1, promoting the phosphorylation of Smad2/3, a protein downstream of TGF-β1, and inhibiting the release of the inflammatory factor TNF-α.

CONCLUSION

This new in vitro model may be a useful cell model for studying Alzheimer's disease in vitro.

Ageing and Inflammation: What Happens in Periodontium?

Periodontitis is a chronic inflammatory disease with a high incidence and severity in the elderly population, making it a significant public health concern. Ageing is a primary risk factor for the development of periodontitis, exacerbating alveolar bone loss and leading to tooth loss in the geriatric population. Despite extensive research, the precise molecular mechanisms underlying the relationship between ageing and periodontitis remain elusive. Understanding the intricate mechanisms that connect ageing and inflammation may help reveal new therapeutic targets and provide valuable options to tackle the challenges encountered by the rapidly expanding global ageing population. In this review, we highlight the latest scientific breakthroughs in the pathways by which inflammaging mediates the decline in periodontal function and triggers the onset of periodontitis. We also provide a comprehensive overview of the latest findings and discuss potential avenues for future research in this critical area of investigation.

Galectin-1 as a marker for microglia activation in the aging brain

Microglia cells, the immune cells residing in the brain, express immune regulatory molecules that have a central role in the manifestation of age-related brain characteristics. Our hypothesis suggests that galectin-1, an anti-inflammatory member of the beta-galactoside-binding lectin family, regulates microglia and neuroinflammation in the aging brain. Through our in-silico analysis, we discovered a subcluster of microglia in the aged mouse brain that exhibited increased expression of galectin-1 mRNA. In our Western blotting experiments, we observed a decrease in galectin-1 protein content in our rat primary cortical cultures over time. Additionally, we found that the presence of lipopolysaccharide, an immune activator, significantly increased the expression of galectin-1 protein in microglial cells. Utilizing flow cytometry, we determined that a portion of the galectin-1 protein was localized on the surface of the microglial cells. As cultivation time increased, we observed a decrease in the expression of activation-coupled molecules in microglial cells, indicating cellular exhaustion. In our mixed rat primary cortical cell cultures, we noted a transition of amoeboid microglial cells labeled with OX42(CD11b/c) to a ramified, branched phenotype during extended cultivation, accompanied by a complete disappearance of galectin-1 expression. By analyzing the transcriptome of a distinct microglial subpopulation in an animal model of aging, we established a correlation between chronological aging and galectin-1 expression. Furthermore, our in vitro study demonstrated that galectin-1 expression is associated with the functional activation state of microglial cells exhibiting specific amoeboid morphological characteristics. Based on our findings, we identify galectin-1 as a marker for microglia activation in the context of aging.

Blood inflammatory markers and mortality in the US population: A Health and Retirement Survey (HRS) analysis

A potential direct correlation between systemic inflammation and physiological aging has been suggested, along with whether there is a higher expression of inflammatory markers in otherwise healthy older adults. Cross-sectional data were extracted from the publicly available 2016 Health and Retirement Survey, a nationally representative survey of older adults in the United States. A subset of participants (n = 9934) consented to a blood draw at the time of recruitment and were measured for high sensitivity C-reactive protein (hs-CRP), Interleukin (IL-6, IL-10, IL-1RA), soluble tumor necrosis factor receptor (sTNFR-1) and transforming growth factor beta 1 (TGF-β1). We included 9,188 participants, representative of 83,939,225 nationally. After adjusting for sex and the number of comorbidities, there remained a significant positive correlation between age and ln (log adjusted) IL-6, and ln sTNFR-1, and a significant inverse correlation between age and ln IL-1RA, ln TGF-β1, and ln hs-CRP. Among the subset of participants who reported none of the available comorbidities (n = 971), there remained an independent correlation of age with ln IL-6 and ln sTNFR-1. After adjusting for age, sex, and number of reported comorbidities, there was a statistically significant correlation between increased ln IL-6, ln IL-10, ln sTNFR-1, and ln hs-CRP with death. This study highlights the existence of a correlation between serum biomarkers of inflammation and aging, not only in the whole population, but also in the smaller subset who reported no comorbidities, confirming the existence of a presence of low-grade inflammation in aging, even in healthy elders. We also highlight the existence of a correlation between inflammatory markers and overall mortality. Future studies should address a possible threshold of systemic inflammation where mortality significantly increases, as well as explore the effectiveness of anti-inflammatory treatments on morbidity and mortality in healthy aging subjects.

Age-dependent immune responses in COVID-19-mediated liver injury: focus on cytokines

Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) is potentially pathogenic and causes severe symptoms; in addition to respiratory syndromes, patients might experience other severe conditions such as digestive complications and liver complications injury. The abnormality in the liver is manifested by hepatobiliary dysfunction and enzymatic elevation, which is associated with morbidity and mortality. The direct cytopathic effect, immune dysfunction, cytokine storm, and adverse effects of therapeutic regimens have a crucial role in the severity of liver injury. According to aging and immune system alterations, cytokine patterns may also change in the elderly. Moreover, hyperproduction of cytokines in the inflammatory response to SARS-CoV-2 can lead to multi-organ dysfunction. The mortality rate in elderly patients, particularly those with other comorbidities, is also higher than in adults. Although the pathogenic effect of SARS-CoV-2 on the liver has been widely studied, the impact of age and immune-mediated responses at different ages remain unclear. This review discusses the association between immune system responses in coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) patients of different ages and liver injury, focusing on cytokine alterations.

Circulating Cytokine Levels and Cardiovascular Disease Risk Profile in Young Adult Offspring of Women with Type 1 Diabetes

INTRODUCTION

Cytokines are key players in the development of both type 1 diabetes (T1D) and cardiovascular disease (CVD). Offspring of women with T1D are known to have an increased risk of early-onset CVD. We studied whether an increased risk of CVD can be observed in the cytokine profile among young adult offspring of women with T1D.

METHODS

This cross-sectional case-control study included 67 offspring of women with T1D (cases) and 79 control participants (controls). At an age of 18-23 years, they participated in a clinical assessment including laboratory tests and questionnaires. Cytokine levels were analyzed from venous blood samples after 10 h fasting using Quansys biosciences Q-Plex™ High Sensitivity Human Cytokine Array.

RESULTS

Circulating cytokine levels were in general similar between the groups. The circulating levels of interferon-γ (1.78 [IQR 1.20, 2.36] pg/mL versus 2.57 [IQR 1.50, 3.89] pg/mL) (p = 0.006) were lower in cases than controls.

CONCLUSION

The findings did not support our hypothesis that serum cytokine profile, determined in early adulthood, was associated with a more adverse CVD risk profile in offspring of women with T1D. Further studies are warranted to find out whether cytokines could serve as early biomarkers of CVD development or whether changes in the cytokine levels over years could be used to monitor CVD progression in offspring of women with T1D.

Neuroprotective Effects of Black Pepper and Its Bioactive Compounds in Age-Related Neurological Disorders

Age-related neurological disorders (ANDs), including neurodegenerative diseases, are multifactorial disorders whose risk increases with age. The main pathological hallmarks of ANDs include behavioral changes, excessive oxidative stress, progressive functional declines, impaired mitochondrial function, protein misfolding, neuroinflammation, and neuronal cell death. Recently, efforts have been made to overcome ANDs because of their increased age-dependent prevalence. Black pepper, the fruit of Piper nigrum L. in the family Piperaceae, is an important food spice that has long been used in traditional medicine to treat various human diseases. Consumption of black pepper and black pepper-enriched products is associated with numerous health benefits due to its antioxidant, antidiabetic, anti-obesity, antihypertensive, anti-inflammatory, anticancer, hepatoprotective, and neuroprotective properties. This review shows that black pepper's major bioactive neuroprotective compounds, such as piperine, effectively prevent AND symptoms and pathological conditions by modulating cell survival signaling and death. Relevant molecular mechanisms are also discussed. In addition, we highlight how recently developed novel nanodelivery systems are vital for improving the efficacy, solubility, bioavailability, and neuroprotective properties of black pepper (and thus piperine) in different experimental AND models, including clinical trials. This extensive review shows that black pepper and its active ingredients have therapeutic potential for ANDs.

Effects of aging and type 2 diabetes on cardiac structure and function: Underlying mechanisms

We characterized long-term changes in cardiac structure and function in a high-fat diet/streptozotocin mouse model of aging and type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2D) and examined how the intersection of both conditions alters plasma metabolomics. We also evaluated the possible roles played by oxidative stress, arginase activity and pro-inflammatory cytokines. C57BL/6 male mice (13-month-old) were used. Control animals (n = 13) were fed regular chow for 10 months (aged group). T2D animals (n = 25) were provided a single injection of streptozotocin and fed a high fat diet for 10 months. In select endpoints, young animals were used for comparison. To monitor changes in left ventricular (LV) structure and function, echocardiography was used. At the terminal study (23 months), blood was collected and hearts processed for biochemical or histological analysis. Echo yielded diminished diastolic function with aging and T2D. LV fractional shortening and ejection fraction decreased with T2D by 16 months peaking at 23 months. Western blots noted increases in fibronectin and type I collagen with aging/T2D and greater levels with T2D in α-smooth muscle actin. Increases in plasma and/or myocardial protein carbonyls, arginase activity and pro-inflammatory cytokines occurred with aging and T2D. Untargeted metabolomics and cheminformatics revealed differences in the plasma metabolome of T2D vs. aged mice while select classes of lipid metabolites linked to insulin resistance, were dysregulated. We thus, document changes in LV structure and function with aging that in select endpoints, are accentuated with T2D and link them to increases in OS, arginase activity and pro-inflammatory cytokines.

A Comprehensive Analysis of Cytokine Network in Centenarians

Cytokines have been investigated extensively in elderly people, with conflicting results. We performed a comprehensive analysis of the plasma levels of 62 cytokines and growth factors involved in the regulation of the immune system, in healthy centenarians, and middle-aged controls. We confirmed the previously observed increase in the levels of several pro-inflammatory cytokines, such as TNF-α and IL-6, and found that several other cytokines, directly or indirectly involved in inflammation (such as IFN-α, IL-23, CCL-5), were present at higher levels in centenarians. We did not observe any increase in the levels of anti-inflammatory cytokines, with the notable exception of the Th2-shifting cytokine IL-19. No relevant difference was observed in cytokines regulating T cell immunity. Several growth factors having a role in regulating immunity, such as G-CSF, GM-CSF, EGF, and VEGF, were upregulated in centenarians, too. Principal component analysis of the cytokine dataset showed that pro and anti-inflammatory cytokines were the variables that contributed the most to the variability of the data we observed.

Immunosenescence and inflammaging in the aged horse

The equine population in the United States and worldwide now includes a higher percentage of geriatric horses than ever previously recorded, and as methods to treat and manage elderly equids are developed and refined, this aging population will likely continue to expand. A better understanding of how horses age and the effect of age on immunity and disease susceptibility is needed to enable targeted preventative healthcare strategies for aged horses. This review article outlines the current state of knowledge regarding the effect of aging on immunity, vaccine responsiveness, and disease risk in the horse, highlighting similarities and differences to what is observed in aged humans. Horses show similar but milder age-related alterations in immune function to those reported in people. Decreases in lymphocyte proliferation and antibody production and diminished response to vaccination have all been documented in elderly horses, however, increased risk of infectious disease is not commonly reported. Aged horses also show evidence of a proinflammatory state (inflammaging) yet appear less susceptible to the chronic diseases of people for which inflammation is a risk factor. Information is currently lacking as to why the horse does not experience the same risk of age-related disease (e.g., cancer, heart disease, neurodegeneration) as people, although a lack of negative lifestyle habits, differences in diet, exercise, genetics and physiology may all contribute to improved health outcomes in the older horse.

Inflammation, Immune Senescence, and Dysregulated Immune Regulation in the Elderly

An optimal immune response requires the appropriate interaction between the innate and the adaptive arms of the immune system as well as a proper balance of activation and regulation. After decades of life, the aging immune system is continuously exposed to immune stressors and inflammatory assaults that lead to immune senescence. In this review, we will discuss inflammaging in the elderly, specifically concentrating on IL-6 and IL-1b in the context of T lymphocytes, and how inflammation is related to mortality and morbidities, specifically cardiovascular disease and cancer. Although a number of studies suggests that the anti-inflammatory cytokine TGF-b is elevated in the elderly, heightened inflammation persists. Thus, the regulation of the immune response and the ability to return the immune system to homeostasis is also important. Therefore, we will discuss cellular alterations in aging, concentrating on senescent T cells and CD4+ CD25+ FOXP3+ regulatory T cells (Tregs) in aging

Immunosenescence in Childhood Cancer Survivors and in Elderly: A Comparison and Implication for Risk Stratification

The population of childhood cancer survivors (CCS) has grown rapidly in recent decades. Although cured of their original malignancy, these individuals are at increased risk of serious late effects, including age-associated complications. An impaired immune system has been linked to the emergence of these conditions in the elderly and CCS, likely due to senescent immune cell phenotypes accompanied by low-grade inflammation, which in the elderly is known as "inflammaging." Whether these observations in the elderly and CCS are underpinned by similar mechanisms is unclear. If so, existing knowledge on immunosenescent phenotypes and inflammaging might potentially serve to benefit CCS. We summarize recent findings on the immune changes in CCS and the elderly, and highlight the similarities and identify areas for future research. Improving our understanding of the underlying mechanisms and immunosenescent markers of accelerated immune aging might help us to identify individuals at increased risk of serious health complications.

Lifestyle and Dietary Habits Affect Plasma Levels of Specific Cytokines in Healthy Subjects

Low-grade chronic inflammation (LGCI) is a common feature of non-communicable diseases. Cytokines play a crucial role in LGCI. This study aimed to assess how LGCI risk factors [e.g., age, body mass index (BMI), smoke, physical activity, and diet] may impact on specific cytokine levels in a healthy population. In total, 150 healthy volunteers were recruited and subjected to questionnaires about the last 7-day lifestyle, including smoking habit, physical activity, and food frequency. A panel of circulating cytokines, chemokines, and growth factors was analyzed by multiplex ELISA. BMI showed the heaviest impact on the correlation between LGCI-related risk factors and cytokines and was significantly associated with CRP levels. Aging was characterized by an increase in IL-1b, eotaxin, MCP-1, and MIP-1α. Smoking was related to higher levels of IL-1b and CCL5/RANTES, while physical activity was related to MIP-1α. Within the different eating habits, CRP levels were modulated by eggs, red meat, shelled fruits, and greens consumption; however, these associations were not confirmed in a multivariate model after adjusting for BMI. Nevertheless, red meat consumption was associated with an inflammatory pattern, characterized by an increase in IL-6 and IL-8. IL-8 levels were also increased with the frequent intake of sweets, while a higher intake of shelled fruits correlated with lower levels of IL-6. Moreover, IL-6 and IL-8 formed a cluster that also included IL-1b and TNF-α. In conclusion, age, BMI, smoke, physical activity, and dietary habits are associated with specific cytokines that may represent potential markers for LGCI.

Cell Senescence and Central Regulators of Immune Response

Pathways regulating cell senescence and cell cycle underlie many processes associated with ageing and age-related pathologies, and they also mediate cellular responses to exposure to stressors. Meanwhile, there are central mechanisms of the regulation of stress responses that induce/enhance or weaken the response of the whole organism, such as hormones of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis, sympathetic and parasympathetic systems, thymic hormones, and the pineal hormone melatonin. Although there are many analyses considering relationships between the HPA axis and organism ageing, we found no systematic analyses of relationships between the neuroendocrine regulators of stress and inflammation and intracellular mechanisms controlling cell cycle, senescence, and apoptosis. Here, we provide a review of the effects of neuroendocrine regulators on these mechanisms. Our analysis allowed us to postulate a multilevel system of central regulators involving neurotransmitters, glucocorticoids, melatonin, and the thymic hormones. This system finely regulates the cell cycle and metabolic/catabolic processes depending on the level of systemic stress, stage of stress response, and energy capabilities of the body, shifting the balance between cell cycle progression, cell cycle stopping, senescence, and apoptosis. These processes and levels of regulation should be considered when studying the mechanisms of ageing and the proliferation on the level of the whole organism.

Association of Markers of Inflammation, the Kynurenine Pathway and B Vitamins with Age and Mortality, and a Signature of Inflammaging

BACKGROUND

Inflammation is a key feature of aging. We aimed to (i) investigate the association of 34 blood markers potentially involved in inflammatory processes with age and mortality and (ii) develop a signature of "inflammaging."

METHODS

Thirty-four blood markers relating to inflammation, B vitamin status, and the kynurenine pathway were measured in 976 participants in the Melbourne Collaborative Cohort Study at baseline (median age = 59 years) and follow-up (median age = 70 years). Associations with age and mortality were assessed using linear and Cox regression, respectively. A parsimonious signature of inflammaging was developed and its association with mortality was compared with 2 marker scores calculated across all markers associated with age and mortality, respectively.

RESULTS

The majority of markers (30/34) were associated with age, with stronger associations observed for neopterin, cystatin C, interleukin (IL)-6, tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α), several markers of the kynurenine pathway and derived indices KTR (kynurenine/tryptophan ratio), PAr index (ratio of 4-pyridoxic acid and the sum of pyridoxal 5'-phosphate and pyridoxal), and HK:XA (3-hydroxykynurenine/xanthurenic acid ratio). Many markers (17/34) showed an association with mortality, in particular IL-6, neopterin, C-reactive protein, quinolinic acid, PAr index, and KTR. The inflammaging signature included 10 markers and was strongly associated with mortality (hazard ratio [HR] per SD = 1.40, 95% CI: 1.24-1.57, p = 2 × 10-8), similar to scores based on all age-associated (HR = 1.38, 95% CI: 1.23-1.55, p = 4 × 10-8) and mortality-associated markers (HR = 1.43, 95% CI: 1.28-1.60, p = 1 × 10-10), respectively. Strong evidence of replication of the inflammaging signature association with mortality was found in the Hordaland Health Study.

CONCLUSION

Our study highlights the key role of the kynurenine pathway and vitamin B6 catabolism in aging, along with other well-established inflammation-related markers. A signature of inflammaging based on 10 markers was strongly associated with mortality.

The functional multipotency of transforming growth factor β signaling at the intersection of senescence and cancer

The transforming growth factor β (TGF-β) family of cytokines comprises a group of proteins, their receptors, and effector molecules that, in a coordinated manner, modulate a plethora of physiological and pathophysiological processes. TGF-β1 is the best known and plausibly most active representative of this group. It acts as an immunosuppressant, contributes to extracellular matrix remodeling, and stimulates tissue fibrosis, differentiation, angiogenesis, and epithelial-mesenchymal transition. In recent years, this cytokine has been established as a vital regulator of organismal aging and cellular senescence. Finally, the role of TGF-β1 in cancer progression is no longer in question. Because this protein is involved in so many, often overlapping phenomena, the question arises whether it can be considered a molecular bridge linking some of these phenomena together and governing their reciprocal interactions. In this study, we reviewed the literature from the perspective of the role of various TGF-β family members as regulators of a complex mutual interplay between senescence and cancer. These aspects are then considered in a broader context of remaining TGF-β-related functions and coexisting processes. The main narrative axis in this work is centered around the interaction between the senescence of normal peritoneal cells and ovarian cancer cells. The discussion also includes examples of TGF-β activity at the interface of other normal and cancer cell types.

Association Between Inflammation and Appetite in Healthy Community-Dwelling Older Adults—An enable Study

Aging is associated with reduced appetite as well as a slight increase in pro-inflammatory status, which both might contribute to the development of malnutrition. We aimed to evaluate the association between inflammation based on serum C-reactive protein (CRP), and appetite in healthy community-dwelling older adults. In this cross-sectional study of 158 healthy and non-smoking persons (aged 75–85 years), appetite was assessed in personal interviews by a single question with five answer categories. As nobody reported (very) poor appetite, the remaining three categories were dichotomised into “(very) good” and “moderate” appetite. Fasting serum CRP was analysed according to standard procedures, values ≥ 5.0 mg/L were considered as inflammation. The association between inflammation and appetite was examined by binary logistic regression, unadjusted and adjusted for age, sex, waist circumference, leptin, depressive mood, number of medications, interleukin-6 and tumor necrosis factor-α. Appetite was very good in 27.8%, good in 58.9%, and moderate in 13.3% of participants. Inflammation was present in 10.8% overall, in 8.8% of those with (very) good and in 23.8% of those with moderate appetite (p = 0.038). In the unadjusted model, participants with inflammation were 3.2 times more likely to have moderate appetite (95%CI: 1.01–10.44, p = 0.047). In the adjusted model, the odds of having moderate appetite was 3.7 times higher in participants with inflammation, but no longer significant (95%CI: 0.77–18.55, p = 0.102). In healthy older people, we found hints for a potential association between increased levels of CRP and a slightly reduced appetite. More studies in larger samples are needed.

Aging of the Immune System: Focus on Natural Killer Cells Phenotype and Functions

Aging is the greatest risk factor for nearly all major chronic diseases, including cardiovascular diseases, cancer, Alzheimer’s and other neurodegenerative diseases of aging. Age-related impairment of immune function (immunosenescence) is one important cause of age-related morbidity and mortality, which may extend beyond its role in infectious disease. One aspect of immunosenescence that has received less attention is age-related natural killer (NK) cell dysfunction, characterized by reduced cytokine secretion and decreased target cell cytotoxicity, accompanied by and despite an increase in NK cell numbers with age. Moreover, recent studies have revealed that NK cells are the central actors in the immunosurveillance of senescent cells, whose age-related accumulation is itself a probable contributor to the chronic sterile low-grade inflammation developed with aging (“inflammaging”). NK cell dysfunction is therefore implicated in the increasing burden of infection, malignancy, inflammatory disorders, and senescent cells with age. This review will focus on recent advances and open questions in understanding the interplay between systemic inflammation, senescence burden, and NK cell dysfunction in the context of aging. Understanding the factors driving and enforcing NK cell aging may potentially lead to therapies countering age-related diseases and underlying drivers of the biological aging process itself.

A Levee to the Flood: Pre-injury Neuroinflammation and Immune Stress Influence Traumatic Brain Injury Outcome

Increasing evidence demonstrates that aging influences the brain's response to traumatic brain injury (TBI), setting the stage for neurodegenerative pathology like Alzheimer's disease (AD). This topic is often dominated by discussions of post-injury aging and inflammation, which can diminish the consideration of those same factors before TBI. In fact, pre-TBI aging and inflammation may be just as critical in mediating outcomes. For example, elderly individuals suffer from the highest rates of TBI of all severities. Additionally, pre-injury immune challenges or stressors may alter pathology and outcome independent of age. The inflammatory response to TBI is malleable and influenced by previous, coincident, and subsequent immune insults. Therefore, pre-existing conditions that elicit or include an inflammatory response could substantially influence the brain's ability to respond to traumatic injury and ultimately affect chronic outcome. The purpose of this review is to detail how age-related cellular and molecular changes, as well as genetic risk variants for AD affect the neuroinflammatory response to TBI. First, we will review the sources and pathology of neuroinflammation following TBI. Then, we will highlight the significance of age-related, endogenous sources of inflammation, including changes in cytokine expression, reactive oxygen species processing, and mitochondrial function. Heightened focus is placed on the mitochondria as an integral link between inflammation and various genetic risk factors for AD. Together, this review will compile current clinical and experimental research to highlight how pre-existing inflammatory changes associated with infection and stress, aging, and genetic risk factors can alter response to TBI.

Biomarkers of aging-associated chronic inflammation as a prognostic factor for human longevity

It has been well-established that age-associated low-grade chronic inflammation contributes to the development of a spectrum of chronic diseases, including diabetes mellitus, ischemic heart disease, stroke, cancer, chronic kidney disease, non-alcoholic fatty liver disease and neurodegenerative diseases, which affect the quality of life of the elderly and influence their life span. This phenomenon is suggested to arise due to the weakening of the regulatory mechanisms of the immune response, and the persistence of exogenous and endogenous (reflecting oxidative cell injury) antigenic challenges, so it is referred to as oxi-inflamm-aging. Considering that the development of age-associated chronic inflammation is "silent", i.e., without clinical signs until the aforementioned complications become apparent, it is important to identify the biomarker(s) or pattern/cluster of biomarkers for this inflammation. It is also important to define new strategies to combat the "silent" damage induced by chronic inflammation. Given that at present there are no reliable biomarkers for chronic inflammation, this review points out the problems in defining biomarker(s) or patterns/clusters of biomarkers for chronic inflammation in order to stimulate further research and points to some possible routes of investigation.

Triple jeopardy in ageing: COVID-19, co-morbidities and inflamm-ageing

Covid-19 endangers lives, has disrupted normal life, changed the way medicine is practised and is likely to alter our world for the foreseeable future. Almost two years on since the presumptive first diagnosis of COVID-19 in China, more than two hundred and fifty million cases have been confirmed and more than five million people have died globally, with the figures rising daily. One of the most striking aspects of COVID-19 illness is the marked difference in individuals' experiences of the disease. Some, most often younger groups, are asymptomatic, whereas others become severely ill with acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS), pneumonia or proceed to fatal organ disease. The highest death rates are in the older and oldest age groups and in people with co-morbidities such as diabetes, heart disease and obesity. Three major questions seem important to consider. What do we understand about changes in the immune system that might contribute to the older person's risk of developing severe COVID-19? What factors contribute to the higher morbidity and mortality in older people with COVID-19? How could immunocompetence in the older and the frailest individuals and populations be supported and enhanced to give protection from serious COVID-19 illness?

Fibro-adipogenic progenitors in skeletal muscle homeostasis, regeneration and diseases

Skeletal muscle possesses a remarkable regenerative capacity that relies on the activity of muscle stem cells, also known as satellite cells. The presence of non-myogenic cells also plays a key role in the coordination of skeletal muscle regeneration. Particularly, fibro-adipogenic progenitors (FAPs) emerged as master regulators of muscle stem cell function and skeletal muscle regeneration. This population of muscle resident mesenchymal stromal cells has been initially characterized based on its bi-potent ability to differentiate into fibroblasts or adipocytes. New technologies such as single-cell RNAseq revealed the cellular heterogeneity of FAPs and their complex regulatory network during muscle regeneration. In acute injury, FAPs rapidly enter the cell cycle and secrete trophic factors that support the myogenic activity of muscle stem cells. Conversely, deregulation of FAP cell activity is associated with the accumulation of fibrofatty tissue in pathological conditions such as muscular dystrophies and ageing. Considering their central role in skeletal muscle pathophysiology, the regulatory mechanisms of FAPs and their cellular and molecular crosstalk with muscle stem cells are highly investigated in the field. In this review, we summarize the current knowledge on FAP cell characteristics, heterogeneity and the cellular crosstalk during skeletal muscle homeostasis and regeneration. We further describe their role in muscular disorders, as well as different therapeutic strategies targeting these cells to restore muscle regeneration.

Factors associated with inflamm-aging in institutionalized older people

The increase in inflammatory cytokines associated with a reduction in the bioavailability of zinc has been used as a marker for inflammation. Despite the high inflammatory state found in institutionalized older individuals, few studies have proposed verifying the factors associated with this condition in this population. To verify the factors associated with inflamm-aging in institutionalized older people. A total of 178 older people (≥ 60 years old) living in nursing homes in Natal/RN were included in the study. Cluster analysis was used to identify three groups according to their inflammatory state. Analysis anthropometric, biochemical, sociodemographic, and health-related variables was carried out. In sequence, an ordinal logistic regression was performed for a confidence level of 95% in those variables with p < 0.20 in the bivariate analysis. IL-6, TNF-α, zinc, low-density lipids (LDL), high-density lipids (HDL), and triglycerides were associated with inflamm-aging. The increase of 1 unit of measurement of LDL, HDL, and triglycerides increased the chance of inflammation-aging by 1.5%, 4.1%, and 0.9%, respectively, while the oldest old (≥ 80 years old) had an 84.9% chance of presenting inflamm-aging in relation to non-long-lived older people (< 80 years). The association between biochemical markers and inflamm-aging demonstrates a relationship between endothelial injury and the inflammatory state. In addition, the presence of a greater amount of fat in the blood may present a higher relative risk of death.

Circulating Cytokines Predict 1H-Proton MRS Cerebral Metabolites in Healthy Older Adults

Background: Changes in both circulating cytokines and neurochemical concentrations have been observed in aging. Patterns of change across these factors are associated with age-related pathologies, including neurodegenerative disease. More evidence to define patterns of change that are characteristic of healthy aging is needed, as is an investigation into how age-related changes in blood cytokines and brain neurochemicals may relate to one another in a healthy older adult population.

Methods: Single voxel ¹H-proton magnetic resonance spectroscopy was collected in medial frontal and medial parietal regions. Phosphocholine and glycerophosphocholine (Cho), myo-inositol (MI), N-acetylaspertate and N-acetylasperglutamate (NAA), creatine and phosphocreatine (Cr), and glutamate and glutamine (Glx) were measured in a sample of 83 healthy, cognitively normal adults aged 52–89. Blood data were collected to quantify 12 cytokines: interleukins (IL-) 2, 5, 6, 7, 8, 10, 12, 13, IL-1 β, tumor necrosis factor α (TNF-α), interferon γ (IFN-γ), and IL-17 α. Correlation analyses were performed to assess age relationships between each of these factors. Backward linear regressions were performed. Cytokine data and age were used as predictors of each cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)-corrected metabolite concentration in both voxels.

Results: Associations were identified between a variety of cytokines and concentrations of frontal NAA, Cr, and Glx, and of parietal MI, Cho, NAA, and Cr. In the frontal voxel, NAA was predicted by more IL-1B and less TNF-α, Cr by less TNF-α and more IL-5, and Glx by less TNF-α. In the parietal voxel, MI was predicted by more IL-10 and IL-8 and less IL-2, Cho by more TNF-α and less IL-2, NAA by more IL-1B and TNF-α and less IL-13, IL-2, and IL-7, and Cr by more IL-10 and less IL-2.

Conclusions: Associations were identified between circulating cytokines and neurometabolite concentrations in this sample of older adults. The present results serve as the initial evidence of relationships between circulating cytokines and neurophysiology. Findings invite further investigation to understand the physiological consequences of aging, and how peripheral inflammatory markers may relate to neurochemical concentrations in healthy aging.

Inflammatory Molecular Mediators and Pathways Involved in Vascular Aging and Stroke: A Comprehensive Review

There is an increase in the incidence of cardiovascular diseases with aging and it is one of the leading causes of death worldwide. The main cardiovascular pathologies include atherosclerosis, stroke, myocardial infarction, hypertension and stroke. Chronic inflammation is one of the significant contributors to the age-related vascular diseases. Therefore, it is important to understand the molecular mechanisms of the persistent inflammatory conditions occurring in the blood vessels as well as the signaling pathways involved. Herein, we performed an extant search of literature involving PubMed, ISI, WoS and Scopus databases for retrieving all relevant articles with the most recent findings illustrating the potential role of various inflammatory mediators along with their proposed activated pathways in the pathogenesis and progression of vascular aging. We also highlight the major pathways contributing to age-related vascular disorders. The outlined molecular mechanisms, pathways and mediators of vascular aging represent potential drug targets that can be utilized to inhibit and/or slow the pathogenesis and progression of vascular aging.

Gut Microbiota Dysbiosis Is a Crucial Player for the Poor Outcomes for COVID-19 in Elderly, Diabetic and Hypertensive Patients

A new infectious disease, named COVID-19, caused by the coronavirus associated to severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS-CoV-2) has become pandemic in 2020. The three most common pre-existing comorbidities associated with COVID-19-related death are elderly, diabetic, and hypertensive people. A common factor among these risk groups for the outcome of death in patients infected with SARS-CoV-2 is dysbiosis, with an increase in the proportion of bacteria with a pro-inflammatory profile. Due to this dysbiosis, elderly, diabetic, and hypertensive people present a higher propensity to mount an inflammatory environment in the gut with poor immune editing, culminating in a weakness of the intestinal permeability barrier and high bacterial product translocation to the bloodstream. This scenario culminates in a low-grade, persistent, and systemic inflammation. In this context, we propose here that high circulating levels of bacterial products, like lipopolysaccharide (LPS), can potentiate the SARS-CoV-2-induced cytokines, including IL-6, being crucial for development of the cytokine storm in the severe form of the disease. A better understanding on the possible correlation between gut dysbiosis and poor outcomes observed in elderly, diabetic, and hypertensive people can be useful for the development of new therapeutic strategies based on modulation of the gut microbiota.

The role of a Mediterranean diet and physical activity in decreasing age-related inflammation through modulation of the gut microbiota composition

Chronic inflammation is known to be a predominant factor in the development of many age-related conditions including CVD, type II diabetes and neurodegenerative diseases. Previous studies have demonstrated that during the ageing process there is an increase in inflammatory biomarkers, which may be partially brought about by detrimental changes in the gut microbiota. The Mediterranean diet (MedDiet) and physical activity (PA) are protective against inflammation and chronic disease, and emerging evidence has shown that these effects may be partially mediated through favourable changes in the gut microbiota. In this review, we have evaluated the published literature on the effect of a MedDiet and PA on the gut microbiota. We also discuss the relationship between the gut microbiota and inflammation with a focus on healthy ageing. While inconsistent study designs make forming definitive conclusions challenging, the current evidence suggests that both a MedDiet and PA are capable of modifying the gut microbiota in a way that is beneficial to host health. For example, the increases in the relative abundance of SCFA producing bacteria that are considered to possess anti-inflammatory properties. Modification of the gut microbiota through a MedDiet and PA presents as a potential method to attenuate age-related increases in inflammation, and additional studies utilising older individuals are needed to fill the knowledge gaps existing in current literature.

RGD-binding integrins and TGF-β in SARS-CoV-2 infections - novel targets to treat COVID-19 patients?

The new coronavirus SARS-CoV-2 is a global pandemic and a severe public health crisis. SARS-CoV-2 is highly contagious and shows high mortality rates, especially in elderly and patients with pre-existing medical conditions. At the current stage, no effective drugs are available to treat these patients. In this review, we analyse the rationale of targeting RGD-binding integrins to potentially inhibit viral cell infection and to block TGF-β activation, which is involved in the severity of several human pathologies, including the complications of severe COVID-19 cases. Furthermore, we demonstrate the correlation between ACE2 and TGF-β expression and the possible consequences for severe COVID-19 infections. Finally, we list approved drugs or drugs in clinical trials for other diseases that also target the RGD-binding integrins or TGF-β. These drugs have already shown a good safety profile and, therefore, can be faster brought into a trial to treat COVID-19 patients.

Glycine and N-acetylcysteine (GlyNAC) supplementation in older adults improves glutathione deficiency, oxidative stress, mitochondrial dysfunction, inflammation, insulin resistance, endothelial dysfunction, genotoxicity, muscle strength, and cognition: Results of a pilot clinical trial

BACKGROUND

Oxidative stress (OxS) and mitochondrial dysfunction are implicated as causative factors for aging. Older adults (OAs) have an increased prevalence of elevated OxS, impaired mitochondrial fuel-oxidation (MFO), elevated inflammation, endothelial dysfunction, insulin resistance, cognitive decline, muscle weakness, and sarcopenia, but contributing mechanisms are unknown, and interventions are limited/lacking. We previously reported that inducing deficiency of the antioxidant tripeptide glutathione (GSH) in young mice results in mitochondrial dysfunction, and that supplementing GlyNAC (combination of glycine and N-acetylcysteine [NAC]) in aged mice improves naturally-occurring GSH deficiency, mitochondrial impairment, OxS, and insulin resistance. This pilot trial in OA was conducted to test the effect of GlyNAC supplementation and withdrawal on intracellular GSH concentrations, OxS, MFO, inflammation, endothelial function, genotoxicity, muscle and glucose metabolism, body composition, strength, and cognition.

METHODS

A 36-week open-label clinical trial was conducted in eight OAs and eight young adults (YAs). After all the participants underwent an initial (pre-supplementation) study, the YAs were released from the study. OAs were studied again after GlyNAC supplementation for 24 weeks, and GlyNAC withdrawal for 12 weeks. Measurements included red-blood cell (RBC) GSH, MFO; plasma biomarkers of OxS, inflammation, endothelial function, glucose, and insulin; gait-speed, grip-strength, 6-min walk test; cognitive tests; genomic-damage; glucose-production and muscle-protein breakdown rates; and body-composition.

RESULTS

GlyNAC supplementation for 24 weeks in OA corrected RBC-GSH deficiency, OxS, and mitochondrial dysfunction; and improved inflammation, endothelial dysfunction, insulin-resistance, genomic-damage, cognition, strength, gait-speed, and exercise capacity; and lowered body-fat and waist-circumference. However, benefits declined after stopping GlyNAC supplementation for 12 weeks.

CONCLUSIONS

GlyNAC supplementation for 24-weeks in OA was well tolerated and lowered OxS, corrected intracellular GSH deficiency and mitochondrial dysfunction, decreased inflammation, insulin-resistance and endothelial dysfunction, and genomic-damage, and improved strength, gait-speed, cognition, and body composition. Supplementing GlyNAC in aging humans could be a simple and viable method to promote health and warrants additional investigation.

Royal jelly alleviates the detrimental effects of aging on immune functions by enhancing the in vitro cellular proliferation, cytokines, and nitric oxide release in aged human PBMCS

Aging strongly delays the immunity. Our research aims to assess the in vitro effects of royal jelly (RJ) on the immune function of aged PBMCs. PBMCs were obtained from 10 healthy aged and young donors by the gradient density centrifugation method and further cultured in RPMI-1640 medium supplemented with or without RJ in the presence of Con A. Cell proliferation was assessed by MTT assay along with the measurement of interleukins, Nitric oxide (NO), Glutathione (GSH), and Malondialdehydes (MDA). Our results showed that RJ improved PBMCs proliferation significantly in the elderly subjects, accompanied by the increase in NO (p = .001) and the release of IL-2, IL-4, and IL-6 cytokines. RJ also increased the intracellular GSH (p = .001) and MDA (p = .001) levels in aged PBMCs. In young subjects, RJ enhanced PBMCs proliferation potency, IL-4, IL-6, GSH, and intracellular MDA levels but with a concomitant decrease in NO and IL-2 cytokine secretion as compared with non RJ-treated cells. In conclusion, RJ restored functions of the aged PBMCs as well as the young control subjects, indicating a beneficial effect on immune status during the aging process. PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS: Royal jelly is a well-known edible dietary compound, used traditionally to treat many diseases throughout the world. Since antiquity, it was shown to have medicinal importance. The immuno-enhancing potential of this food was largely and scientifically established by the lipid and protein fractions. The present study illustrates the anti-aging and stimulatory effects of the fresh RJ whole extract, from local Algerian honey bee: Apis mellifera intermissa, on the immunity of aged men. This study provides the experimental evidence supporting anti-immunosenesence effects of royal jelly. RJ supplementation can be used in the old age management and human age-related complications, especially, associated with the weaknesses of the immune response.

Age-Dependent Decrease in the Induction of Regulatory T Cells Is Associated With Decreased Expression of RALDH2 in Mesenteric Lymph Node Dendritic Cells

A decline in immune function with aging has been reported. Regulatory T cell (Treg) induction is known to decrease with age, and elucidating the underlying mechanism is important for preventing age-related diseases due to age-related chronic inflammation. In the intestine, dendritic cells (DCs) play an important role in inducing Tregs specific to oral antigens, and they efficiently induce Tregs via production of retinoic acid (RA), a vitamin A metabolite, catalyzed by the enzyme retinaldehyde dehydrogenase 2 (RALDH2). We have previously reported that in the mesenteric lymph node (MLN), a secondary lymphoid tissue in which immune responses to oral antigens are induced, four DC subsets express different levels of CD11b, CD103, and PD-L1, and we have reported that the CD11b^–CD103⁺PD-L1^high subset expresses the highest levels of the RALDH2 gene and induces Tregs in vitro. We examined Treg induction in young and aged mice using a Treg induction model by administering a food antigen, and we found that antigen-specific Treg induction was decreased in aged mice. We further investigated the MLN DCs, and a significant decrease in RALDH2 gene expression was observed in MLN DCs from aged mice. As factors, we found that the proportion of the CD11b^–CD103⁺PD-L1^high subset was decreased in aged mice compared with that in young mice and that RALDH enzyme activity was decreased in the CD11b^–CD103⁺PD-L1^high and CD11b⁺CD103⁺PD-L1^high subsets. Furthermore, analysis of the methylation of the RALDH2 gene promoter region revealed that CpG motifs were more methylated in the MLN DCs of aged mice, suggesting that RALDH2 expression was suppressed by epigenetic changes. Finally, we found that RA treatment tended to increase Treg induction. These results suggest that the regulation of RA production may be involved in the age-related decrease in antigen-specific Treg induction.

Association of TGFβ1 codon 10 (T>C) and IL-10 (G>C) cytokine gene polymorphisms with longevity in a cohort of Italian population

Longevity is a complex process controlled by both environmental and genetic factors. We evaluated the association of four cytokine gene polymorphisms with longevity in an Italian cohort. A sample of 1019 subjects aged 10 to 100 and belonging to the North-Italian population was genotyped for IL-6 (G>C, rs1800796), IL-10-1082 (G>A, rs1800896), TNF-α-308 (G>A, rs1800629), and TGFβ1 codon 10 (T>C, rs1800471) gene polymorphisms. The association between cytokine gene polymorphisms and longevity was evaluated by dividing the sample into four age groups: 10 to 24, 25 to 49, 50 to 85, and 86 to 100. We observed a significant decrease in the frequency of IL-10 A allele in the 25 to 49 (P = 1.1 × 10^-3 ), 50 to 85 (P < 1 × 10^-4 ), and 86 to 100 (P = 2 × 10^-3 ) age groups compared to that in the youngest age group. Similarly, we found a significant decrease (P < 1 × 10^-4 ) in the frequency of TGFβ1 C allele in the 50 to 85 and 86 to 100 age groups compared to that in the 10 to 24 and 25 to 49 age groups. Previously, high levels of TGFβ1 were detected in elderly subjects, suggesting that this cytokine could counterbalance the harmful effects of inflammation. Similarly, IL-10 has strong anti-inflammatory properties and can inhibit the production of proinflammatory cytokines. In the literature, the lowest levels of functional cytokines were found to be associated with TGFβ1 (T>C) and IL-10 (G>A) gene polymorphisms, with consequent increase in the duration of inflammation and cancer risk. For these reasons, it is plausible to observe low rates of these mutations in elderly subjects, as found in our study.

Oxidative stress in elderly population: A prevention screening study

Background

Aging is a multifactorial phenomenon, characterized by a progressive decline in the efficiency of biochemical and physiological processes and an increased susceptibility to disease. There is increasing evidence that aging and age‐related disease are correlated with an oxidative stress (OS) condition. The latter is characterized by an imbalance between reactive species (RS), in particular reactive oxygen species (ROS) and antioxidant reserve.

Objectives

The aim of this study is to evaluate the two main markers of oxidative stress, plasmatic peroxide concentration (through d‐ROMs FAST test, derivates‐Reactive Oxygen Metabolites) and plasmatic antioxidant power measured by iron‐reducing power (PAT test, Plasma Antioxidant Test) in 290 apparently healthy volunteers over 60, and their possible correlation with age and gender.

Materials and methods

Human capillary blood samples from healthy volunteers were used in this observational study for the evaluation of the markers of OS.

Results

The data obtained broadly demonstrate that the majority of elderly people display an OS condition characterized by increased levels of peroxides and a slight reduction in antioxidant reserve.

Conclusions

Seniors have a greater propensity to develop a condition of oxidative stress, and therefore it is important to associate the monitoring of oxidative stress markers and, if necessary, antioxidant supplementation, with a healthy lifestyle.

Sarcopenic obesity: Myokines as potential diagnostic biomarkers and therapeutic targets?

Sarcopenic obesity (SO) is a condition characterized by the occurrence of both sarcopenia and obesity and imposes a heavy burden on the health of the elderly. Controversies and challenges regarding the definition, diagnosis and treatment of SO still remain because of its complex pathogenesis and limitations. Over the past few decades, numerous studies have revealed that myokines secreted from skeletal muscle play significant roles in the regulation of muscle mass and function as well as metabolic homeostasis. Abnormalities in myokines may trigger and promote the pathogenesis underlying age-related and metabolic diseases, including obesity, sarcopenia, type 2 diabetes (T2D), and SO. This review mainly focuses on the role of myokines as potential biomarkers for the early diagnosis and therapeutic targets in SO.

Effects of advanced age and pituitary pars intermedia dysfunction on components of the acute phase reaction in horses

Age, neurodegenerative disorders, and dysfunction of insulin secretion may be correlated with increased systemic concentrations of acute phase markers. Thus, the study aimed to determine the effect of age, pituitary pars intermedia dysfunction (PPID), and insulin dysregulation (ID) associated with PPID, on markers of the acute phase reaction. Twenty-nine mix-breed horses of both sexes were classified into groups: (1) healthy adult controls, (2) healthy non-PPID geriatric horses, (3) PPID ID+ horses, and (4) PPID ID- horses. Whole blood proinflammatory cytokine gene expression and serum concentrations of pro- and anti-inflammatory cytokines and acute phase proteins were measured. The data were analyzed using the Mann-Whitney U-test, and correlations between groups of data were assessed using Spearman's correlation coefficient. The tests were statistically significant if P < 0.05. No differences in the whole blood cytokine gene expression, serum cytokine concentrations, or acute phase proteins were noted between the groups. In the PPID ID group, there was a strong correlation between the ACTH concentration after the administration of thyrotropin-releasing hormone and the expression of IL-8 (r = 0.941; P = 0.0321). In the PPID ID+ group, there was a strong correlation between basal insulin concentrations and serum amyloid A (SAA; r = 0.936; P = 0.0083) as well as between postprandial insulin concentrations and SAA (r = 0.965; P = 0.001). These data suggest that neurodegeneration in horses moderately affects circulating markers of inflammation and that ID in horses with PPID influences acute phase inflammatory markers.

An Acetylation Switch of the NLRP3 Inflammasome Regulates Aging-Associated Chronic Inflammation and Insulin Resistance

It is well documented that the rate of aging can be slowed, but it remains unclear to which extent aging-associated conditions can be reversed. How the interface of immunity and metabolism impinges upon the diabetes pandemic is largely unknown. Here, we show that NLRP3, a pattern recognition receptor, is modified by acetylation in macrophages and is deacetylated by SIRT2, an NAD⁺-dependent deacetylase and a metabolic sensor. We have developed a cell-based system that models aging-associated inflammation, a defined co-culture system that simulates the effects of inflammatory milieu on insulin resistance in metabolic tissues during aging, and aging mouse models; and demonstrate that SIRT2 and NLRP3 deacetylation prevent, and can be targeted to reverse, aging-associated inflammation and insulin resistance. These results establish the dysregulation of the acetylation switch of the NLRP3 inflammasome as an origin of aging-associated chronic inflammation and highlight the reversibility of aging-associated chronic inflammation and insulin resistance.

Frailty-A promising concept to evaluate disease vulnerability

With the emergence of diseases, people become frailer and are expected to be less tolerant of adverse outcomes. Frailty was first described to explain the variability in life expectancy in individuals of the same age. Nowadays, it is described as a syndrome and as a state. It is used to explain the heterogeneity of people not only in their responses to biological ageing but also in their responses to illness. In this review, we explore the role of frailty both in age-related diseases, including dementia, cancer and cardiovascular disease, and in non-age-related diseases, such as Human Immunodeficiency Virus. We describe how high levels of frailty in such disorders predict worse outcomes and play a direct role in disease progression and in prognostic prediction. Overall, the potential for frailty to predict adverse health outcomes among young people as well as in non-age-related diseases is an evolving topic. Understanding how frailty contributes to poor health and how it can be modified to prevent or delay disease progression will ultimately enhance quality of life in affected individuals.

The need to incorporate aged animals into the preclinical modeling of neurological conditions

Neurological conditions such as traumatic brain injury, stroke, Parkinson's disease, epilepsy, multiple sclerosis, and Alzheimer's disease are serious clinical problems that affect millions of people worldwide. The majority of clinical trials for these common conditions have failed, and there is a critical need to understand why treatments in preclinical animal models do not translate to patients. Many patients with these conditions are middle-aged or older, however, the majority of preclinical studies have used only young-adult animals. Considering that aging involves biological changes that are relevant to the pathobiology of neurological diseases, the lack of aged subjects in preclinical research could contribute to translational failures. This paper details how aging affects biological processes involved in neurological conditions, and reviews aging research in the context of traumatic brain injury, stroke, Parkinson's disease, epilepsy, multiple sclerosis, and Alzheimer's disease. We conclude that aging is an important, but often overlooked, factor that influences biology and outcomes in neurological conditions, and provide suggestions to improve our understanding and treatment of these diseases in aged patients.