Thyroid autoantibodies

High level of thyroid peroxidase antibodies as a detrimental risk of pregnancy outcomes in euthyroid women undergoing ART: A meta-analysis

Thyroid autoimmunity (TAI) triggered by genetic and epigenetic variation occurs mostly in women of reproductive age. TAI is described mainly by positivity of anti-thyroid peroxidase antibody (TPO-Ab) and/or thyroglobulin antibody (TG-Ab). TPO-Ab, but not TG-Ab, was suggested to be associated with pregnancy outcome in euthyroid women undergoing assisted reproductive technology (ART), but their results are conflicting. This meta-analysis was performed to decide whether the presence of TPO-Ab-in a concentration dependent manner-correlates with the success of ART. A systematic literature search was performed in the PubMed, Web of Science, and EMBASE databases for relevant articles published from January 1999 to April 2022, and these studies focused on the effect of TAI on pregnancy outcomes of women who underwent in vitro fertilization, intracytoplasmic sperm injection and intrauterine insemination and met the inclusion criteria: (i) the studies were prospective or retrospective study; (ii) all patients undergoing ART were tested for thyroid-related antibodies; (iii) the assessed ART outcomes included miscarriage rate (MR) or delivery rate (DR). The exclusion criteria were: (i) female congenital uterine malformation, chromosomal diseases and other infectious diseases; (ii) overt hypothyroidism or pre-existing thyroid disease; (iii) thrombus tendency. We divided the included patients into three groups according to the TPO-Ab threshold they defined: (i) TPO-Ab (-), threshold <34 IU/mL; (ii) TPO-Ab-34, threshold >34 IU/mL; (iii) TPO-Ab-100, threshold >100 IU/mL. We then extracted necessary relevant data, including MR and DR. Egger's test was used to evaluate the risk of publication bias. This meta-analysis included a total of 7 literatures involving 7466 patients with TAI (-) and 965 patients with TAI (+) and revealed that there was no significant difference between group TPO-Ab-34 and group TPO-Ab (-) in MR [risk ratio (RR): 0.61 (0.35, 1.08), p = 0.09] and DR [RR: 0.97 (0.83, 1.13), p = 0.69]. By contrast, compared to TPO-Ab (-) group, TPO-Ab-100 patients showed markedly higher MR [RR: 2.12 (1.52, 2.96), p = 0.0046], and lower DR [RR: 0.66 (0.49, 0.88), p < 0.0001] with high degree of statistical significance. This meta-analysis suggests that, for euthyroid patients, high level of TPO-Ab (>100 IU/mL) could adversely influence the pregnancy outcome of ART.

Vitamin D3 Metabolism and Its Role in Temporomandibular Joint Osteoarthritis and Autoimmune Thyroid Diseases

The aim of this review was to present the metabolism of vitamin D3, as well as to discuss the role of vitamin D3 in bone metabolism, temporomandibular joint osteoarthritis (TMJ OA), and autoimmune thyroid diseases (AITD) on the basis of the literature. Vitamin D3 plays a significant role in human health, as it affects the calcium-phosphate balance and regulates the bone metabolism. Calcitriol impresses the pleiotropic effect on human biology and metabolism. Its modulative function upon the immune system is based on the reduction of Th1 cell activity and increased immunotolerance. Vitamin D3 deficiency may lead to an imbalance in the relationship between Th1/Th17 and Th2, Th17/Th reg, and is considered by some authors as one of the possible backgrounds of autoimmune thyroid diseases (AITD), e.g., Hashimoto's thyroiditis or Graves' disease. Moreover, vitamin D3, through its direct and indirect influence on bones and joints, may also play an important role in the development and progression of degenerative joint diseases, including temporomandibular joint osteoarthritis. Further randomized, double blind studies are needed to unequivocally confirm the relationship between vitamin D3 and abovementioned diseases and to answer the question concerning whether vitamin D3 supplementation may be used in the prevention and/or treatment of either AITD or OA diseases.

Clinical efficacy of Bupleurum inula flower soup for immune damage intervention in Hashimoto's thyroiditis: A placebo-controlled randomized trial

Background: Antibody-mediated humoral immune response is involved in the damage process in Hashimoto's thyroiditis (HT). Although the traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) formula bupleurum inula flower soup (BIFS) is often used in HT treatment, it has not been evaluated through high-quality clinical research. Rigorously designed randomized, double-blind, prospective clinical studies are urgently needed to evaluate BIFS for intervening in the HT immune damage process, and to improve clinical prognosis and patient quality of life. Methods: A prospective randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial was used to evaluate the efficacy of BIFS. Fifty participants diagnosed with HT with hypothyroidism were randomly assigned at a 1:1 ratio to the BIFS (levothyroxine with BIFS) or control (levothyroxine with placebo) group. Participants received 8 weeks of treatment and were followed for 24 weeks. They were monitored for: levels of thyroid peroxidase antibody (TPOAb), thyroglobulin antibody (TgAb), and thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH); scores for depression, anxiety, and health-related quality of life (HRQoL); thyroid volume; safety indicators including routine blood tests, liver and kidney functions, and electrocardiogram; and levothyroxine dose. Results: Forty-eight participants completed the study and were included in the final analysis. At baseline, there were no significant between-group differences in the observed indicators (p > 0.05). Post-treatment, compared with the control group, the BIFS group had significantly lower levels of TPOAb (275.77 ± 132.98 vs. 441.78 ± 195.50, p = 0.001), TgAb (385.92 ± 281.91 vs. 596.17 ± 282.26, p = 0.013), and TSH (6.57 ± 3.73 vs. 9.63 ± 5.34, p = 0.001). Compared with the control group, the BIFS group's scores improved significantly for depression (47.00 ± 5.12 vs. 51.04 ± 3.22, p = 0.002), anxiety (43.21 ± 4.22 vs. 48.08 ± 2.81, p = 0.005), and HRQoL physical (62.08 ± 5.97 vs. 57.96 ± 4.71, p = 0.011) and psychological (60.17 ± 5.94 vs. 55.75 ± 7.09, p = 0.024) subscores. At 24-week follow-up, levothyroxine combined with TCM allowed a significantly reduced levothyroxine dose (0.58 ± 0.43 vs. 1.02 ± 0.45, p = 0.001). The post-treatment clinical efficacy rates differed significantly (p = 0.03), with 75% (18/24) for the BIFS group and 46% (11/24) for the control group. There were no significant between-group differences in thyroid volume or safety indicators after eight treatment weeks or at the 24-week follow-up (p > 0.05). Conclusion: The TCM BIFS can effectively reduce thyroid titer, relieve clinical and emotional symptoms, and improve HRQoL in patients with HT. Clinical Trial Registration: https://www.chictr.org.cn/, identifier ChiCTR1900020987.

The findings about relationship between autoimmune thyroid disease and first-trimester aneuploidy results

Aim: The aim of this study was to investigate the relationship between thyroid autoantibody and first-trimester aneuploidy results. Thyroid autoimmunity (TAI) is the most common autoimmune disorder. Patients with TAI are usually euthyroid. Thyroid peroxidase (TPO-Ab) in patients with or without thyroid dysfunction is associated with infertility, recurrent embryo implantation failure, and early pregnancy loss. The impact of TPO-Ab on first-trimester aneuploidy test results needs to be studied. Material and Method: This retrospective case-control study was conducted between December 2019 and May 2022. Patients with thyroid autoantibody positivity (n=112) were included in the study as the case group. The control group was selected from age and body mass index (BMI)-matched patients (n=130). Nuchal translucency (NT), crown rump length (CRL), pregnancy-associated plasma protein A (PAPP-A) and free beta subunit of human chorionic gonadotropin (β-hCG)) values were compared between the two groups. Results: This study included two hundred forty two age-matched (29.86±4.51) and BMI-matched (23.96±2.34) women. There was no statistically significant difference between groups in terms of free thyroxine (FT4), PAPP-A and free β-hCG (p>0.05). NT as a marker for major chromosomal defects and CRL were comparable in case and control groups (p>0.05). Conclusion: There is no statistically significant relationship between thyroid autoimmune diseases and the first-trimester aneuploidy results.

Preconception Counseling and Care for Pregnant Women with Thyroid Disease

Thyroid disease is associated with adverse maternal and fetal outcomes. Appropriate reference ranges should be used for the interpretation of test results, although universal screening for thyroid dysfunction is not warranted. Overt thyroid dysfunction requires careful consideration of medication adjustments and close monitoring. Mild thyroid hypofunction has been linked to adverse pregnancy outcomes including preterm delivery, and poor neurocognition in the offspring. This review summarizes the most recent evidence on the counseling and management of women with thyroid disease before and during pregnancy and highlights the areas of controversy in need of further research.

T Cell Help in the Autoreactive Germinal Center

The germinal center serves as a site of B cell selection and affinity maturation, critical processes for productive adaptive immunity. In autoimmune disease tolerance is broken in the germinal center reaction, leading to production of autoreactive B cells that may propagate disease. Follicular T cells are crucial regulators of this process, providing signals necessary for B cell survival in the germinal center. Here we review the emerging roles of follicular T cells in the autoreactive germinal center. Recent advances in immunological techniques have allowed study of the gene expression profiles and repertoire of follicular T cells at unprecedented resolution. These studies provide insight into the potential role follicular T cells play in preventing or facilitating germinal center loss of tolerance. Improved understanding of the mechanisms of T cell help in autoreactive germinal centers provides novel therapeutic targets for diseases of germinal center dysfunction.

Autoimmune Thyroid Disease in Primary Sjögren's Syndrome: Real-Life Screening Practice and Clinical Outcomes

BACKGROUND

Notwithstanding the frequent coexistence of autoimmune thyroid disease (ATD) and primary Sjögren's Syndrome (SS), it is still unknown how often this association is studied along with its clinical impact.

OBJECTIVE

This study aimed to describe real-world screening practices for ATD in patients with SS and evaluate clinical outcomes of patients with both diagnoses using validated activity and chronicity indexes.

METHODS

It is a retrospective study of 223 patients with SS attending a tertiary referral center. Patients were under rheumatology surveillance and might have attended other clinics, including internal medicine and/or endocrinology. We registered glandular and extraglandular features, serology and scored the activity (ESSDAI) and the accrual damage (SSDDI) indexes. We also identified any thyroid function tests (TFT) performed, anti-thyroid antibodies, images, and histological thyroid examinations. A single endocrinologist reviewed all data.

RESULTS

One hundred forty-nine patients had at least one set of TFT. Younger age was associated with a lack of screening (OR 0.98, 95% CI 0.95-0.99, p=0.01). Sixty-nine patients had thyroid disease, with the most common diagnosis being ATD (n=24). Patients with ATD had a lower prevalence of Ro/SSA and anti-La/SSB antibodies but similar cumulative SS activity and damage scores.

CONCLUSION

At least one-third of our patients were not screened for thyroid disease, with these patients being the youngest. Thyroid disorders were found in about 40% of patients with SS, with ATD being the most common. Having SS/ATD did not confer the worst disease activity or damage accrual. These results highlight the importance of making treating physicians aware of screening for thyroid disease in this population.

Relationship between Serum Thyroid-stimulating Hormone Receptor Autoantibodies and Activity and Severity of Thyroid Eye Disease

Purpose: To study the relationship between the levels of serum thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH)-receptor autoantibodies (TRAbs) and thyroid eye disease (TED) activity and severity scores.Methods: A cross-sectional study was performed. The medical records of 315 patients diagnosed with TED between March 2014 and December 2019 were reviewed. The clinical activity score (CAS) was used to assess TED activity and a modified NOSPECS score was used for severity grading. The serum TRAb level was measured using two assays: a TSHR binding inhibitory immunoglobulin (TBII) assay and thyroid stimulating immunoglobulin (TSI) bioassay.Results: The TBII and TSI assay results were significantly positively correlated with the CAS (R = 0.113 and 0.211, respectively; p < 0.05), modified NOSPECS score (R = 0.173 and 0.316, respectively; p < 0.05), and proptosis (R = 0.136 and 0.167, respectively; p < 0.05). Both assays demonstrated significant differences in the level of TRAb between patients with and without compressive optic neuropathy or corneal epithelial defects.Conclusions: The levels of TRAbs according to both TBII and TSI assays showed significant correlations with clinical signs of corneal involvement, optic neuropathy, and TED activity and severity.

Can Early Thyroid Profiling Help Avert Spontaneous Abortions/Early Pregnancy Loss: A Retrospective Study

Presence of thyroid autoantibodies in euthyroid women can result in various complications such as miscarriages and pre-eclampsia. Women who are hypothyroid have an increased risk of anaemia, infertility, and preterm birth. Spontaneous miscarriages have been reported in association with women with antithyroid antibodies. This can be utilised as a supplementary marker for the mother's immune system failure. The goal of this study was to compare the thyroid profiles of pregnant women who had a normal delivery to those who had a high-risk obstetric history, and to see if early thyroid profiling can help prevent poor pregnancy outcomes. In conclusion, our analysis has demonstrated that women with abnormal values of T4, T3, anti-thyroid peroxidase (TPO), and TSH were associated with fetal demise when compared to women with normal values of T4, T3, anti-TPO, and TSH. Anti-TPO levels were shown to be elevated in women with a poor obstetric history, making early thyroid profiling improve outcomes in pregnancy. Hypothyroidism with increased TSH and anti-TPO levels may have a negative impact on obstetric history, resulting in the loss of an early pregnancy.

Hashimoto Encephalopathy in Pediatrics: Report of 3 Cases

OBJECTIVE

To describe the rare occurrence of pediatric Hashimoto encephalopathy in 3 patients.

METHODS

The patients, 9 to 13 years of age, presented with new-onset seizures and other neurologic symptoms, including hemiplegia, aphasia, and memory loss. Thyroid function tests and thyroid antibodies were measured. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) of the brain, cerebrospinal fluid analysis, and electroencephalography were also performed.

RESULTS

The first patient had a thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) level of 60 μIU/mL (range, 0.4-4.5), free T4 of 0.28 ng/dL (range, 0.7-1.6), and thyroid peroxidase antibody (TPO Ab) of 1243 IU/mL (range < 9). The MRI results indicated a hyperintense signal along the gyri and sulci with diffuse leptomeningeal enhancement bilaterally. The second patient had a TSH level of 25 μIU/mL, free T4 level of 0.7 ng/dL, and TPO Ab level of 3340 IU/mL. The MRI result was normal. The third patient, who was already on levothyroxine, had a TSH level of 17 μIU/mL, free T4 level of 0.81 ng/dL, and TPO Ab level of 1200 IU/mL. The MRI result was normal. All patients had significant elevation of protein in the cerebrospinal fluid and background slowing on electroencephalography. All patients were treated with high doses of intravenous methylprednisolone followed by oral prednisone and thyroid hormone replacement.

CONCLUSION

These cases underscore the importance of thyroid function tests with antibodies in children presenting with acute neuropsychiatric manifestations, especially new-onset seizures without any identifiable cause. We believe that this condition is underdiagnosed in children, and a high index of suspicion is recommended.

An updated advance of autoantibodies in autoimmune diseases

Autoantibodies are abnormal antibodies which are generated by pathogenic B cells when targeting an individual's own tissue. Autoantibodies have been identified as a symbol of autoimmune disorders and are frequently considered a clinical marker of these disorders. Autoimmune diseases, including system lupus erythematosus and rheumatoid arthritis, consist of a series of disorders that share some similarities and differences. They are characterized by chronic, systemic, excessive immune activation and inflammation and involve in almost all body tissues. Autoimmune diseases occur more frequently in women than men due to hormonal impacts. In this review we systemically introduce and summarize the latest advances of various autoantibodies in multiple autoimmune diseases.

Anti-Thyroid Peroxidase/Anti-Thyroglobulin Antibody-Related Neurologic Disorder Responsive to Steroids Presenting with Pure Acute Onset Chorea

Background:

Pure acute onset chorea without encephalopathy has rarely been reported in anti-thyroid peroxidase (anti-TPO)/anti-thyroglobulin (anti-TG) antibody-related neurologic disorders responsive to steroids (ATANDS).

Case report:

We report a 16-year-old female who presented with acute chorea without encephalopathy. Anti-TPO antibodies were found to be strongly positive (>1200 IU/ml) along with anti-thyroglobulin and anti-thyroid stimulating hormone receptor antibodies. After pulse intravenous methylprednisolone therapy (1 g/day for five consecutive days), all the movements seized, and she was discharged with oral prednisolone 30 mg/day with gradual tapering over next three months. After one year of follow-up, she is stable, drug-free, and never had any other problems.

Discussion:

Anti-thyroid antibodies testing should be included in routine/conventional panel that is done for elucidating causes of chorea as ATANDS can be easily missed and is treatable with widely available, relatively low-cost drugs like steroids with a promising outcome.

TPO antibody positivity and adverse pregnancy outcomes

Thyroid autoimmunity (TAI) is prevalent amongst women of reproductive age. TAI describes the presence of circulating anti-thyroid autoantibodies that are targeted against the thyroid, with or without thyroid dysfunction. Thyroid peroxidase antibodies (TPOAb) are the most common anti-thyroid autoantibodies. Around 10% of biochemically euthyroid individuals also have an elevated TPOAb titre. Many studies have linked the presence of TPOAb to adverse maternal and fetal outcomes in pregnancy, in particular miscarriage and pre-term birth, even in the absence of thyroid dysfunction. The causal pathway is poorly understood and few trials have looked to find treatments to reduce adverse outcomes. This review discusses in detail the associated adverse outcomes of TPOAb in pregnancy and the results of trials exploring methods to reduce such outcomes. Recommendations for counselling and monitoring of women with TPOAb and suggested areas for future work are also outlined.

Reference Values of Thyroid Hormones During the First Trimester of Pregnancy in Valencian Community (Spain) and Their Relationship with Iodine Intake

Thyroid hormones require special monitoring during the first trimester of gestation. Local reference values should be applied if available, especially in iodine-deficient areas, as generalized iodine supplementation is controversial. The aim of the present study was to establish thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH) and free thyroxine (FT4) reference values in the first trimester of gestation in the Valencian community (Spain) and relate them to iodine intake. A total of 261 healthy pregnant women participated in the study. The calculated reference values were 0.128-4.455 mIU/L for TSH and 0.9-1.592 ng/dL for FT4. The upper TSH reference value for pregnant women in the first trimester in our environment was similar to the latest American Thyroid Association (ATA) recommendation (4 mIU/L). The mean TSH value was significantly lower in smokers, and there were no significant differences when analyzing the influence of iodine supplementation, although the low duration of supplement intake needs to be taken into consideration. Ioduria levels (median 57 µg/L) confirmed iodine deficiency. We found statistically significant differences in ioduria levels among patients who consumed iodized salt and iodine supplements and those who did not. It is essential to focus on recommending adequate consumption of iodized salt and iodine supplements prior to gestation and at least during the first trimester to avoid possible maternal thyroid dysfunction and perinatal complications.

Dynamic Changes in Antithyroperoxidase and Antithyroglobulin Antibodies Suggest an Increased Risk for Abnormal Thyrotropin Levels

Background: Antithyroperoxidase (TPOAb) and antithyroglobulin (TgAb) antibodies are associated with abnormal thyrotropin (TSH) levels. However, the effect of dynamic changes in TPOAb and TgAb on incident abnormal TSH is unknown. Methods: A total of 2,387 euthyroid participants aged 18 years or older from three rural areas in northern China were enrolled in this cohort study. Questionnaire interviews and laboratory measurements were performed at baseline in 1999 and at follow-up in 2004. Multinomial logistic regression was used to examine the relationship between changes in thyroid antibodies and incident abnormal TSH levels. Results: In this 5 year follow-up study, TPOAb tier gain was significantly associated with an increased risk of subnormal TSH levels (adjusted RR, 1.535; 95% CI: 1.357-1.736) and supranormal TSH levels (adjusted RR, 1.378; 95% CI: 1.196-1.587), and TgAb tier gain was significantly associated with an increased risk of supranormal (adjusted RR, 1.090; 95% CI: 1.007-1.179) TSH levels. Both thyroid antibody-positive seroconversion and persistent positivity were significantly associated with an increased risk of incident abnormal TSH levels. Thyroid antibody positive seroconversion was associated with a higher risk of incident subnormal TSH than incident supranormal TSH, whereas persistent positive thyroid antibody was associated with a higher risk of incident supranormal TSH than incident subnormal TSH. Conclusions: Dynamic thyroid antibody changes may be related to incident abnormal TSH levels. Those with persistent positive thyroid antibody were more likely to have supranormal TSH than subnormal TSH, and those with positive seroconversion were more likely to have subnormal TSH than supranormal TSH. Further studies are needed to confirm this conclusion and to explore this association mediated by TSH receptor antibodies.

Prevalence of Thyroid Autoimmune Antibodies in Women Seeking Fertility Care in Damascus, Syria

Introduction

Thyroid autoimmune (TAI) disease with a prevalence varying between 5 and 15%, represents the most common endocrine disorder in women with reproductive age. Not only is TAI disease five to 10 folds more common in women than men but also TAI diseases is often undiagnosed because it may be present without overt thyroid dysfunction for several years. Studies found an increased prevalence of TAI in women referred to fertility clinics compared with normal population. In this analysis we aimed to study the prevalence of TAI among women seeking fertility care in Damascus, Syria in order to understand its clinical and public health importance in population.

Methods

This study is a retrospective cross-sectional study on women patients seeking fertility care at Orient Hospital, Damascus city, Syria from April 2011 to March 2018. A total of 2526 women, with available biochemical data of anti-thyroid antibodies (anti-TPO) and anti-thyroglobulin antibodies (anti-TG) were included in our study. Thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH) titers data were also included in the statistical analysis.

Results

TAI was found positive in 559 patients (22.1%) of our studies population. TAI was more prevalent in patients with abnormal TSH levels.

Conclusion

Thyroid autoimmunity prevalence in women seeking fertility care in Damascus, Syria was 22.1% which is significantly higher than normal population. Further studies are needed to assess the relation of these antibodies in thyroid, gynecological and other factors for the Syrian population.

A Cross-Sectional Study to Assess the Prevalence of Adult Thyroid Dysfunction Disorders in Jordan

Background: Insufficient production of thyroid hormones results in hypothyroidism, while overproduction results in hyperthyroidism. These are common adult disorders, with hypothyroidism more common in the elderly. Jordan has had past problems with dietary iodine deficiency but there are no published studies assessing the population prevalence of these disorders in the Arab Middle East. Methods: A cross-sectional study was conducted in three representative areas of Jordan. There were 7085 participants with a mean age of 40.8 years. Participants completed a questionnaire and had blood taken for thyroid analysis. Results:Hypothyroidism: The prevalence of any hypothyroidism (already diagnosed and/or identified by blood testing) was 17.2% in females and 9.1% in males. Undiagnosed prevalence was 8% and 6.2% for females and males, respectively. The prevalence of subclinical hypothyroidism, defined as high serum thyrotropin (TSH) and normal serum-free thyroxine (fT4), was 5.98% among females and 4.40% among males. The prevalence of overt hypothyroidism, defined as high TSH and low fT4, was 2.00% among females and 1.80% among males. Only 53.5% (55.3% for females, 42.1% males) of those previously diagnosed with hypothyroidism had TSH levels within the appropriate range. Hyperthyroidism: The prevalence of any hyperthyroidism (already diagnosed and/or identified by blood testing) was 1.8% in females and 2.27% in males. The undiagnosed prevalence was 1.4% and 2.1% for females and males, respectively. The prevalence of subclinical hyperthyroidism (low TSH and normal fT4) was 1.20% and 1.80% among males and females accordingly. The prevalence of overt hyperthyroidism (low TSH and high fT4) was 0.2% among females and 0.3% among males. About 85.7% (83.3% for females, 100% males) of those previously diagnosed with hyperthyroidism had TSH levels within the appropriate range. Conclusions: The results of this study reveal that the total prevalence of thyroid dysfunction among adult females and males in Jordan is very high compared with international statistics, particularly in the rates of undiagnosed cases. This indicates the need for further assessment of the value of screening for adult hypothyroidism in Jordan.

Steroid-responsive Encephalopathy Associated with Autoimmune Thyroiditis (SREAT) Presenting with Pure Cerebellar Ataxia

Background

Myoclonus and tremor are common movement disorder phenomenologies in steroid-responsive encephalopathy associated with autoimmune thyroiditis (SREAT). Pure ataxia without encephalopathy has rarely been reported.

Case report

We report 21- and 40-year-old females who presented with subacute pure ataxia without encephalopathy. After immunotherapies, both exhibited initial improvement of ataxia, and subsequently remained in plateau phase.

Discussion

This treatable disorder should be added to the differential diagnoses of progressive cerebellar ataxia, and anti-thyroid peroxidase and anti-thyroglobulin should be considered as part of the workup. It is crucial not to misdiagnose SREAT presenting with pure cerebellar ataxia as degenerative or spinocerebellar ataxia.

Implementation of thyroid function tests algorithms by clinical laboratories: A four-year experience of good clinical and diagnostic practice in a tertiary hospital in Greece

INTRODUCTION

Thyroid Function Tests (TFTs) are among the most commontly ordered tests. Significant overuse of TFTs can occur when instead of using a single TSH test to screen for thyroid disease a full panel (TSH plus FT4 and FT3) is ordered. The aim of our study was to evaluate the effectiveness of the application of a scientifically-established laboratory-controlled algorithm for TFTs to physician's orders for inpatients and to address potential pitfalls of such an approach.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

We collected and analyzed Laboratory Information System data of the TFTs performed between April 2009 and March 2016 in a 739-bed tertiary teaching hospital. Between April 2013 and March 2016, we applied a laboratory controlled algorithm for inpatient TFT assays after TSH and did not perform further tests, unless a justified bypass was requested by the treating physician.

RESULTS

Algorithm application led to significant reductions of TFTs executed per TSH ordered. Compared to the four years preceding the intervention, executed FT4/TSH tests decreased from 93 to 18%, FT3/TSH from 92 to 18%, anti-TG/TSH from 18 to 4% and anti-TPO/TSH from 11 to 3%. Simultaneously, FT4, FT3, anti-TG, and anti-TPO tests ordered in outpatients also displayed a significant gradual decrease.

CONCLUSIONS

Hospital-based laboratories can safely apply a generally accepted TFTs algorithm on physician's orders without any compromise in diagnostic/therapeutic accuracy, thus achieving significant direct cost-reduction and increased physician awareness on current TFT ordering practices. Such an approach, combined with collaboration with ordering physicians, can safeguard patients from the consequences of low-value care practices.

Asymptomatic thyroid dysfunction in human immunodeficiency virus-1-infected subjects

BACKGROUND:

Thyroid hormone abnormalities have been reported elsewhere in human immunodeficiency virus-1 (HIV-1)-infected individuals, but such studies in Nigerians are scarce in literature.

OBJECTIVE:

To evaluate thyroid function in HIV-1-infected individuals and to correlate thyroid function parameters with cluster of differentiation (CD4⁺) cell count.

MATERIALS AND METHODS:

Total thyroxine (T4), total triiodothyronine (T3), thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH), and CD4⁺ were estimated in 100 HIV-1-positive individuals on highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART), 100 HIV-1-positive HAART naïve, and 100 HIV-1-negative controls. The mean values were compared between the groups, and CD4⁺ cell count was correlated with measured thyroid hormones.

RESULTS:

Thyroid function abnormalities were seen in 52 HIV-1-positive individuals on HAART and 56 individuals without HAART treatment. The pattern of thyroid hormone abnormalities is similar in both groups. Among the individuals on HAART, 10 had subclinical hypothyroid, 42 sick euthyroid, and 48 had normal thyroid hormones levels. Similarly, among those without HAART therapy, seven had subclinical hypothyroid, 49 sick euthyroid, and 44 had normal thyroid hormones levels. The HIV-1-positive individuals had significantly lower (P < 0.001) CD4⁺ cell count, TSH (P < 0.05), T3 (P < 0.01), and T4 (P < 0.001) when compared with controls. On the other hand, HIV-1-positive individuals on HAART had significantly higher (P < 0.01) CD4⁺ cell count and lower (P < 0.05) T4 levels than the HAART naïve group. CD4⁺ correlated positively with T4 in HIV-1-positive individuals on HAART (r = 0.26; P = 0.016) and HAART naïve (r = 0.218; P = 0.038). There was no significant correlation between CD4⁺ and measured thyroid hormones in the control individuals.

CONCLUSION:

Asymptomatic thyroid hormone abnormalities are common in HIV-infected individuals, and these abnormalities are independent of whether the individuals were on HAART or without HAART treatment.

Autoantibody against aldehyde dehydrogenase 2 could be a biomarker to monitor progression of Graves' orbitopathy

PURPOSE

This study surveyed the novel autoantigens expressed in the orbital fat tissue of patients with Graves' orbitopathy (GO) and explored the possibility of the autoantibodies against novel autoantigens as biomarkers for GO.

METHODS

We used immuno-proteomic methods to survey novel autoantigens expressed in the orbit fat tissue of GO patients and confirmed by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA).

RESULTS

One protein spot (aldehyde dehydrogenase 2 (ALDH2)) revealed high reactivity with the GO serum than did the healthy control serum and was further verified by ELISA. We found that the plasma anti-ALDH2 antibody level was increased in GO patients compared to healthy control donors. In addition, anti-ALDH2 antibody level was correlated with GO activity classified by clinical activity score(r = 0.588, p < 0.001, using Pearson's correlation).

CONCLUSIONS

These increased levels of anti-ALDH2 antibody in GO serum suggested that ALDH2 could attribute target autoantigen in GO, and anti-ALDH2 autoantibody might serve as a biomarker for GO and help to predict disease activity.

Neuronal Surface Autoantibodies in Neuropsychiatric Disorders: Are There Implications for Depression?

Autoimmune diseases are affecting around 7.6-9.4% of the general population. A number of central nervous system disorders, including encephalitis and severe psychiatric disorders, have been demonstrated to associate with specific neuronal surface autoantibodies (NSAbs). It has become clear that specific autoantibodies targeting neuronal surface antigens and ion channels could cause severe mental disturbances. A number of studies have focused or are currently investigating the presence of autoantibodies in specific mental conditions such as schizophrenia and bipolar disorders. However, less is known about other conditions such as depression. Depression is a psychiatric disorder with complex etiology and pathogenesis. The diagnosis criteria of depression are largely based on symptoms but not on the origin of the disease. The question which arises is whether in a subgroup of patients with depression, the symptoms might be caused by autoantibodies targeting membrane-associated antigens. Here, we describe how autoantibodies targeting membrane proteins and ion channels cause pathological effects. We discuss the physiology of these antigens and their role in relation to depression. Finally, we summarize a number of studies detecting NSAbs with a special focus on cohorts that include depression diagnosis and/or show depressive symptoms.

High circulating levels of sICAM-1 and sVCAM-1 in the patients with Hashimoto's thyroiditis

OBJECTIVE

To investigate whether soluble intercellular adhesion molecule-1 (sICAM-1) and soluble vascular cell adhesion molecule-1 (sVCAM-1) levels are increased in euthyroid patients with Hashimoto's thyroiditis (HT) and whether they are associated with thyroid autoimmunity and metabolic parameters.

DESIGN

Cross-sectional.

SUBJECTS AND METHODS

In total, 80 euthyroid patients with HT and 80 age- and body mass index (BMI)-matched control participants were included. Serum sICAM-1, sVCAM-1, free triiodothyronine (fT3), free thyroxine (fT4), thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH), thyroid peroxidase antibody (anti-TPO), thyroglobulin antibody (anti-TG), fasting blood glucose (FBG), insulin, and lipid levels and homeostasis model assessment for insulin resistance (HOMA-IR) were assessed in all participants.

RESULTS

The patients with HT had significantly higher levels of sICAM-1 and sVCAM-1 than controls (both p < 0.001). The difference was sustained after adjustment for TSH and levothyroxine use. Regression analysis demonstrated that sICAM-1 was related to anti-TPO (p < 0.001), and sVCAM-1 was related to both anti-TPO and-TG (p < 0.001 and p = 0.03, respectively); this relationship was sustained after adjustment for age and BMI. Although FBG and HOMA-IR were higher in the HT group, logistic regression analysis revealed that there was no effect of anti-TPO, anti-TG, sICAM-1, sVCAM-1, and C-reactive protein (CRP) on the occurrence of high FBG and high HOMA-IR.

CONCLUSION

sICAM-1 and sVCAM-1 levels were significantly elevated in the patients with euthyroid HT and correlated closely with thyroid autoimmunity. However, soluble adhesion molecules had no relation with glucose metabolism parameters in the HT patients.

Consanguinity and the Risk of Hashimoto's Thyroiditis

BACKGROUND

Hashimoto's thyroiditis (HT) is the most common autoimmune thyroid disease that may lead to hypothyroidism due to progressive destruction of the thyroid. The etiology of HT is unclear. However, it is associated with multiple genetic predispositions. Consanguinity has been associated with an increased susceptibility to different inherited conditions. This study investigated the association between consanguinity and risk of HT for the first time.

METHODS

Using a case-control study design, 298 HT patients were compared with two subject groups: (i) 299 participants with non-HT hypothyroidism, and (ii) 298 healthy control participants. The three groups were age and sex matched. Presence of consanguinity among the parents was compared in these groups, and odds ratios (OR) were calculated to establish a correlation.

RESULTS

Consanguinity significantly increased the risk of HT (compared with healthy subjects; OR = 3.3; p < 0.0001). In addition, consanguinity was a significant risk factor for HT compared with non-HT hypothyroidism patients (OR = 2.8; p < 0.0001). However, the prevalence of consanguinity was not significantly different in non-HT hypothyroidism patients and healthy subjects.

CONCLUSIONS

The results suggest that the risk for HT is increased in consanguineous unions, but no significant increase in the risk of non-HT hypothyroidism was observed. However, for more precise risk estimates, larger studies that include different populations may be helpful. These findings highlight the health impact of consanguinity and have applications in empiric risk estimations in genetic counseling, particularly in countries with high rates of consanguineous marriages.

Thyroid autoantibodies and the effect on pregnancy outcomes

Thyroid antibody positivity is relatively common in women. While many epidemiological studies have investigated the links between thyroid antibodies and pregnancy complications, evidence regarding the effect of Levothyroxine treatment of euthyroid pregnant women with autoimmune thyroid disease on pregnancy outcome is limited. The objective of this paper is to provide a review on the impact of treatment of euthyroid thyroid antibody-positive pregnant women on adverse pregnancy outcome. This systematic review was conducted with a prospective protocol. PubMed, Science direct, Google scholar, Embase and the Cochrane Library databases were searched through January 2014 to identify studies that met pre-stated inclusion criteria. The search was limited to English manuscripts. We found that there is inadequate data regarding both the adverse effect of thyroid antibody positivity in euthyroid women on pregnancy outcomes and the effects Levothyroxine on these women. It seems that the results of most studies indicate adverse effects of thyroid antibody positivity in euthyroid women on pregnancy outcomes. Further randomised clinical trials are needed to investigate the effects of treating pregnant euthyroid women with positive thyroid antibodies on the maternal and early/late neonatal outcomes.

Hashimoto's Thyroiditis in South Indian Centre

OBJECTIVE

To describe the clinical and investigatory profile of children with Hashimoto's thyroiditis (HT) presenting to the thyroid clinic of a referral children's hospital and study the course of children diagnosed as HT over a period of 6 mo.

METHODS

Children aged 5-12 y with HT were recruited, their clinical and biochemical details were assessed and were started on standard therapy and followed up for a period of 6 mo.

RESULTS

Ninety-seven children (89 goitrous and 8 atrophic form) with mean age: 9.90 ± 1.76 y; M:F 1:5.4 were recruited; 55.7 % were asymptomatic;14.2 % had familial clustering. The mean height, weight and BMI for age Z-scores were -1.0 ± 1.0, -0.8 ± 0.9 and -0.5 ± 1.1 respectively. 16.4 % had short stature; 4.1 % had obesity; 72.2 % had grade 2 goitre. 73.4 %, 13.2 %, 10.3 % and 3.1 % had overt hypothyroidism, sub-clinical hypothyroidism, euthyroidism and hyperthyroidism, respectively. On follow up, 38.5 % of euthyroid and 80 % of sub-clinical hypothyroid children developed overt hypothyroidism. Thyrotoxic symptoms resolved in all three Hashitoxic children by 6 mo.

CONCLUSIONS

A female preponderance, less familial clustering, higher paucity of clinical manifestations and quick progression to hypothyroidism (in those without) were noted in the present series.

In children with autoimmune thyroid diseases the association with Down syndrome can modify the clustering of extra-thyroidal autoimmune disorders

BACKGROUND

It is known that the association with Down syndrome (DS) can affect the phenotypic expression of autoimmune thyroid diseases (AITDs), whilst is unknown whether the clustering of extra-thyroidal autoimmune diseases (ETADs) may also be atypical in DS children.

METHODS

The aim of this study was to investigate the clustering of ETADs in 832 children with AITDs divided in two groups with or without DS (A and B, respectively) and in four subgroups of patients aged either <6 or ≥6 years.

RESULTS

The rate of children with ETADs was significantly higher in Group A; in particular, alopecia areata (p=0.00001) and vitiligo (p=0.00001) were found more often in Group A irrespective of age, whilst the distribution of T1 diabetes mellitus was not different in the two groups. Celiac disease prevalence was significantly higher in DS patients only in the older subgroup.

CONCLUSIONS

The association with DS may be able to modify the clustering of ETADs in the children with AITDs by favoring the aggregation of some specific diseases such as alopecia areata and vitiligo.

MicroRNA-142-5p contributes to Hashimoto's thyroiditis by targeting CLDN1

Background

MicroRNAs have the potential as diagnostic biomarkers and therapeutic targets in autoimmune diseases. However, very limited studies have evaluated the expression of microRNA profile in thyroid gland related to Hashimoto’s thyroiditis (HT).

Methods

MicroRNA microarray expression profiling was performed and validated by quantitative RT-PCR. The expression pattern of miR-142-5p was detected using locked nucleic acid-in situ hybridization. The target gene was predicted and validated using miRNA targets prediction database, gene expression analysis, quantitative RT-PCR, western blot, and luciferase assay. The potential mechanisms of miR-142-5p were studied using immunohistochemistry, immunofluorescence, and quantitative assay of thyrocyte permeability.

Results

Thirty-nine microRNAs were differentially expressed in HT (Fold change ≥2, P < 0.05) and miR-142-5p, miR-142-3p, and miR-146a were only high expression in HT thyroid gland (P < 0.001). miR-142-5p, which was expressed at high levels in injured follicular epithelial cells, was also detected in HT patient serum and positively correlated with thyroglobulin antibody (r ≥ 0.6, P < 0.05). Furthermore, luciferase assay demonstrated CLDN1 was the direct target gene of miR-142-5p (P < 0.05), and Immunohistochemical staining showed a reverse expression patterns with miR-142-5p and CLDN1. Overexpression of miR-142-5p in thyrocytes resulted in reducing of the expression of claudin-1 both in mRNA and protein level (P = 0.032 and P = 0.009 respectively) and increasing the permeability of thyrocytes monolayer (P < 0.01).

Conclusions

Our findings indicate a previously unrecognized mechanism that miR-142-5p, targeting CLDN1, plays an important role in HT pathogenesis.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12967-016-0917-6) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Polycystic Ovary Syndrome May Be an Autoimmune Disorder

Polycystic ovarian syndrome (PCOS) is the most prevalent endocrine disorder affecting females. It is a common cause of menstrual irregularities and infertility during reproductive age. Genetic and hormonal factors play crucial role in the pathogenesis of PCOS. Low level of progesterone in PCOS causes overstimulation of immune system that produces more estrogen which leads to various autoantibodies. Different autoantibodies have been documented in PCOS, for example, anti-nuclear (ANA), anti-thyroid, anti-spermatic, anti-SM, anti-histone, anti-carbonic anhydrase, anti-ovarian, and anti-islet cell antibodies. There is an association between PCOS and autoimmune diseases such as ANA and anti-TPO that have been documented in systemic lupus erythematosus and Hashimoto thyroiditis, respectively, and it is suspected that there are autoantibodies that might affect the long term clinical management of these patients. Therefore fluctuating levels of autoantibodies in different PCOS patients give us the way to open new chapter for future research on molecular level. This may lead to discovery of better treatment options for PCOS in near future.

Rheumatic symptoms in autoimmune thyroiditis

Autoimmune thyroiditis (ATD) is generally regarded as a classic example of single organ autoimmunity with a high association with endocrine thyroid disorders. However, it is closely associated with several autoimmune diseases including rheumatologic syndromes and has long been known to have several rheumatic manifestations particularly in association with hypothyroidism. More recently, it has also been implicated in rheumatologic syndromes in the absence of hypothyroidism or subclinical hypothyroidism. There is also an emerging body of evidence that ATD is highly linked to chronic generalized pain syndromes including fibromyalgia. This review examines the rheumatic symptoms of ATD described in the current literature and discusses the clinical relevance of ATD in general rheumatology.

Technetium-99m thyroid scan; does it have a diagnostic aid in sub-clinical auto-immune thyroid disease in systemic lupus erythematosus patients?

PURPOSE

Technetium-99m (Tc-99m) thyroid scintigraphy is a well known diagnostic tool that shows the entire gland in a single image. We aimed to evaluate its additive diagnostic value in subclinical autoimmune thyroid disease (S-AITD) in systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) patients.

METHODS

We investigated 100 systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) patients without overt thyroid involvement (eight men and 92 women; mean age 40±6.5 years) and 50 age and sex matched controls. All were subjected to thyroid evaluation using anti-thyroglobulin (anti-TG) and anti-thyroid peroxidase (anti-TPO) antibodies; hormones (FT3; FT4 and TSH) and Tc-99m thyroid scintigraphy.

RESULTS

14/100 (14%) and none (0%) were positive for S-AITD in SLE and control groups, respectively (P = 0.0001). They were classified by thyroid scintigraphy and hormonal profile into 2/14 Hashimoto; 10/14 atrophic thyroiditis and 2/14 Graves' disease. Anti-TPO was elevated in 12 SLE cases, while anti-TG was elevated in only 2/14 (P = 0.0001). Thyroid scintigraphy showed statistically significant associations with FT4, TSH and anti-TPO.

CONCLUSION

Tc-99m thyroid scintigraphy may have an additional diagnostic role in S-AITD among SLE patients, with an impact on patient management. This potential needs to be further evaluated in a larger series on a multicenter basis.

Association between antiretrovirals and thyroid diseases: a cross-sectional study

OBJECTIVE

This study aims to estimate the prevalence of thyroid diseases and anti-TPO status. We searched for an association among presence of immune reconstitution and use of stavudine, didanosine and protease inhibitors with thyroid diseases.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

A cross-sectional study was performed to analyze the records of 117 HIV-infected patients who had their CD4+ cell count, viral load, anti-TPO, TSH and free T4 levels collected on the same day. Immune reconstitution was considered in those whose T CD4+ count was below 200 cells/mm3, but these values increased above 200 cells/mm3 after the use of antiretrovirals. The odds ratio obtained by a 2x2 contingency table and a chi-square test were used to measure the association between categorical variables.

RESULTS

The prevalence of thyroid disease was 34.18%; of these, 4.34% were positive for anti-TPO. There was an association of risk between stavudine use and subclinical hypothyroidism (OR = 4.19, 95% CI: 1.29 to 13.59, X2 = 6.37, p = 0.01). Immune reconstitution achieved protection associated with thyroid disease that was near statistical significance OR = 0.45, 95% CI: 0.19 to 1.04, X2 = 3.55, p = 0.059.

CONCLUSION

The prevalence of thyroid disease in the sample studied was higher than what had been found in the literature, with a low positive anti-TPO frequency. The historical use of stavudine has an association of risk for the presence of subclinical hypothyroidism, and immune reconstitution has trends towards protection for the presence of thyroid diseases.

High cut-off value of a chimeric TSH receptor (Mc4)-based bioassay may improve prediction of relapse in Graves' disease for 12 months

There are scarce reports regarding a functional prognostic value of thyroid-stimulating autoantibody (TSAb) levels using a thyroid-stimulating hormone receptor chimera (Mc4) in Graves' disease (GD) in iodine sufficient area. The aim of this study was to investigate whether Mc4-TSAb can predict GD remission/relapse after antithyroid drug (ATD) treatment and to compare Mc4-TSAb with a binding assay using M22 monoclonal antibody (M22-TRAb) in GD patients. We retrospectively reviewed the results of M22-TRAb and Mc4-TSAb in GD patients treated with ATD for 12 months. GD patients who underwent ATD treatment for at least 12 months were included. We compared the predictive values of M22-TRAb and Mc4-TSAb for GD remission and relapse. Of the 92 patients, 60 (65.2%) achieved remission and 32 (34.8%) relapsed within 12 months. In receiver operating characteristic analysis, there were no significant differences in the area under the curves (AUCs) between Mc4-TSAb [AUC=0.79 (95% CI 0.69-0.89)] and M22-TRAb [AUC=0.69 (95% CI 0.58-0.81)]. The optimal predictive cut-off values of M22-TRAb and Mc4-TSAb were 2.23 IU/L and 230%, respectively. At a high Mc4-TSAb cut-off, the better specificity of 85.0% and positive predictive value (PPV) of 69.0% were shown compared with those at the best cut-off for M22-TRAb. In conclusion, a high cut-off for an Mc4 assay may improve the predictive value of relapse with superior specificity and PPV compared with M22-TRAb in treated GD.

Endocrine check-up in adolescents and indications for referral: A guide for health care providers

The American Academy of Pediatrics recommends that young people between the ages of 11 and 21 years should be seen annually by their pediatricians, since annual checkups can be an important opportunity for health evaluation and anticipatory guidance. Parents of infants and young children are accustomed to regularly visiting a pediatrician for their child's checkups. Unfortunately, when children reach the teen years, these annual checkups may decrease in frequency. In routine check-ups and medical office visits, particular attention should be paid to the possibility of a developmental or endocrine disorder. Early diagnosis and treatment may prevent medical complications in adulthood and foster age-appropriate development. Our purpose is to acquaint readers with the concept, based on current scientific understanding, that some endocrine disorders may be associated with a wide range of deleterious health consequences including an increased risk of hypertension and hyperlipidemia, increased risk of coronary artery disease, type 2 diabetes, significant anxiety and lack of self-esteem. Understanding the milestones and developmental stages of adolescence is essential for pediatricians and all other health providers who care for adolescents. Treating adolescents involves knowledge of a variety of medical, social and legal information; in addition, close working relationships must be established within the adolescent's network to create an effective care system. In summary, we underline the importance of a periodic endocrine checkup in adolescents in order to identify endocrine problems early and develop an approach to treatment for those patients who need help during this time. Indications for endocrine referral for professional and other healthcare providers are also included. These lists are clearly not intended to be comprehensive, but will hopefully serve as a guide for specific clinical circumstances.

Prevalence of anti-Neu5Gc antibodies in patients with hypothyroidism

BACKGROUND

N-Glycolylneuraminic acid (Neu5Gc) is a sialic acid synthesized by animals, but not by humans or birds. However, it can be incorporated in human cells and can trigger immune response. In the present study, we detected anti-Neu5Gc antibodies in samples of the general population and of patients suffering from hypothyroidism/Hashimoto's disease, which is known to have autoimmune origin.

METHODS

Antibodies were measured using enzyme-immunosorbent techniques.

RESULTS

Serum anti-Neu5Gc IgG antibodies were higher in patients with hypothyroidism (mean: 14.8 ± 15.9 μg/mL, median: 10.0 μg/mL, P = 0.0003, Mann-Whitney) and even higher in the group with Hashimoto's thyroiditis (mean: 31.1 ± 16.3 μg/mL, median: 27.2 μg/mL, P = 0.0000, Mann-Whitney) compared to the general population (mean: 5.3 ± 4.7 μg/mL, median : 4 μg/mL). All anti-TPO positive samples had anti-Neu5Gc antibody concentration higher than the mean value of the general population while anti-TPO concentration was increased as anti-Neu5Gc concentration increased. Low concentrations of IgA and IgM antibodies were measured in both general population and patient groups.

CONCLUSION

The increased values of anti-Neu5Gc antibodies in patients with hypothyroidism/Hashimoto's disease and the correlation of anti-TPO incidence with increased anti-Neu5Gc concentration raise the possibility of an association between anti-Neu5Gc antibody development and autoimmune hypothyroidism.

Selenium supplementation in thyroid associated ophthalmopathy: an update

The therapeutic effect of selenium (Se) has already been proven in thyroid disease and thyroid associated ophthalmopathy (TAO). In spite of clear scientific proof of its benefits in TAO, there appears to be no clear agreement among the clinicians regarding its optimum dose, duration of the treatment, efficacy and safety to date. In this review, the author summarises the findings of 135 English language articles published on this subject over the past four decades from 1973 to 2013. The regulation and metabolism of thyroid hormones require a steady supply of Se and recent studies have revealed several possible mechanisms by which Se improves the severity of thyroid disease and TAO. These mechanisms include 1) inhibitory effect of HLA-DR molecule expression on thyrocytes; 2) profound reductions of thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH) receptor antibodies (TSHR-Ab) and TPO antibodies (TPO-Ab); 3) prevention of dysregulation of cell-mediated immunity and B cell function; 4) neutralising reactive oxygen species (ROS) and inhibition of redox control processes required for the activation, differentiation and action of lymphocytes, macrophages, neutrophils, natural killer cells involved in both acute and chronic orbital inflammation in TAO; 5) inhibition of expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines and 6) inhibition of prostaglandin and leukotriene synthesis. An increased oxidative stress has been observed in both acute and chronic phases of thyroid disease with raised tissue concentrations of ROS. The benefits of Se supplementation in individuals with TAO appear to be proportionate to the degree of systemic activity of the thyroid disease. The maximal benefit of Se supplementation is therefore seen in the subjects who are hyperthyroid. Restoration of euthyroidism is one of the main goals in the management of TAO and when anti-thyroid drugs are combined with Se, the patients with Graves' disease (GD) and autoimmune thyroiditis (AIT) achieved euthyroidism faster than those treated with anti-thyroid drugs alone. Se status of normal adult humans can vary widely and Se supplementation may confer benefit only if serum Se levels are insufficient. The author recommends that serum Se levels of patients with TAO to be assessed prior to and during Se supplementation at regular intervals to avoid potential iatrogenic chronic Se overdose.

Correlation between TSH receptor antibody assays and clinical manifestations of Graves' orbitopathy

PURPOSE

To investigate an association between the levels of serum thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH)-receptor autoantibodies (TRAbs) and Graves' orbitopathy (GO) activity/severity scores, and compare the performance of three different TRAb assays in assessing the clinical manifestations of GO.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Cross-sectional study. Medical records of 155 patients diagnosed with GO between January 2008 and December 2010 were reviewed. GO activity was assessed by clinical activity score (CAS) and severity graded with the modified NOSPECS score by a single observer. Serum TRAb was measured by three different methods: 1st generation thyrotropin-binding inhibitor immunoglobulin (TBII) assay (TRAb1st); 3rd generation TBII assay (TRAb3rd); and biological quantitative assay of thyroid-stimulating immunoglobulin (TSI) using Mc4-CHO cells (Mc4-CHO TSI assay). Results were correlated with scores of activity/severity of thyroid eye disease.

RESULTS

All three assays (TRAb1st, TRAb3rd, and Mc4-CHO TSI) yielded results that were significantly positively correlated with CAS (β=0.21, 0.21, and 0.46, respectively; p<0.05) and proptosis (β=0.38, 0.34, and 0.33, respectively; p<0.05). Mc4-CHO TSI bioassay results were significantly positively correlated with all GO severity indices (soft tissue involvement, proptosis, extraocular muscle involvement, and total eye score; β=0.31, 0.33, 0.25, and 0.39, respectively; p<0.05).

CONCLUSION

Mc4-CHO TSI bioassay was superior over the two TBIIs in assessing active inflammation and muscle restriction due to GO, whereas TBII assay would be sufficient for evaluation of patients with proptosis.

Periorbital edema: a puzzle no more?

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

Periorbital edema is a common problem that deserves scrutiny. Although a variety of healthcare providers may see this clinical entity, ophthalmologists are often consulted along the way toward diagnosis. It can challenge even the most astute clinicians. A diagnosis may reveal merely a bothersome issue or potentially a sight-threatening or life-threatening problem.

RECENT FINDINGS

Comprehensive reviews on this topic are scarce. Textbooks are brief. There are, however, many studies in the scientific literature of notable cases of periorbital edema. The causes generally fall into the categories of infectious, inflammatory or tumors, medication related, and postsurgical or trauma.

SUMMARY

This article synthesizes the current literature on the topic with a case series from our institution. It aims to provide a thorough resource for all practitioners to make the prospect of triaging, diagnosing, and treating periorbital edema less daunting.

Thyroid autoimmunity and Behçet's disease: is there a significant association?

Background. Behcet's disease (BD) could be regarded as an autoimmune disease in many aspects. Autoimmune thyroid disease (ATD) is frequently accompanied by other various autoimmune diseases. Nevertheless, there is not still enough data showing the association between BD and ATD. In addition, no controlled study is present in the PubMed, which evaluates thyroidal autoimmunity using antithyroid peroxidase antibody in a large series of patients with BD. Methods. We aimed to investigate the frequency of ATD in patients with BD. The study included 124 patients with BD and 99 age- and sex-matched healthy volunteers. Results. Autoimmune thyroiditis was noted in 21 cases (16.9%) with BD. In the control group, 22 cases (22.22%) were diagnosed as autoimmune thyroiditis. There was no difference between the groups in respect to thyroid autoantibodies (P > 0.05). There were no statistically significant differences between baseline TSH levels of the BD patients and of the controls (P > 0.05). Statistically, the mean serum free T4 levels of the patients with BD were higher than those of the controls (P < 0.001). Conclusions. No association could be found between BD and ATD. Therefore, it is not of significance to investigate thyroid autoimmunity in BD.

The effect of L-thyroxine treatment on chronic idiopathic urticaria and autoimmune thyroiditis

Autoimmune thyroiditis (AT) is more prevalent in patients with chronic idiopathic urticaria CIU) than in the general population. Previous small studies without any controlled comparison reported that CIU remits in patients with CIU and AT treated with L-thyroxine. To determine whether l-thyroxine treatment can improve the clinical course of CIU in patients with the co-occurrence of AT and CIU. A total of 749 patients with CIU were retrospectively studied. Clinical and laboratory evaluation and classification of chronic urticaria were performed according to the EAACI/GA(2)LEN/EDF/WAO guidelines. After L-thyroxine treatment for 53 ± 19 days, euthyroidism was restored in all subjects. Urticaria activity score (UAS) was evaluated at baseline and after three and six months. The control group consisted of matched 44 euthyroid subjects with CIU. A total of 44 (5.9%) patients were diagnosed to have hypothyroidism related to AT. Autologous serum skin test (ASST) was found to be positive in 17 (38.6%) of them. There was no statistically significant difference in baseline UAS, between the ASST+ (3.94 ± 1.52) and the ASST- (3.63 ± 1.42; P = 0.27) hypothyroid subjects and the euthyroid CIU controls (3.73 ± 1.74). During the L-thyroxine treatment, a significant reduction of UAS was observed in both hypothyroid ASST+ and ASST- subjects. However, the mean UAS after three and six months of L-thyroxine treatment remained not significantly different from that in control euthyroid subjects with CIU. L-Thyroxine treatment has no effect on the course of CIU in patients with CIU and AT.

Coexistent findings of renal glomerular disease with Hashimoto's thyroiditis

AIM AND BACKGROUND

Hashimoto's thyroiditis (HT) is a common autoimmune thyroid disease with a female preponderance. Renal involvement in HT is not uncommon. In the present study, we aimed to define the frequency and characteristics of the glomerular diseases associated with HT and further the understanding of any common pathogenesis between HT and glomerular disease.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

We reviewed retrospectively 28 patients with HT who were referred to our Department because of unexplained haematuria, proteinuria or renal impairment from 2007 to 2011. Routine laboratory investigations including blood count, serum biochemistry, urinalysis and 24-h urinary protein excretion were performed on all patients. Renal biopsy was performed in 20 patients with HT, and the specimens were examined by light microscopy and immunofluorescence staining.

RESULTS

We detected four cases of focal segmental glomerulosclerosis (FSGS), four membranous glomerulonephritis (MGN), two minimal-change disease (MCD), three immunoglobulin A nephritis (IgAN), three chronic glomerulonephritis (CGN) and one amyloidosis. In three patients, the renal biopsy findings were nonspecific. Daily urinary protein excretion and glomerular filtration rates were found to be independent of the level of thyroid hormone and thyroid-specific autoantibodies.

CONCLUSION

Glomerular pathologies associated with HT are similar to those in the general population, the most common lesions being MGN, FSGS and IgA nephritis.

Relationship between metabolic syndrome and multinodular non-toxic goiter in an inpatient population from a geographic area with moderate iodine deficiency

BACKGROUND

Obesity and insulin resistance predispose individuals to the development of both metabolic syndrome and non-toxic nodular thyroid diseases.

AIM

The aim of this observational, cross-sectional study is to evaluate the relationship between metabolic syndrome and multinodular nontoxic goiter in an inpatient population from a geographic area with moderate iodine deficiency.

SUBJECTS AND METHODS

We examined 1422 Caucasian euthyroid inpatients. Thyroid volume was determined by ultrasound of the neck. A fine-needle aspiration biopsy was performed to evaluate single thyroid nodules and dominant nodules ≥15 mm in euthyroid multinodular goiter. The diagnosis of metabolic syndrome was made according to the criteria of the American Heart Association/ National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute.

RESULTS

Of the sample, 277 patients had clinical evidence of multinodular nontoxic goiter, 461 met the criteria for the diagnosis of metabolic syndrome, and 132 were found to have both conditions. After adjusting for age, gender, body mass index, nicotinism, parity, alcohol intake, thyroid function, and metabolic syndrome- related pharmacological treatment, metabolic syndrome was found to be an independent risk factor for the occurrence of multinodular non-toxic goiter. The relationship between metabolic syndrome and multi nodular non-toxic goiter was apparent in both men and women.

CONCLUSIONS

In this study of euthyroid inpatients, we demonstrate that metabolic syndrome is an independent risk factor for the occurrence of multinodular non-toxic goiter in a geographic area with moderate iodine deficiency. We propose that patients meeting the criteria for metabolic syndrome should be screened for the presence of multinodular non-toxic goiter.

Thyroid-associated orbitopathy

Thyroid-associated orbitopathy (TAO) is usually diagnosed clinically. Early presentation of TAO such as ocular irritation, lid puffiness, and mild retraction may be overlooked and misdiagnosed. Careful clinical evaluation, laboratory investigations, and orbital imaging studies are needed for diagnosing early TAO. Knowing the pathogenesis will open the door for obtaining directed and effective treatment for the inflammatory process in TAO. Most patients with mild to moderate active TAO are treated with observation alone as the available treatment modalities effective in controlling the disease have many potential side effects. Severe active TAO, compressive optic neuropathy, and severe exposure keratopathy are the main indications for treatment with immunosuppressant agents, orbital radiotherapy, or orbital decompression. Surgery remains the final rehabilitation in TAO, which should be done during cicatricial (inactive) TAO when reliable and stable results can be obtained.