Rat stromelysin 3: cDNA cloning from healing skin wound, activation by furin and expression in rat tissues

The paradoxical role of matrix metalloproteinase-11 in cancer

The microenvironment surrounding the tumor affects biological processes, such as cell proliferation, angiogenesis, apoptosis, and invasion. Therefore, the ability to change these environments is an important attribute for tumor cells to obtain specific functions necessary for growth and metastasis. Matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) are zinc-dependent proteolytic metalloenzymes that facilitate protease-dependent tumor progression by degrading extracellular matrix (ECM) proteins, releasing cytokines, growth factors, and other cell surface molecules. As one of the most widely studied MMPs, MMP-11 is an important protease that is expressed in cancer cells, stromal cells, and the adjacent microenvironment. MMP-11 has a dual effect on tumors. On one hand, MMP-11 promotes tumor development by inhibiting apoptosis and promoting the migration and invasion of cancer cells in the early stage. On the other hand, in animal models, MMP-11 has a protective effect on tumor growth and metastasis at an advanced stage. Based on current findings regarding the importance of MMP-11 in altering the tumor microenvironment, there is a need to further understand how stromal cells and the ECM regulate tumor progression, which may result in the re-examination of MMPs as drug targets for cancer and other diseases. In this review, we summarize the dual role of MMP-11 in cancer and its potential clinical significance.

Matrix Metalloproteinase 11 is a Potential Biomarker in Bladder Cancer Diagnosis and Prognosis

Purpose

Bladder cancer is one of the leading causes of cancer death all over the world, and half of patients are diagnosed at advanced stages with poor therapeutic response. Thus, developing new biomarkers for bladder cancer diagnosis and prognosis is urgently needed.

Materials and Methods

Bioinformatic and gene ontology (GO) analysis were employed to screen highly upregulated and secretory tumor markers in the TCGA BLCA cohort. IHC in tissue microarray and ELISA in cancer cell culture medium were used to validate the expression of putative biomarkers in bladder cancer. Bisulfite sequencing was used to detect DNA methylation status in the promoter of putative genes.

Results

In this study, MMP11 is first identified as one of the most differentially expressed genes (DEGs) in bladder cancer by meta-analysis in a TCGA bladder cancer cohort. The strong upregulation of MMP11 is confirmed at protein levels in both bladder cancer patients and cell lines. Mechanistic studies reveal that MMP11 promoter hypomethylation, but not genomic amplification or mutation, accounts for its enhanced expression in bladder cancer both in vitro and in vivo. Moreover, clinicopathological analysis indicates that MMP11 upregulation is associated with the tumor progression and poor survival in bladder cancer patients.

Discussion

These findings suggest that MMP11, as a secretory protein, is a promising biomarker for diagnosis and prognosis in bladder cancer.

Diagnostic value of Doppler ultrasound parameters combined with MMP-11 in early breast cancer and benign breast diseases

Diagnostic value of Doppler ultrasound parameters combined with matrix metalloproteinase-11 (MMP-11) in early breast cancer and benign breast diseases were investigated. A total of 72 patients who underwent color Doppler ultrasound examination in Liaocheng Third People's Hospital from March 2015 to August 2018 were collected as research subjects, and the blood of 60 healthy subjects who underwent physical examinations was collected. The expression level of MMP-11 in serum of breast cancer patients was evaluated, and the diagnostic value of color Doppler ultrasound combined with MMP-11 in breast cancer was assessed. The diagnostic results of color Doppler ultrasound and the imaging characteristics of breast cancer patients were recorded. The results of biopsy and ultrasound were compared. The expression level of MMP-11 in serum of breast cancer patients was significantly higher than that of healthy subjects (P<0.05). The AUC of MMP-11 was 0.735, the sensitivity was 66.67%, and the specificity was 86.11%. Among the 72 patients, there were 41 patients diagnosed with breast cancer by serum MMP-11 examination, 38 patients diagnosed by ultrasound examination, 33 patients diagnosed by combined diagnosis, and 30 patients diagnosed by pathology biopsy. The pathological biopsy was used as the gold standard. The diagnostic efficacy of ultrasound combined with mammography examination was significantly better than the other two single examinations (P<0.050). In conclusion, Doppler ultrasound parameters combined with MMP-11 has a high diagnostic accordance rate in the diagnosis of breast cancer. At the same time, different diagnostic methods combined with the clinical manifestations of patients can improve the diagnostic accuracy, which is worthy of providing reference and advice for future clinical practice.

MicroRNA-192 inhibits the proliferation, migration and invasion of osteosarcoma cells and promotes apoptosis by targeting matrix metalloproteinase-11

MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are small non-coding RNAs that regulate gene expression during stem cell growth, proliferation and differentiation. miRNAs are also involved in the development and progression of a number of cancer types, including osteosarcoma (OS). miR-192 is significantly downregulated in various tumors, including lung, bladder and rectal cancer. miR-192 expression is associated with the migration and invasion of OS cells. However, the expression of miR-192 and its effects on the development of OS have not been reported. In the present study, the involvement of miR-192 and its molecular mechanisms in the development of OS was investigated. The results indicate that miR-192 expression was significantly downregulated in OS tissues compared with non-tumor tissues (P<0.05). Next, a miR-192 agomir was transfected into the OS cell line MG-63 to upregulate miR-192. The effects of miR-192 overexpression were then investigated by examining cell proliferation, apoptosis, migration and invasion. Matrix metalloproteinase (MMP)-11 belongs to a family of nine or more highly homologous Zn²⁺-endopeptidases. It was demonstrated that the mRNA and protein expression of MMP-11 were upregulated in OS tissues compared with non-tumor tissues (P<0.05). MMP-11 was predicted by TargetScan and miRanda as a miR-192 target, which was confirmed by western blotting and dual-luciferase assays. Finally, it was demonstrated that the overexpression of miR-192 was able to downregulate MMP-11 expression and reduce proliferation, migration and invasion, and promote apoptosis in OS cells. Together, these data indicate that miR-192 may be a tumor suppressor that inhibits the progression and invasion of OS by targeting MMP-11. Therefore, miR-192 may be useful for the diagnosis and treatment of OS.

Functional relationship between matrix metalloproteinase-11 and matrix metalloproteinase-14

MMP-11 is a key factor in physiopathological tissue remodeling. As an active form is secreted, its activity must be tightly regulated to avoid detrimental effects. Although TIMP-1 and TIMP-2 reversibly inhibit MMP-11, another more drastic scenario, presumably via hydrolysis, could be hypothesized. In this context, we have investigated the possible implication of MMP-14, since it exhibits a spatiotemporal localization similar to MMP-11. Using native HFL1-produced MMP-11 and HT-1080-produced MMP-14 as well as recombinant proteins, we show that MMP-11 is a MMP-14 substrate. MMP-14 cleaves MMP-11 catalytic domain at the PGG(P1)-I(P1′)LA and V/IQH(P1)-L(P1′)YG scissile bonds, two new cleavage sites. Interestingly, a functional test showed a dramatical reduction in MMP-11 enzymatic activity when incubated with active MMP-14, whereas inactive point-mutated MMP-14 had no effect. This function is conserved between human and mouse. Thus, in addition to the canonical reversible TIMP-dependent inhibitory system, irreversible MMP proteolytic inactivation might occur by cleavage of the catalytic domain in a MMP-dependent manner. Since MMP-14 is produced by HT-1080 cancer cells, whereas MMP-11 is secreted by HFL1 stromal cells, our findings support the emerging importance of tumor-stroma interaction/cross-talk. Moreover, they highlight a Janus-faced MMP-14 function in the MMP cascade, favoring activation of several pro-MMPs, but limiting MMP-11 activity. Finally, both MMPs are active at the cell periphery. Since MMP-14 is present at the cell membrane, whereas MMP-11 is soluble into the cellular microenvironment, this MMP-14 function might represent one critical regulatory mechanism to control the extent of pericellular MMP-11 bioavailability and protect cells from excessive/inappropriate MMP-11 function.

Ovarian expression and regulation of the stromelysins during the periovulatory period in the human and the rat

The matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) are postulated to facilitate follicular rupture. In the present study, expression of the stromelysins (MMP3, MMP10, MMP11) was analyzed in the periovulatory human and rat ovary. Human granulosa and theca cells were collected from the dominant follicle at various times after human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG). Intact rat ovaries, granulosa cells, and residual tissue (tissue remaining after granulosa cell collection) were isolated from equine CG (eCG)-hCG-primed animals. Mmp10 mRNA was highly induced in human granulosa and theca cells and intact rat ovaries, granulosa cells, and residual tissue. Localization of MMP10 to granulosa and theca cells in both human and rat ovarian follicles was confirmed by immunohistochemistry. Mmp3 mRNA was unchanged in human cells and rat granulosa cells, but increased in intact rat ovaries and residual tissue. Mmp11 mRNA decreased following hCG treatment in human granulosa and theca cells as well as rat granulosa cells. Regulation of Mmp10 in cultured rat granulosa cells revealed that the EGF inhibitor AG1478 and the progesterone receptor antagonist RU486 suppressed the induction of Mmp10 mRNA, whereas the prostaglandin inhibitor NS398 had no effect. Studies on the Mmp10 promoter demonstrated that forskolin plus PMA stimulated promoter activity, which was dependent upon a proximal AP1 site. In conclusion, there are divergent patterns of stromelysin expression associated with ovulation, with a marked induction of Mmp10 mRNA and a decrease in Mmp11 mRNA, yet a species-dependent pattern on Mmp3 mRNA expression. The induction of Mmp10 expression suggests an important role for this MMP in the follicular changes associated with ovulation and subsequent luteinization.

The clinical implications of MMP-11 and CK-20 expression in human breast cancer

BACKGROUND

Tumor invasiveness and metastasis in cancer progression is manifested by epigenetic abnormality. However, it remains unknown whether transcription regulation of matrix metalloproteinase-11(MMP-11) and cytoskeleton-20 (CK-20) genes for the homoeostasis of epithelial/connective interface that can enhance cell dissemination and invasion may act as alternative mutators to tumor clinicopathology.

METHODS

Paired cancerous and tumor-adjacent normal tissues from 72 breast cancer patients were assayed for the expression of MMP-11 and CK-20 by using real-time RT-PCR. The expression profiles were evaluated for the association with clinicopathological factors.

RESULTS

Breast tumor tissues displayed higher expression levels of MMP-11 and CK-20 than those of the adjacent non-cancerous tissues. Overexpression of either MMP-11 or CK-20 correlated with patients having poorly differentiated tumors (P(MMP-11)=0.01 and P(CK-20)=0.05) and lymph node metastasis (LNM) (P(MMP-11)=0.004 and P(CK-20)=0.001). A synergistic effect between MMP-11 and CK-20 on risk elevation was significant in patients with advanced tumor stage (OR=2.03, 95%CI=1.10-3.77) and LNM (OR=2.83, 95%CI=1.20-4.71). Additionally, patients lacking progesterone receptor exhibited high expression of MMP-11 and CK-20.

CONCLUSION

We demonstrate that MMP-11 and CK-20 are probable prognostic markers whose expression reflects the stages of tumor differentiation and LNM of breast cancer.

Expression of stromelysin-3 (matrix metalloproteinase-11) in macrophages of murine thymus following thymocyte apoptosis

High expression of stromelysin-3 (ST-3), also known as matrix metalloproteinase-11, has been implicated in tumor progression and intense tissue remodeling. Nonetheless, details of the cell type(s) expressing ST-3 are less well defined. Here, we report that ST-3 expression was elevated in mouse thymus following thymocyte apoptosis after administration of anti-CD3 Ab. TUNEL analysis revealed that many thymocytes in the cortical region were induced to apoptotic cell death 14 h after the injection. After an additional 2-6 h, ST-3 expression in the thymus was more apparent. Co-staining analysis by anti-ST-3 and F4/80 Abs showed that most F4/80-positive macrophages were also positive for ST-3. Murine peritoneal macrophages were found to constitutively express ST-3, and exposure to apoptotic cells hardly affected ST-3 expression in the macrophages. Taken together, our results indicate that ST-3 is not involved in the execution process of thymocyte apoptosis, and the increased levels of ST-3 in the thymus may be due to the presence of macrophages responsible for clearance of apoptotic cells.

Molecular cloning and partial characterization of medaka fish stromelysin-3 and its restricted expression in the oocytes of small growing follicles of the ovary

A cDNA clone (2755-bp) for stromelysin-3 was isolated by screening the cDNA library and by 3'- and 5'-rapid amplification of cDNA ends using ovary RNA of the medaka fish Oryzias latipes. The clone encodes a protein of 492 amino acids. Stromelysin-3 mRNA was detected only in the ovary. In situ hybridization analysis revealed that stromelysin-3 mRNA was localized in the oocyte cytoplasm of small growing follicles. RT-PCR analysis of total RNAs isolated from various-sized follicles and ovulated oocytes was conducted in order to determine the mRNA levels during oocyte growth. The stromelysin-3 mRNA level was the highest in the small follicles, and the mRNA levels decreased as the follicles grew. No significant stromelysin-3 mRNA was detected in the ovulated oocytes or immature ovaries. The fish stromelysin-3 cDNA was expressed in COS-1 cells in order to characterize the intracellular localization of the protein. A 56 kDa protein was synthesized and secreted into the culture medium. The secreted stromelysin-3 exhibited gelatin-degrading activity.

Rat liver injury after normothermic ischemia is prevented by a phosphinic matrix metalloproteinase inhibitor

Hepatic ischemia occurs in liver transplantation, hemodynamic or cardiogenic shock, and liver resection associated with trauma or tumor. Ischemia/reperfusion (I/R) injury results in microcirculation failure followed by apoptosis and necrosis. Matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) are involved in many physiological and pathological processes, but their expression and function during liver I/R remains poorly documented. In this study, we evaluated the expression of nine MMPs and their natural inhibitors, tissue inhibitors of MMPs (TIMPs), in a rat model of liver I/R. Analysis of MMP and TIMP expression show that although most of these genes are not constitutively expressed in the normal liver, they are induced in a specific time-dependent manner following I/R. Stromelysin-1, gelatinase B, and collagenase-3 are induced during the early phase of acute liver injury associated with inflammation and increased necrosis/apoptosis, whereas gelatinase A, membrane type-MMP, stromelysin-3, metalloelastase, TIMP-1, and TIMP-2 are essentially detectable during the recovery phase of liver injury corresponding to hepatocyte regeneration. This observation suggested that MMPs and TIMPs could play both deleterious and beneficial roles following I/R. We thus tested the effect of a specific phosphinic MMP inhibitor on acute liver I/R injury. Inhibition of MMP activity was shown to significantly decrease liver injury in ischemic/reperfused liver tissue as assessed by histological studies and serum hepatic enzyme levels. We therefore propose that MMP inhibitors may be of clinical relevance in liver-associated ischemic diseases or after liver transplantation.

Cloning and characterization of a rat ortholog of MMP-23 (matrix metalloproteinase-23), a unique type of membrane-anchored matrix metalloproteinase and conditioned switching of its expression during the ovarian follicular development

In our attempt to study the role of matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) in the process of mammalian ovulation, we isolated a rat ortholog of the recently reported human MMP-23 from gonadotropin-primed immature rat ovaries. Transient expression of epitope-tagged rat and human MMP-23 in COS-1 cells revealed that they were synthesized as a membrane-anchored glycoprotein with type II topology. Indirect immunofluorescent analysis showed that subcellular localization of MMP-23 was predominantly in the perinuclear regions. The transfected human MMP-23 protein was processed endogenously to the soluble form in COS-1 cells. However, cotransfection of MMP-23 with the mouse furin cDNA did not enhance this processing, indicating that furin may not be involved in this event. Notably, in situ hybridization analysis revealed a dramatic switching of MMP-23 mRNA localization from granulosa cells to theca-externa/fibroblasts and ovarian surface epithelium during the follicular development. In serum-free primary culture of rat granulosa cells, a drastic diminution of MMP-23 mRNA expression was observed in response to FSH action between 24 h and 48 h of culture. The observed effect of FSH on MMP-23 expression was mimicked by treatment of granulosa cells with forskolin or 8-bromo (Br)-cAMP. In contrast, MMP-23 mRNA levels increased in theca-interstitial cells regardless of the presence of LH in the culture. However, treatment of theca-interstitial cells with forskolin or 8-Br-cAMP markedly reduced the expression of MMP-23 with a concomitant increase in progesterone production. These results indicate that the MMP-23 gene is spatially and temporally regulated in a cell type-specific manner in ovary via the cAMP signaling pathway.

The metastasis-associated metalloproteinase stromelysin-3 is induced by transforming growth factor-beta in osteoblasts and fibroblasts

Bone matrix serves as a reservoir of growth factors important in growth and tissue remodeling, and transforming growth factor-beta (TGF-beta) is abundant in bone matrix. Normal processes, such as remodeling, and pathological processes, such as osteolytic metastasis, cause the release of growth factors from the matrix, allowing them to influence the behavior of cells within their microenvironment. Breast cancer metastases frequently establish themselves in the bone compartment, often causing localized osteolysis. Stromelysin-3 is a matrix metalloproteinase associated with tumor metastases. Its expression in host tissues favors the homing and survival of malignant epithelial cells in early tumorigenesis by releasing and/or activating growth factors sequestered in the extracellular matrix. Osteoblasts express stromelysin-3, and Northern and Western blot analysis show that its messenger RNA and protein levels are increased by TGF-beta. Nuclear run-off assays demonstrate activation of gene transcription, and experiments using transcription inhibitors demonstrate stabilization of stromelysin-3 messenger RNA by TGF-beta. Importantly, TGFbeta induces stromelysin-3 in fibroblasts by similar mechanisms, indicating that it is likely to stimulate stromelysin-3 expression in breast stroma. Stimulation of stromelysin-3 expression by TGF-beta in fibroblasts and osteoblasts could play a role in the metastasis of breast cancer cells and their homing and survival in bone.

In vivo evidence that the stromelysin-3 metalloproteinase contributes in a paracrine manner to epithelial cell malignancy

Stromelysin-3 (ST3; Basset, P., J.P. Bellocq, C. Wolf, I. Stoll, P. Hutin, J.M. Limacher, O.L. Podhajcer, M.P. Chenard, M.C. Rio, P. Chambon. 1990. Nature. 348:699-704) is a matrix metalloproteinase (MMP) expressed in mesenchymal cells located close to epithelial cells, during physiological and pathological tissue remodeling processes. In human carcinomas, high ST3 levels are associated with a poor clinical outcome, suggesting that ST3 plays a role during malignant processes. In this study we report the ST3 gene inactivation by homologous recombination. Although ST3 null mice (ST3-/-) were fertile and did not exhibit obvious alterations in appearance and behavior, the lack of ST3 altered malignant processes. Thus, the suppression of ST3 results in a decreased 7, 12-dimethylbenzanthracene-induced tumorigenesis in ST3-/- mice. Moreover, ST3-/- fibroblasts have lost the capacity to promote implantation of MCF7 human malignant epithelial cells in nude mice (P < 0.008). Finally, we show that this ST3 paracrine function requires extracellular matrix (ECM)-associated growth factors. Altogether, these findings give evidence that ST3 promotes, in a paracrine manner, homing of malignant epithelial cells, a key process for both primary tumors and metastases. Therefore, ST3 represents an appropriate target for specific MMP inhibitor(s) in future therapeutical approaches directed against the stromal compartment of human carcinomas.

Membrane type-1 matrix metalloprotease and stromelysin-3 cleave more efficiently synthetic substrates containing unusual amino acids in their P1' positions

The influence of the substrate P1' position on the specificity of two zinc matrix metalloproteases, membrane type-1 matrix metalloprotease (MT1-MMP) and stromelysin-3 (ST3), was evaluated by synthesizing a series of fluorogenic substrates of general formula dansyl-Pro-Leu-Ala-Xaa-Trp-Ala-Arg-NH2, where Xaa in the P1' position represents unusual amino acids containing either long arylalkyl or alkyl side chains. Our data demonstrate that both MT1-MMP and ST3 cleave substrates containing in their P1' position unusual amino acids with extremely long side chains more efficiently than the corresponding substrates with natural phenylalanine or leucine amino acids. In this series of substrates, the replacement of leucine by S-para-methoxybenzyl cysteine increased the kcat/Km ratio by a factor of 37 for MT1-MMP and 9 for ST3. The substrate with a S-para-methoxybenzyl cysteine residue in the P1' position displayed a kcat/Km value of 1.59 10(6) M-1 s-1 and 1.67 10(4) M-1 s-1, when assayed with MT1-MMP and ST3, respectively. This substrate is thus one of the most rapidly hydrolyzed substrates so far reported for matrixins, and is the first synthetic peptide efficiently cleaved by ST3. These unexpected results for these two matrixins suggest that extracellular proteins may be cleaved by matrixins at sites containing amino acids with unusual long side chains, like those generated in vivo by some post-translational modifications.

Stromelysin-3 induction and interstitial collagenase repression by retinoic acid. Therapeutical implication of receptor-selective retinoids dissociating transactivation and AP-1-mediated transrepression

Human stromelysin-3 and interstitial collagenase are matrix metalloproteinases whose expression by stromal cells in several types of carcinomas has been associated with cancer progression. We compared here the regulation of the expression of both proteinases by retinoids in human fibroblasts. Physiological concentrations of retinoic acid were found to simultaneously induce stromelysin-3 and repress interstitial collagenase. In both cases, the involvement of a transcriptional mechanism was supported by run-on assays. Furthermore, in transient transfection experiments, the activity of the stromelysin-3 promoter was induced by retinoic acid through endogenous receptors acting on a DR1 retinoic acid-responsive element. The ligand-dependent activation of the receptors was also investigated by using selective synthetic retinoids, and we demonstrated that retinoic acid-retinoid X receptor heterodimers were the most potent functional units controlling both stromelysin-3 induction and interstitial collagenase repression. However, specific retinoids dissociating the transactivation and the AP-1-mediated transrepression functions of the receptors were found to repress interstitial collagenase without inducing stromelysin-3. These findings indicate that such retinoids may represent efficient inhibitors of matrix metalloproteinase expression in the treatment of human carcinomas.

Expression of matrix metalloproteinases during rat skin wound healing: evidence that membrane type-1 matrix metalloproteinase is a stromal activator of pro-gelatinase A

Skin wound healing depends on cell migration and extracellular matrix remodeling. Both processes, which are necessary for reepithelization and restoration of the underlying connective tissue, are believed to involve the action of extracellular proteinases. We screened cDNA libraries and we found that six matrix metalloproteinase genes were highly expressed during rat skin wound healing. They were namely those of stromelysin 1, stromelysin 3, collagenase 3, gelatinase A (GelA), gelatinase B, and membrane type-1 matrix metalloproteinase (MT1-MMP). The expression kinetics of these MMP genes, the tissue distribution of their transcripts, the results of cotransfection experiments in COS-1 cells, and zymographic analyses performed using microdissected rat wound tissues support the possibility that during cutaneous wound healing pro-GelA and pro-gelatinase B are activated by MT1-MMP and stromelysin 1, respectively. Since MT1-MMP has been demonstrated to be a membrane-associated protein (Sato, H., T. Takino, Y. Okada, J. Cao, A. Shinagawa, E. Yamamoto, and M. Seiki. 1994. Nature (Lond.). 370: 61-65), our finding that GelA and MT1-MMP transcripts were expressed in stromal cells exhibiting a similar tissue distribution suggests that MT1-MMP activates pro-GelA at the stromal cell surface. This possibility is further supported by our observation that the processing of pro-GelA to its mature form correlated to the detection of MT1-MMP in cell membranes of rat fibroblasts expressing the MT1-MMP and GelA genes. These observations, together with the detection of high levels of the mature GelA form in the granulation tissue but not in the regenerating epidermis, suggest that MT1-MMP and GelA contribute to the restoration of connective tissue during rat skin wound healing.