Interactions of child maltreatment and serotonin transporter and monoamine oxidase A polymorphisms: Depressive symptomatology among adolescents from low socioeconomic status backgrounds

The influence of genetic factors on the severity of anxiety and depressive symptoms and the choice of coping strategies in reproductive tract cancer-a preliminary study

Objectives

The aim of this study was to analyze the impact of polymorphisms within the promoters of the MAO-A and the 5-HTT (SLC6A4) genes on the severity of anxiety and depressive disorder symptoms, and adaptation to the disease in patients with reproductive tract cancer.

Methods

This study involved a group female patients treated at the Department of Gynecological Surgery and Gynecological Oncology of Adults and Adolescents of the Pomeranian Medical University in Szczecin. The inclusion criteria for the study were advanced ovarian cancer or endometrial cancer, as well as treatment in the form of cytoreductive therapy and chemotherapy. The following standardized research tools were used to collect empirical data: Beck Depression Inventory, State-Trait Anxiety Inventory and Mini-Mental Adjustment to Cancer.

Results

The study included 139 women diagnosed with endometrial cancer (63%) or ovarian cancer (37%). Assessment of the severity of anxiety and depressive symptoms in the studied group of patients depending on genotype did not show statistically significant differences. However, among patients with genotype MAO-A 4/4, the constructive style prevailed over the destructive one, and the most frequently chosen strategy was positive redefinition. In the case of patients with the 5-HTT gene polymorphism, the most frequently chosen strategies were anxious preoccupation and positive redefinition.

Conclusion

Searching for the relationship between genetic factors and the strategies adopted to cope with cancer requires intensive research. Undoubtedly, the severity of anxiety and depressive symptoms has an impact on adaptive behavior and the process of onco-logical treatment.

Perspectives on Integrating Biological Assessments to Address the Health Effects of Childhood Adversities

ABSTRACT

A majority of adults in the United States (US) report a range of stressful and potentially traumatic childhood experiences (e.g., physical or sexual abuse, witnessing violence, neglect). Such adversities are associated with a range of mental (e.g., anxiety, mood, and behavioral difficulties) and physical (e.g., cardiovascular illnesses, diabetes, asthma) health problems. Increasingly, precision medicine approaches seek to prevent and treat such multifinal downstream health problems by identifying common etiological pathways (e.g., inflammation and immune pathways) and candidate biomarkers to target interventions. In this context, we review the rationale for continued research to identify biomarkers of childhood adversity. Building on the bioecological theory, we emphasize that individual neurobiological profiles develop within multiple ecological levels (individual, family, neighborhood, macrosocial) that confer both risk and protective factors that can attenuate or amplify biological effects of childhood adversity. Given the limited data on adversity-associated biomarkers for children and adolescents, we discuss future recommendations for research, implications for clinical care, and ethical considerations. Preventing childhood adversity and supporting adversity- and trauma-informed systemic intervention approaches remains our primary recommendation. We highlight the continued need to consider both biomarkers of risk and protective factors across ecological levels in future research.

Neurobiological and psychological factors to depression

Major Depressive Disorder (MDD) is a common condition with complex psychological and biological background. While its aetiology is still unclear, chronic stress stands amongst major risk factors to MDD pathogenesis. When researching on MDD, it is necessary to be familiar with the neurobiological effects of several prominent contributors to the chronic stress factor experienced across hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis, neurotransmission, immune system reflexivity, and genetic alterations. Bi-directional flow of MDD pathogenesis suggests that psychological factors produce biological effects. Here, a summary of how the MDD expresses its mechanisms of action across an overactive HPA axis, the negative impacts of reduced neurotransmitter functions, the inflammatory responses and their gene x environment interactions. This paper builds on these conceptual factors and their input towards the MDD symptomatology with a purpose of synthesising the current findings and create an integrated view of the MDD pathogenesis. Finally, relevant treatment implications will be summarised, along with recommendations to a multimodal clinical practice.

Individual and Combined Effect of MAO-A/MAO-B Gene Variants and Adverse Childhood Experiences on the Severity of Major Depressive Disorder

BACKGROUND

Major depressive disorder (MDD) is a mood disorder with a high prevalence worldwide that causes disability and, in some cases, suicide. Although environmental factors play a crucial role in this disease, other biological factors may predispose individuals to MDD. Genetic and environmental factors influence mental disorders; therefore, a potential combined effect of MAO-A/MAO-B gene variants may be a target for the study of susceptibility to MDD. This study aimed to evaluate the effects of MAO-A and -B gene variants when combined with adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) on the susceptibility and severity of symptoms in MDD.

METHODS

A case-control study was performed, including 345 individuals, 175 MDD cases and 170 controls. Genotyping was performed using real-time PCR with hydrolysis probes. The analysis of the rs1465107 and rs1799836 gene variants of MAO-A and -B, respectively, was performed either alone or in combination with ACEs on the severity of depression, as determined through specific questionnaires, including DSM-IV diagnostic criteria for MDD.

RESULTS

According to individual effects, the presence of ACEs, as well as the allele G of the rs1465107 of MAO-A, is associated with a higher severity of depression, more significantly in females. Furthermore, the allele rs1799836 G of MAO-B was associated with the severity of depression, even after being adjusted by gene variants and ACEs (IRR = 1.67, p = 0.01). In males, the allele rs1799836 G of MAO-B was shown to interact with SNP with ACEs (IRR = 1.70, p < 0.001). According to combined effect analyses, the severity of depression was associated with ACEs when combined with either allele rs1465107 of MAO-A or allele rs17993836 of MAO-B, whereas SNP risk association was influenced by gender.

CONCLUSIONS

The severity of depression is related to either individual or combined effects of temperamental traits and genetic susceptibility of specific genes such as MAO-A and MAO-B.

ADHD co-morbidities: A review of implication of gene × environment effects with dopamine-related genes

ADHD is a major burden in adulthood, where co-morbid conditions such as depression, substance use disorder and obesity often dominate the clinical picture. ADHD has substantial shared heritability with other mental disorders, contributing to comorbidity. However, environmental risk factors exist but their interaction with genetic makeup, especially in relation to comorbid disorders, remains elusive. This review for the first time summarizes present knowledge on gene x environment (GxE) interactions regarding the dopamine system. Hitherto, mainly candidate (GxE) studies were performed, focusing on the genes DRD4, DAT1 and MAOA. Some evidence suggest that the variable number tandem repeats in DRD4 and MAOA may mediate GxE interactions in ADHD generally, and comorbid conditions specifically. Nevertheless, even for these genes, common variants are bound to suggest risk only in the context of gender and specific environments. For other polymorphisms, evidence is contradictory and less convincing. Particularly lacking are longitudinal studies testing the interaction of well-defined environmental with polygenic risk scores reflecting the dopamine system in its entirety.

The Role of Sex in Genetic Association Studies of Depression

Depression is the most common mental illness in the U.S. affecting nearly 40 million adults age 18 years and older. Depression has both genetic and environmental influences. In addition, women are more likely to be affected by depression than men. However, the relationship between genes and depression is complex and may be influenced by sex. Understanding the genetic basis of sex-specific differences for depression has the potential to lead to new biological understanding of the etiology of depression in females compared to males and to promote the development of novel and more effective pharmacotherapies. This review examines the role of sex in genetic associations with depression for both genome-wide association and candidate gene studies. While the genetic association signals of depression differ by sex, the role of sex in the heritability of depression is complex and warrants further investigation.

Multiomic biological approaches to the study of child abuse and neglect

Childhood maltreatment, occurring in up to 20-30% of the population, remains far too common, and incorporates a range of active and passive factors, from abuse, to neglect, to the impacts of broader structural and systemic adversity. Despite the effects of childhood maltreatment and adversity on a wide range of adult physical and psychological negative outcomes, not all individuals respond similarly. Understanding the differential biological mechanisms contributing to risk vs. resilience in the face of developmental adversity is critical to improving preventions, treatments, and policy recommendations. This review begins by providing an overview of childhood abuse, neglect, maltreatment, threat, and toxic stress, and the effects of these forms of adversity on the developing body, brain, and behavior. It then examines examples from the current literature of genomic, epigenomic, transcriptomic, and proteomic discoveries and biomarkers that may help to understand risk and resilience in the aftermath of trauma, predictors of traumatic exposure risk, and potential targets for intervention and prevention. While the majority of genetic, epigenetic, and gene expression analyses to date have focused on targeted genes and hypotheses, large-scale consortia are now well-positioned to better understand interactions of environment and biology with much more statistical power. Ongoing and future work aimed at understanding the biology of childhood adversity and its effects will help to provide targets for intervention and prevention, as well as identify paths for how science, health care, and policy can combine efforts to protect and promote the psychological and physiological wellbeing of future generations.

The Effects of Childhood Maltreatment on Non-Suicidal Self-Injury in Male Adolescents: The Moderating Roles of the Monoamine Oxidase A (MAOA) Gene and the Catechol-O-Methyltransferase (COMT) Gene

(1) Background: Numerous studies suggest strong associations between childhood maltreatment and nonsuicidal self-injury (NSSI); this is also true for the roles of dopaminergic genes in the etiology of some psychopathologies related to NSSI. Investigating the interactions of environments and genes is important in order to better understand the etiology of NSSI. (2) Methods: Within a sample of 269 Chinese male adolescents (Mage = 14.72, SD = 0.92), childhood maltreatment and NSSI were evaluated, and saliva samples were collected for MAOA T941G and COMT Val158Met polymorphism analyses. (3) Results: The results revealed no primary effects attributable to MAOA T941G and COMT Val158Met polymorphism on NSSI. However, there was a significant three-way interaction between MAOA, COMT, and child abuse (β = −0.34, p < 0.01) in adolescent NSSI. Except for carriers of the T allele of MAOA and the Met allele of COMT, all studied male adolescents displayed higher NSSI scores when exposed to a higher level of child abuse. A similar three-way interaction was not observed in the case of child neglect. (4) Conclusions: The results indicate that the MAOA gene and COMT gene play moderating roles in the association between child abuse and NSSI of male adolescents and suggest the polygenic underpinnings of NSSI.

Resilience in the age of COVID-19

Resilience is broadly defined as the ability to bounce back from adversity or trauma. Recent advances in resilience research have shifted away from merely describing individual characteristics towards focusing on the complex interactions between individuals and their dynamic personal, community and cultural contexts. It is clear that resilience involves both neurobiological and cultural processes. Neurobiological contributions include genes, epigenetics, stress-response systems, the immune system and neural circuitry. Culture helps to elucidate collective systems of belief and accepted positive adaptations. Importantly, resilience can also be affected by evidence-based interventions and deliberate practice on the part of the individual. This review seeks to understand resilience as a complex and active process that is shaped by neurobiological profiles, developmental experiences, cultural and temporal contexts, and practical training. It uses the COVID-19 pandemic as a case example to better understand individual and group responses to tragedy. We suggest practical recommendations to help populations around the world cope and recover from the global threat of COVID-19.

Does child abuse have an impact on self-esteem, depression, anxiety and stress conditions of individuals?

BACKGROUND

The present study addressed the effects of child abuse in early adulthood.

AIMS

The purpose of the study was to determine the direct and indirect effects of child abuse on self-esteem, depression, anxiety and stress levels.

METHOD

The participants of the study were 636 students (477 females and 159 males) studying at three different state universities in Turkey. Data were collected through 'Childhood Trauma Questionnaire', 'Depression Anxiety Stress Scale (DASS)', 'Two-Dimensional Self-Esteem Scale (Self-Liking/Self-Competence)' and 'Demographic Information Form'. The obtained data were analyzed with Pearson product-moment correlation coefficient and path analysis techniques via SPSS 23 and AMOS 22.

RESULTS

Considering the relationship between the variables, child abuse was found to be negatively correlated with self-esteem, while it was positively correlated with depression, anxiety and stress. As a result of the path analysis, it was observed that child abuse affected self-esteem directly in the negative way. Throughout the analysis, self-esteem was found to have a direct and negative effect on depression, anxiety and stress, respectively. Child abuse was also found to have an indirect effect on depression, anxiety and stress.

CONCLUSION

Self-esteem had full mediation effect between child abuse, and depression, anxiety and stress.

Moderator Effects of Life Stress on the Association between MAOA-uVNTR, Depression, and Burnout

BACKGROUND

The serotonergic and noradrenergic systems have a strong impact on several affective disorders and are key targets for psychopharmacological therapy. With respect to pathogenesis, there is a growing body of evidence showing an influence of a promoter repeat polymorphism (MAOA-uVNTR) altering the expression rate of monoamine oxidase A. However, only a few studies investigate its influence on depression with only 2 of them considering the moderating effects of life stress. For burnout, there are no studies so far investigating the genetic basis.

OBJECTIVES

The aim of the present study was to replicate an interaction effect of MAOA-uVNTR and life stress on depression, and extend these possible findings to the burnout syndrome. Especially, the latter one might help in understanding the underlying mechanisms of burnout and its association to depression.

METHOD

A total of n = 1,541 participants (n = 1,099 healthy controls, n = 442 inpatients with affective disorders) provided genetic samples and filled in self-report questionnaires measuring depression, burnout, and the extent of experienced stressful life events (SLEs).

RESULTS

A life stress x MAOA-uVNTR interaction on depression and burnout was observed in women suggesting that carriers of the high expressing allele (MAO-H) with many SLEs had the highest scores in both burnout and depression. In men, there was only a weak effect of MAOA-uVNTR on depression.

CONCLUSIONS

The results suggest a more pronounced reactivity to adverse environmental factors in carriers of the MAO-H allele. Especially the effect of life stress and MAOA-uVNTR on burnout should be independently replicated in the future as this is the first study showing this association.

Antecedents of attachment states of mind in normative-risk and high-risk caregiving: cross-race and cross-sex generalizability in two longitudinal studies

BACKGROUND

Longitudinal investigations of relatively large typical-risk (e.g., Booth-LaForce & Roisman, 2014) and higher-risk samples (e.g., Raby et al., 2017; Roisman et al., 2017) have produced evidence consistent with the claim that attachment states of mind in adolescence and young adulthood, as measured by the Adult Attachment Interview (AAI), are associated with the quality of caregiving experienced during childhood. None of these studies, however, has examined whether such associations are consistent across sex and/or race, as would be expected in light of the sensitivity hypothesis of attachment theory.

METHODS

We examine whether sex or race moderates previously reported links between caregiving and AAI states of mind in two longitudinal studies (pooled N = 1,058) in which caregiving was measured either within (i.e., observed [in]sensitive care) or outside (i.e., childhood maltreatment) of the normative range of caregiving experiences.

RESULTS

Hierarchical moderated regression analyses in both longitudinal cohorts provided evidence that maternal insensitivity and experiences of maltreatment were prospectively associated with dismissing and preoccupied states of mind in adolescence, as hypothesized. Moreover, these associations were generally comparable in magnitude for African American and White/non-Hispanic participants and were not conditional on participants' biological sex.

CONCLUSIONS

Both maternal insensitivity and the experience of maltreatment increased risk for insecure attachment states of mind in adolescence. Moreover, our analyses provided little evidence that either participant race or participant sex assigned at birth moderated these nontrivial associations between measures of the quality of experienced caregiving and insecure attachment states of mind in adolescence. These findings provide support for the sensitivity hypothesis of attachment theory and inform the cultural universality hypothesis of attachment processes.

The cellular and molecular basis of major depressive disorder: towards a unified model for understanding clinical depression

Major depressive disorder (MDD) is considered a serious public health issue that adversely impacts an individual's quality of life and contributes significantly to the global burden of disease. The clinical heterogeneity that exists among patients limits the ability of MDD to be accurately diagnosed and currently, a symptom-based approach is utilized in many cases. Due to the complex nature of this disorder, and lack of precise knowledge regarding the pathophysiology, effective management is challenging. The aetiology and pathophysiology of MDD remain largely unknown given the complex genetic and environmental interactions that are involved. Nonetheless, the aetiology and pathophysiology of MDD have been the subject of extensive research, and there is a vast body of literature that exists. Here we overview the key hypotheses that have been proposed for the neurobiology of MDD and highlight the need for a unified model, as many of these pathways are integrated. Key pathways discussed include neurotransmission, neuroinflammation, clock gene machinery pathways, oxidative stress, role of neurotrophins, stress response pathways, the endocannabinoid and endovanilloid systems, and the endogenous opioid system. We also describe the current management of MDD, and emerging novel therapies, with particular focus on patients with treatment-resistant depression (TRD).

The Biology of Human Resilience: Opportunities for Enhancing Resilience Across the Life Span

Recent scientific and technological advances have brought us closer to being able to apply a true biopsychosocial approach to the study of resilience in humans. Decades of research have identified a range of psychosocial protective factors in the face of stress and trauma. Progress in resilience research is now advancing our understanding of the biology underlying these protective factors at multiple phenotypic levels, including stress response systems, neural circuitry function, and immune responses, in interaction with genetic factors. It is becoming clear that resilience involves active and unique biological processes that buffer the organism against the impact of stress, not simply involve a reversal of pathological mechanisms. Here, we provide an overview of recent progress in the field, highlighting key psychosocial milestones and accompanying biological changes during development, and into adulthood and old age. Continued advances in our understanding of psychological, social, and biological determinants of resilience will contribute to the development of novel interventions and help optimize the type and timing of intervention for those most at risk, resulting in a possible new framework for enhancing resilience across the life span.

Reactive Depression: Lost in Translation!

The old classification of depression as reactive and endogenous, which are still observed in clinical practice, both cannot be accommodated under the current rubric of major depression. This is because psychiatric nosology under the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM) and its latest fifth edition (DSM-V) is still descriptive and not etiologic. The aim of this review was to revisit reactive and endogenous categories of depression from the perspective of today's understanding of etiological pathways. From an epigenetic perspective, the old dichotomy of reactive versus endogenous is interrelated through the impact of the environment (e.g., stress). This includes familial or prenatal depression, where the environmental impact is before birth, or childhood depression, where the early life stress is the precipitating factor to genetic susceptibility. In conclusion, searching for both environmental impact (e.g., stressors) and genetic predispositions in depression, even at a clinical level, could help clinicians with better therapeutic decisions.

rs2572431 Polymorphism on Chromosome 8 Is Associated With Individual Differences in Anxiety Related Coping Modes

OBJECTIVE

The role of genetic factors in the interplay between anxiety-related coping and personality has been the subject of interest in numerous previous studies. The current study focused on anxiety-related coping modes, namely repression versus sensitization (i.e., cognitive avoidance versus vigilance), and the single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) rs2572431. An association between this SNP and anxiety-related personality traits has previously been shown in a genome wide association study, thus further investigation of the relationship between this SNP and anxiety-related coping seems warranted.

METHODS

In the present study, N = 880 mostly Caucasian participants (n = 269 males and n = 611 females; mean-age: 23.88, SD = 7.19) filled in a personality questionnaire assessing individual differences in cognitive avoidance and vigilance, and all participants were genotyped for rs2572431.

RESULTS

Participants homozygous for the T-allele in rs2572431 showed the highest vigilance scores in all scenarios tested. This is in line with findings from an earlier genome wide association study demonstrating that the T-allele is also associated with higher neuroticism scores.

CONCLUSION

The current study yields evidence for the role of rs2572431 in the molecular genetic underpinnings of coping modes and, more broadly, for its connection with personality.

Effects of Different Stressors Are Modulated by Different Neurobiological Systems: The Role of GABA-A Versus CB1 Receptor Gene Variants in Anxiety and Depression

Environmental stress and its interaction with genetic variation are key contributors in the development of depression and anxiety, yet there is a failure to identify replicable genetic variants and gene-interaction effects in the background of these psychiatric symptoms. Recently it has been reported that 5-HTTLPR and NOSI interact with financial but not other types of recent stressors in the development of depression. In the present study we investigated the interaction of GABRA6 rs3219151 and CNR1 rs7766029 in interaction with different types of recent life events on the presence of depression and anxiety in a large general population sample. 2191 participants completed the List of Threatening Experiences questionnaire which covers four categories of stressful life events (financial problems, illness/personal problems, intimate relationships, and social network) experienced over the previous year and the Brief Symptom Inventory for depression and anxiety symptoms. Participants were genotyped for rs3219151 and rs7766029. Data were analyzed with linear regression models with age and gender as covariates. Results indicated that CNR1 rs7766029 interacted significantly with financial but not other types of life events both in case of depression and anxiety symptoms. In contrast, GABRA6 rs3219151 showed a significant interaction with social network related life events in case of anxiety and with illness/personal problem-related life events in case of depression. Our results suggest that the psychological impact of different types of recent stress may be differentially modulated by distinct molecular genetic pathways. Furthermore, in case of certain genetic variants, the occurring psychiatric symptom may depend on the type of stress experienced.

Psychopathological consequences of maltreatment among children and adolescents: A systematic review of the GxE literature

BACKGROUND

In the last years, several studies focused on the role of Gene-Environment interactions (GxE) in influencing psychopathological outcomes among maltreated children and adolescents. These studies analysed the effect of different genetic variations.

AIMS

The aim of the present review is to provide an overview of studies investigating GxE effects among maltreated children and adolescents.

METHODS AND PROCEDURES

A systematic literature review was performed by using the following keywords: "Child maltreatment" and "GxE", "Child maltreatment" and "Psychopathology", "Gene-Environment interaction", "Gene-environment correlation", "GxE and psychopathology", "Childhood trauma" and "Psychiatric symptoms", "Early adverse life events", "Early life stress", "Antisocial behaviour", "Depression", "Internalizing symptoms", through the following electronic databases: PubMed, Scopus and PsycINFO, from 2006 to 2017, finding a total of 31 papers.

OUTCOMES AND RESULTS

The present review confirm that maltreatment produces worse psychopathological outcomes (antisocial behaviour, depression, and other psychiatric traits) in subjects with a specific genetic vulnerability.

CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS

Comprehending the pathways from child maltreatment to psychopathology in their full complexity will be essential to build efficacious preventive and therapeutic protocols.

Corticolimbic Connectivity Mediates the Relationship between Adverse Childhood Experiences and Symptom Severity in Borderline Personality Disorder

The interaction between biological and environmental factors (especially adverse childhood experiences, ACEs) plays a crucial role in the development and maintenance of borderline personality disorder (BPD). These factors act influencing BPD core features such as pervasive instability in affect regulation, impulse control, social cognition, and interpersonal relationships. In line with this perspective, abnormalities in social cognition and related neurobiological underpinnings could mediate the relationship between ACEs and psychopathological manifestations in adulthood. In a sample of 14 females, functional connectivity (FC) analyses were performed modeling the interaction between ACEs and corticolimbic dysregulation during emotional processing and its relationship with BPD symptom severity. ACEs were associated with a dampening of the negative FC between (1) the right amygdala (Amy) and right dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC) and between (2) the left Amy and bilateral DLPFC, right precuneus, left cerebellum and left dorsomedial prefrontal cortex during emotional processing. The connectivity between right Amy and DLPFC mediates the relationship between childhood adversities and BPD symptomatology. Furthermore, the negative FC between Amy and DLPFC, postcentral gyrus, the vermis of cerebellum and precuneus was also associated with BPD symptom severity, with a weaker negative coupling between Amy and these regions being related to a worse BPD psychopathology. Our results confirm the role of ACEs in contributing to social cognition impairments in BPD and related symptomatology from a neurobiological perspective.

Dating violence victimization and substance use: The role of a serotonin transporter gene polymorphism (5HTTLPR)

While there is developing research on how genes moderate the effect of stressful life events on substance use, the limited research has yet to focus on specific stressors. As adolescent dating violence victimization has been linked to various substance use behaviors, the current research seeks to further examine the longitudinal outcomes of adolescent dating violence victimization and the role that genes play in moderating these effects. Specifically, using data from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent to Adult Health (Add Health), a series of logistic and negative binomial regressions are run to analyze the direct and interactive effects of adolescent dating violence victimization and a polymorphism (5HTTLPR) in the promoter region of the serotonin transporter gene on both alcohol use problems and marijuana use. The results find that 5HTTLPR interacts with adolescent dating violence victimization to increase odds of marijuana use for the sample. However, the interaction between 5HTTLPR and adolescent dating violence has differential effects for males and females, suggesting sex differences regarding the susceptibility properties of 5HTTLPR. Implications of these findings are discussed.

Developmental trajectories and longitudinal mediation effects of self-esteem, peer attachment, child maltreatment and depression on early adolescents

OBJECTIVES

The purpose of this study is to identify the developmental trajectories of peer attachment, self-esteem, depression, and child maltreatment, and to understand the longitudinal mediation effects that peer attachment and self-esteem have on the influence of perceived abuse on early adolescent depression.

METHODS

This study uses Year 1 to Year 5 data of the 4th grader panel of the Korea Youth Panel Survey (KYPS) and utilizes a multivariate latent growth model to analyze the main variables in the applicable data between 5th (i.e., Year 2) and 8th (i.e., Year 5) grades.

RESULTS

The results indicate that from the 5th to the 8th grade, the degree of abuse and depression increases while self-esteem gradually decreases with slowly lowering peer attachment. A significant distribution of the initial values and the rate of change were present for all main variables of the study, confirming individual differences in time wise changes. Further, more exposure to abuse correlated with a decrease in self-esteem, while an increase in self-esteem greatly reduced depression. The initial value of self-esteem showed a partial mediation effect, whereas the rate of change indicated a full mediation effect with a significant longitudinal mediation effect. More experience of abuse during early adolescence indicated a lower degree of peer attachment, and a higher peer attachment was related to decreased depression. A significant partial mediation effect was present for both the initial value and the rate of change of peer attachment, and a longitudinal mediation effect was present.

PRACTICE IMPLICATIONS

This study confirmed that self-esteem in early adolescents is an important protective factor that can greatly reduce the degree of depression, and suggests continuous interventions conducted to increase self-esteem in adolescence. Furthermore, by determining that peer attachment decreases the degree of depression in children at risk, the study emphasizes the healing aspect of adolescent peer attachment.

Altered Functional Connectivity of Fronto-Cingulo-Striatal Circuits during Error Monitoring in Adolescents with a History of Childhood Abuse

Childhood maltreatment is associated with error hypersensitivity. We examined the effect of childhood abuse and abuse-by-gene (5-HTTLPR, MAOA) interaction on functional brain connectivity during error processing in medication/drug-free adolescents. Functional connectivity was compared, using generalized psychophysiological interaction (gPPI) analysis of functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) data, between 22 age- and gender-matched medication-naïve and substance abuse-free adolescents exposed to severe childhood abuse and 27 healthy controls, while they performed an individually adjusted tracking stop-signal task, designed to elicit 50% inhibition failures. During inhibition failures, abused participants relative to healthy controls exhibited reduced connectivity between right and left putamen, bilateral caudate and anterior cingulate cortex (ACC), and between right supplementary motor area (SMA) and right inferior and dorsolateral prefrontal cortex. Abuse-related connectivity abnormalities were associated with longer abuse duration. No group differences in connectivity were observed for successful inhibition. The findings suggest that childhood abuse is associated with decreased functional connectivity in fronto-cingulo-striatal networks during error processing. Furthermore that the severity of connectivity abnormalities increases with abuse duration. Reduced connectivity of error detection networks in maltreated individuals may be linked to constant monitoring of errors in order to avoid mistakes which, in abusive contexts, are often associated with harsh punishment.

Reduced functional connectivity of fronto-parietal sustained attention networks in severe childhood abuse

Childhood maltreatment is associated with attention deficits. We examined the effect of childhood abuse and abuse-by-gene (5-HTTLPR, MAOA, FKBP5) interaction on functional brain connectivity during sustained attention in medication/drug-free adolescents. Functional connectivity was compared, using generalised psychophysiological interaction (gPPI) analysis of functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) data, between 21 age-and gender-matched adolescents exposed to severe childhood abuse and 27 healthy controls, while they performed a parametrically modulated vigilance task requiring target detection with a progressively increasing load of sustained attention. Behaviourally, participants exposed to childhood abuse had increased omission errors compared to healthy controls. During the most challenging attention condition abused participants relative to controls exhibited reduced connectivity, with a left-hemispheric bias, in typical fronto-parietal attention networks, including dorsolateral, rostromedial and inferior prefrontal and inferior parietal regions. Abuse-related connectivity abnormalities were exacerbated in individuals homozygous for the risky C-allele of the single nucleotide polymorphism rs3800373 of the FK506 Binding Protein 5 (FKBP5) gene. Findings suggest that childhood abuse is associated with decreased functional connectivity in fronto-parietal attention networks and that the FKBP5 genotype moderates neurobiological vulnerability to abuse. These findings represent a first step towards the delineation of abuse-related neurofunctional connectivity abnormalities, which hopefully will facilitate the development of specific treatment strategies for victims of childhood maltreatment.

Sex differences modulating serotonergic polymorphisms implicated in the mechanistic pathways of risk for depression and related disorders

Despite consistent observations of sex differences in depression and related emotional disorders, we do not yet know how these sex differences modulate the effects of genetic polymorphisms implicated in risk for these disorders. This Mini-Review focuses on genetic polymorphisms of the serotonergic system to illustrate how sex differences might modulate the neurobiological pathways involved in the development of depression. We consider the interacting role of environmental factors such as early-life stress. Given limited current knowledge about this topic, we highlight methodological considerations, challenges, and guidelines for future research. © 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

HPA axis multilocus genetic profile score moderates the impact of interpersonal stress on prospective increases in depressive symptoms for offspring of depressed mothers

Although offspring of depressed mothers are at an increased risk for depression themselves, not all of these children develop depression, highlighting the need to identify specific environmental and genetic moderators of risk. The goal of this study was to examine the aggregate influence of genetic polymorphisms associated with the regulation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis as a potential moderator of the relation between environmental stress and prospective changes in depressive symptoms for offspring of depressed mothers. Participants were 238 mother-offspring dyads recruited from the community based on the mother's lifetime history of major depression during the youth's lifetime (present vs. absent). Mothers and youth completed assessments every 6 months for 2 years (5 total). Results indicated that offspring of depressed mothers showing the greatest increases in depressive symptoms during the follow up were those who had higher HPA multilocus genetic profile scores and who experienced the highest levels of interpersonal stress. These relations were significant for interpersonal stress and were not observed for noninterpersonal stress. These findings suggest that HPA multilocus genetic profile scores may be important genetic markers of stress reactivity and depression risk for offspring of depressed mothers. They also highlight interpersonal stress as a potentially modifiable risk factor for these high-risk youth. (PsycINFO Database Record

Association between serotonin transporter gene polymorphisms and increased suicidal risk among HIV positive patients in Uganda

BACKGROUND

Persons living with HIV/AIDS (PLWHA) are at an increased risk of suicide. Increased suicidal risk is a predictor of future attempted and completed suicides and has been associated with poor quality of life and poor adherence with antiretroviral therapy. Clinical risk factors have low predictive value for suicide, hence the interest in potential neurobiological correlates and specific heritable markers of suicide vulnerability. The serotonin transporter gene has previously been implicated in the aetiology of increased suicidal risk in non-HIV infected study populations and its variations may provide a platform for identifying genetic risk for suicidality among PLWHA. The present cross-sectional study aimed at identifying two common genetic variants of the serotonin transporter gene and their association with increased suicidal risk among human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)-positive adults in Uganda.

RESULTS

The prevalence of increased suicidal risk (defined as moderate to high risk suicidality on the suicidality module of the Mini Neuropsychiatric Interview (M.I.N.I) was 3.3% (95% CI, 2.0-5.3). The 5-HTTLPR was found to be associated with increased suicidal risk before Bonferroni correction (p-value = 0.0174). A protective effect on increased suicidal risk was found for the 5-HTTLPR/rs25531 S A allele (p-value = 0.0046)- which directs reduced expression of the serotonin transporter gene (5-HTT).

CONCLUSION

The S A allele at the 5-HTTLPR/rs25531 locus is associated with increased suicidal risk among Ugandan PLWHA. Further studies are needed to validate this finding in Ugandan and other sub-Saharan samples.

Coping, emotion regulation, and psychopathology in childhood and adolescence: A meta-analysis and narrative review

In this meta-analytic and narrative review, we examine several overarching issues related to the study of coping, emotion regulation, and internalizing and externalizing symptoms of psychopathology in childhood and adolescence, including the conceptualization and measurement of these constructs. We report a quantitative meta-analysis of 212 studies (N = 80,850 participants) that measured the associations between coping and emotion regulation with symptoms of internalizing and externalizing psychopathology. Within the meta-analysis we address the association of broad domains of coping and emotion regulation (e.g., total coping, emotion regulation), intermediate factors of coping and emotion regulation (e.g., primary control coping, secondary control coping), and specific coping and emotion regulation strategies (e.g., emotional expression, cognitive reappraisal) with internalizing and externalizing symptoms. For cross-sectional studies, which made up the majority of studies included, we examine 3 potential moderators: age, measure quality, and single versus multiple informants. Finally, we separately consider findings from longitudinal studies as these provide stronger tests of the effects. After accounting for publication bias, findings indicate that the broad domain of emotion regulation and adaptive coping and the factors of primary control coping and secondary control coping are related to lower levels of symptoms of psychopathology. Further, the domain of maladaptive coping, the factor of disengagement coping, and the strategies of emotional suppression, avoidance, and denial are related to higher levels of symptoms of psychopathology. Finally, we offer a critique of the current state of the field and outline an agenda for future research. (PsycINFO Database Record

The influence of 5-HTTLPR transporter genotype on amygdala-subgenual anterior cingulate cortex connectivity in autism spectrum disorder

Social deficits in autism spectrum disorder (ASD) are linked to amygdala functioning and functional connection between the amygdala and subgenual anterior cingulate cortex (sACC) is involved in the modulation of amygdala activity. Impairments in behavioral symptoms and amygdala activation and connectivity with the sACC seem to vary by serotonin transporter-linked polymorphic region (5-HTTLPR) variant genotype in diverse populations. The current preliminary investigation examines whether amygdala-sACC connectivity differs by 5-HTTLPR genotype and relates to social functioning in ASD. A sample of 108 children and adolescents (44 ASD) completed an fMRI face-processing task. Youth with ASD and low expressing 5-HTTLPR genotypes showed significantly greater connectivity than youth with ASD and higher expressing genotypes as well as typically developing (TD) individuals with both low and higher expressing genotypes, in the comparison of happy vs. baseline faces and happy vs. neutral faces. Moreover, individuals with ASD and higher expressing genotypes exhibit a negative relationship between amygdala-sACC connectivity and social dysfunction. Altered amygdala-sACC coupling based on 5-HTTLPR genotype may help explain some of the heterogeneity in neural and social function observed in ASD. This is the first ASD study to combine genetic polymorphism analyses and functional connectivity in the context of a social task.

Implication of NOTCH1 gene in susceptibility to anxiety and depression among sexual abuse victims

Sexual abuse contributes to the development of multiple forms of psychopathology, including anxiety and depression, but the extent to which genetics contributes to these disorders among sexual abuse victims remains unclear. In this translational study, we first examined gene expression in the brains of rodents exposed to different early-life conditions (long, brief or no maternal separation). Hypothesizing that genes revealing changes in expression may have relevance for psychiatric symptoms later in life, we examined possible association of those genes with symptoms of anxiety and depression in a human sample of sexual abuse victims. Changes in rodent brain gene expression were evaluated by means of correspondence and significance analyses of microarrays by comparing brains of rodents exposed to different early-life conditions. Tag single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) of resulting candidate genes were genotyped and tested for their association with symptoms of anxiety and depression (Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale) in a sample of 361 sexual abuse victims, using multinomial logistic regression. False discovery rate was applied to account for multiple testing in the genetic association study, with q-value of 0.05 accepted as significant. We identified four genes showing differential expression among animals subjected to different early-life conditions as well as having potential relevance to neural development or disorders: Notch1, Gabrr1, Plk5 and Zfp644. In the human sample, significant associations were observed for two NOTCH1 tag SNPs: rs11145770 (OR=2.21, q=0.043) and rs3013302 (OR=2.15, q=0.043). Our overall findings provide preliminary evidence that NOTCH1 may be implicated in the susceptibility to anxiety and depression among sexual abuse victims. The study also underscores the potential importance of animal models for future studies on the health consequences of early-life stress and the mechanisms underlying increased risk for psychiatric disorders.

Biological mechanisms underlying evolutionary origins of psychotic and mood disorders

Psychotic and mood disorders are brain dysfunctions that are caused by gene environment interactions. Although these disorders are disadvantageous and involve behavioral phenotypes that decrease the reproductive success of afflicted individuals in the modern human society, the prevalence of these disorders have remained constant in the population. Here, we propose several biological mechanisms by which the genes associated with psychotic and mood disorders could be selected for in specific environmental conditions that provide evolutionary bases for explanations of when, why, and where these disorders emerged and have been maintained in humans. We discuss the evolutionary origins of psychotic and mood disorders with specific focuses on the roles of dopamine and serotonin in the conditions of social competitiveness/hierarchy and maternal care and other potential mechanisms, such as social network homophily and symbiosis.

Take your mind off it: Coping style, serotonin transporter linked polymorphic region genotype (5-HTTLPR), and children's internalizing and externalizing problems

Individuals with the short variant of the serotonin transporter linked polymorphic region gene are more susceptible than individuals homozygous for the long allele to the effects of stressful life events on risk for internalizing and externalizing problems. We tested whether individual differences in coping style explained this increased risk for problem behavior among youth who were at both genetic and environmental risk. Participants included 279 children, ages 8-11, from the Children's Experiences and Development Study. Caregivers and teachers reported on children's internalizing and externalizing symptoms, and caregivers and children on children's exposure to harsh parenting and parental warmth in middle childhood, and traumatic events. Children reported how frequently they used various coping strategies. Results revealed that short/short homozygotes had higher levels of internalizing problems compared with long allele carriers and that short allele carriers had higher levels of externalizing problems compared with long/long homozygotes under conditions of high cumulative risk. Moreover, among children who were homozygous for the short allele, those who had more cumulative risk indicators less frequently used distraction coping strategies, which partly explained why they had higher levels of internalizing problems. Coping strategies did not significantly mediate Gene × Environment effects on externalizing symptoms.

Predictors for self-directed aggression in Italian prisoners include externalizing behaviors, childhood trauma and the serotonin transporter gene polymorphism 5-HTTLPR

Suicidal behavior and self-mutilation can be regarded as the expression of self-directed aggression and both are common in prison populations. We investigated the influence of externalizing behaviors, depressive symptoms, childhood trauma, 5-HTTLPR variants on self-directed aggression (N = 145) in a group of 702 male Italian prisoners. Participants were comprehensively evaluated, including for psychiatric disorders, impulsive traits, lifetime aggressive behavior [Brown-Goodwin Lifetime History of Aggression (BGHA)], hostility, violent behavior during incarceration, depressive symptomatology [Hamilton Depression Rating Scale (HDRS)], childhood trauma [Childhood Trauma Questionnaire (CTQ)]. Logistic regression analysis showed false discovery rate corrected independent main effects of externalizing behaviors: BGHA (P = 0.001), violent behavior in jail (P = 0.007), extraversion (P = 0.015); HDRS (P = 0.0004), Axis I disorders (P = 0.015), CTQ (P = 0.004) and 5-HTTLPR genotype (P = 0.02). Carriers of 5-HTTLPR high (LA LA ), intermediate (LA LG , SLA ) activity variants were more likely to have exhibited self-directed aggression relative to the low activity (LG LG , SLG , SS) variant: high/low: odds ratio (OR) = 2.3, 95% confidence interval (CI) 1.27-4.68, P = 0.007; intermediate/low: OR = 1.96, 95% CI 1.09-3.68, P = 0.025. The CTQ main effect was driven by physical abuse. There was no interactive effect of 5-HTTLPR and CTQ. Secondary logistic regression analyses in (1) all suicide attempters (N = 88) and (2) all self-mutilators (N = 104), compared with controls showed that in both groups, childhood trauma (P = 0.008-0.01), depression (P = 0.0004-0.001) were strong predictors. BGHA, violent behavior in jail predicted self-mutilation (P = 0.002) but not suicide attempts (P = 0.1). This study was able to distinguish differing influences on self-directed aggression between groups of closely related predictor variables within the externalizing behavioral domain. 5-HTTLPR had an independent, variant dosage effect.

Financial difficulties but not other types of recent negative life events show strong interactions with 5-HTTLPR genotype in the development of depressive symptoms

Several studies indicate that 5-HTTLPR mediates the effect of childhood adversity in the development of depression, while results are contradictory for recent negative life events. For childhood adversity the interaction with genotype is strongest for sexual abuse, but not for other types of childhood maltreatment; however, possible interactions with specific recent life events have not been investigated separately. The aim of our study was to investigate the effect of four distinct types of recent life events in the development of depressive symptoms in a large community sample. Interaction between different types of recent life events measured by the List of Threatening Experiences and the 5-HTTLPR genotype on current depression measured by the depression subscale and additional items of the Brief Symptom Inventory was investigated in 2588 subjects in Manchester and Budapest. Only a nominal interaction was found between life events overall and 5-HTTLPR on depression, which failed to survive correction for multiple testing. However, subcategorising life events into four categories showed a robust interaction between financial difficulties and the 5-HTTLPR genotype, and a weaker interaction in the case of illness/injury. No interaction effect for the other two life event categories was present. We investigated a general non-representative sample in a cross-sectional approach. Depressive symptoms and life event evaluations were self-reported. The 5-HTTLPR polymorphism showed a differential interaction pattern with different types of recent life events, with the strongest interaction effects of financial difficulties on depressive symptoms. This specificity of interaction with only particular types of life events may help to explain previous contradictory findings.

Depressive symptoms in adolescence: The role of perceived parental support, psychological control, and proactive control in interaction with 5-HTTLPR

BACKGROUND

Parenting dimensions are associated with depressive symptoms in adolescents. We investigated the role of perceived parenting dimensions and gene-environment interactions between these perceived parenting dimensions and five well-known variable number of tandem repeats (VNTRs): 5-HTTLPR, STin2, DAT1, DRD4, and MAO-A, in depressive symptoms.

METHODS

From a non-clinical sample of 1111 Belgian adolescents (mean age: 13.79 years, SD=.94; 51% boys), 1103 adolescents consented for genetic research. Five VNTRs were analyzed using DNA from saliva samples. Perceived parenting dimensions (i.e., support, proactive control, psychological control, punishment, and harsh punishment) were examined using self-report scales completed by adolescents and their parents. Depressive symptoms were investigated using the CES-D self-report scale. Statistical analyses were performed in R using linear regression.

RESULTS

Parental support, as perceived by the adolescent, was negatively associated with depressive symptoms (CES-D) and psychological control was positively associated with these symptoms. The only interaction effect withstanding correction for multiple testing was observed for 5-HTTLPR and the difference in proactive control as perceived by adolescents in comparison to parents. Short-allele carriers showed more depressive symptoms when there was a higher discrepancy in proactive control as perceived by adolescents versus parents.

CONCLUSIONS

Our results suggest that perceived parenting dimensions are associated with depressive symptoms, as measured by the CES-D. We only found modest evidence for 5-HTTLPR as a moderator in the association between the difference in perception of proactive control (adolescents vs. parents) and depressive symptoms.

Imaging genetics studies on monoaminergic genes in major depressive disorder

Although depression is the leading cause of disability worldwide, current understanding of the neurobiology of depression has failed to be translated into clinical practice. Major depressive disorder (MDD) pathogenesis is considered to be significantly influenced by multiple risk genes, however genetic effects are not simply expressed at a behavioral level. Therefore the concept of endophenotype has been applied in psychiatric genetics. Imaging genetics applies anatomical or functional imaging technologies as phenotypic assays to evaluate genetic variation and their impact on behavior. This paper attempts to provide a comprehensive review of available imaging genetics studies, including reports on genetic variants that have most frequently been linked to MDD, such as the monoaminergic genes (serotonin transporter gene, monoamine oxidase A gene, tryptophan hydroxylase-2 gene, serotonin receptor 1A gene and catechol-O-methyl transferase gene), with regard to key structures involved in emotion processing, such as the hippocampus, amygdala, anterior cingulate cortex and orbitofrontal cortex.

RDoC and translational perspectives on the genetics of trauma-related psychiatric disorders

Individuals with a history of child abuse are at high risk for depression, anxiety disorders, aggressive behavior, and substance use problems. The goal of this paper is to review studies of the genetics of these stress-related psychiatric disorders. An informative subset of studies that examined candidate gene by environment (GxE) predictors of these psychiatric problems in individuals maltreated as children is reviewed, together with extant genome wide association studies (GWAS). Emerging findings on epigenetic changes associated with adverse early experiences are also reviewed. Meta-analytic support and replicated findings are evident for several genetic risk factors; however, extant research suggests the effects are pleiotropic. Genetic factors are not associated with distinct psychiatric disorders, but rather diverse clinical phenotypes. Research also suggests adverse early life experiences are associated with changes in gene expression of multiple known candidate genes, genes involved in DNA transcription and translation, and genes necessary for brain circuitry development, with changes in gene expression reported in key brain structures implicated in the pathophysiology of psychiatric and substance use disorders. The finding of pleiotropy highlights the value of using the Research Domain Criteria (RDoC) framework in future studies of the genetics of stress-related psychiatric disorders, and not trying simply to link genes to multifaceted clinical syndromes, but to more limited phenotypes that map onto distinct neural circuits. Emerging work in the field of epigenetics also suggests that translational studies that integrate numerous unbiased genome-wide approaches will help to further unravel the genetics of stress-related psychiatric disorders.

Influence of the 5-HT3A Receptor Gene Polymorphism and Childhood Sexual Trauma on Central Serotonin Activity

Background

Gene-environment interactions are important for understanding alterations in human brain function. The loudness dependence of auditory evoked potential (LDAEP) is known to reflect central serotonergic activity. Single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in the 5-HT3A serotonin receptor gene are associated with psychiatric disorders. This study aimed to investigate the effect between 5-HT3A receptor gene polymorphisms and childhood sexual trauma on the LDAEP as an electrophysiological marker in healthy subjects.

Methods

A total of 206 healthy subjects were recruited and evaluated using the childhood trauma questionnaire (CTQ) and hospital anxiety and depression scale (HADS). Peak-to-peak N1/P2 was measured at five stimulus intensities, and the LDAEP was calculated as the linear-regression slope. In addition, the rs1062613 SNPs of 5-HT3A (CC, CT, and TT) were analyzed in healthy subjects.

Results

There was a significant interaction between scores on the CTQ-sexual abuse subscale and 5-HT3A genotype on the LDAEP. Subjects with the CC polymorphism had a significantly higher LDEAP than T carriers in the sexually abused group. In addition, CC genotype subjects in the sexually abused group showed a significantly higher LDAEP compared with CC genotype subjects in the non-sexually abused group.

Conclusions

Our findings suggest that people with the CC polymorphism of the 5-HT3A gene have a greater risk of developing mental health problems if they have experienced childhood sexual abuse, possibly due to low central serotonin activity. Conversely, the T polymorphism may be protective against any central serotonergic changes following childhood sexual trauma.

Depression from childhood into late adolescence: Influence of gender, development, genetic susceptibility, and peer stress

Depression is a debilitating mental illness with clear developmental patterns from childhood through late adolescence. Here, we present data from the Gene Environment Mood (GEM) study, which used an accelerated longitudinal cohort design with youth (N = 665) starting in 3rd, 6th, and 9th grades, and a caretaker, who were recruited from the general community, and were then assessed repeatedly through semistructured diagnostic interviews every 6 months over 3 years (7 waves of data) to establish and then predict trajectories of depression from age 8 to 18. First, we demonstrated that overall prevalence rates of depression over time, by age, gender, and pubertal status, in the GEM study closely match those trajectories previously obtained in past developmental epidemiological research. Second, we tested whether a genetic vulnerability-stress model involving 5-HTTLPR and chronic peer stress was moderated by developmental factors. Results showed that older aged adolescents with SS/SL genotype, who experienced higher peer chronic stress over 3 years, were the most likely to be diagnosed with a depressive episode over time. Girls experiencing greater peer chronic stress were the most likely to develop depression. This study used repeated assessments of diagnostic interviewing in a moderately large sample of youth over 3 years to show that depression rates increase in middle to late adolescence, or postpubertally, and that the gender difference in depression emerges earlier in adolescence (age 12.5), or postpubertally. Additionally, genetically susceptible older adolescents who experience chronic peer stress were the most likely to become depressed over time.

Interleukin 1B gene (IL1B) variation and internalizing symptoms in maltreated preschoolers

Evidence now implicates inflammatory proteins in the neurobiology of internalizing disorders. Genetic factors may influence individual responses to maltreatment; however, little work has examined inflammatory genetic variants in adults and none in children. The present study examined the role of an interleukin 1B gene (IL1B) variant in preschoolers exposed to maltreatment and other forms of adversity in internalizing symptom development. One hundred ninety-eight families were enrolled, with one child (age 3-5 years) from each family. Adversity measures included child protective service documentation of moderate-severe maltreatment in the last 6 months and interview-assessed contextual stressors. Internalizing symptoms were measured using the Child Behavior Checklist and the Diagnostic Infant and Preschool Assessment. Maltreated children had higher major depressive disorder (MDD) and posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms and marginally higher internalizing symptoms on the Child Behavior Checklist. Controlling for age, sex, and race, IL1B genotype was associated with MDD symptoms (p = .002). Contextual stressors were significantly associated with MDD and posttraumatic stress disorder and marginally with internalizing symptoms. The IL1B genotype interacted with contextual stress such that children homozygous for the minor allele had more MDD symptoms (p = .045). These results suggest that genetic variants of IL1B may modulate the development of internalizing symptoms in the face of childhood adversity.

Genetic moderation of child maltreatment effects on depression and internalizing symptoms by serotonin transporter linked polymorphic region (5-HTTLPR), brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), norepinephrine transporter (NET), and corticotropin releasing hormone receptor 1 (CRHR1) genes in African American children

Genetic moderation of the effects of child maltreatment on depression and internalizing symptoms was investigated in a sample of low-income maltreated and nonmaltreated African American children (N = 1,096). Lifetime child maltreatment experiences were independently coded from Child Protective Services records and maternal report. Child depression and internalizing problems were assessed in the context of a summer research camp by self-report on the Children's Depression Inventory and adult counselor report on the Teacher Report Form. DNA was obtained from buccal cell or saliva samples and genotyped for polymorphisms of the following genes: serotonin transporter linked polymorphic region (5-HTTLPR), brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), norepinephrine transporter, and corticotropin releasing hormone receptor 1. Analyses of covariance with age and gender as covariates were conducted, with maltreatment status and respective polymorphism as main effects and their Gene × Environment (G × E) interactions. Maltreatment consistently was associated with higher Children's Depression Inventory and Teacher Report Form symptoms. The results for child self-report symptoms indicated a G × E interaction for BDNF and maltreatment. In addition, BDNF and triallelic 5-HTTLPR interacted with child maltreatment in a G × G × E interaction. Analyses for counselor report of child anxiety/depression symptoms on the Teacher Report Form indicated moderation of child maltreatment effects by triallelic 5-HTTLPR. These effects were elaborated based on variation in developmental timing of maltreatment experiences. Norepinephrine transporter was found to further moderate the G × E interaction of 5-HTTLPR and maltreatment status, revealing a G × G × E interaction. This G × G × E was extended by consideration of variation in maltreatment subtype experiences. Finally, G × G × E effects were observed for the co-action of BDNF and the corticotropin releasing hormone receptor 1 haplotype. The findings illustrate the variable influence of specific genotypes in G × E interactions based on variation in maltreatment experiences and the importance of a multigenic approach for understanding influences on depression and internalizing symptoms among African American children.

Effects of persisting emotional impact from child abuse and norepinephrine transporter genetic variation on antidepressant efficacy in major depression: a pilot study

Objective

Previous studies suggest child abuse and serotonergic polymorphism influence depression susceptibility and anti-depressant efficacy. Polymorphisms of the norepinephrine transporter (NET) may also be involved. Research in the area is possibly clouded by under reporting of abuse in researcher trials.

Methods

Adults (n=51) with major depressive disorder has 8 weeks treatment with escitalopram or venlafaxine. Abuse history was obtained, the ongoing emotional impact of which was measured with the 15-item impact of event scale (IES-15). The 17-item Hamilton Depression Rating Scale (HDRS) was applied serially. Two NET polymorphisms (rs2242446 and rs5569) were assayed, blinded to HDRS ratings and abuse history.

Results

No subjects reporting abuse with high impact in adulthood (IES-15 ≥26, n=12) remitted; whereas 77% reporting low impact (IES-15 <26; n=26) remitted (p<0.001). Subjects reporting high impact abuse (n=12) had a 50-fold (95% confidence interval=4.85–514.6) greater odds of carrying rs2242446-TT genotype, but the small sample size leaves this finding vulnerable to type I error.

Conclusion

The level of persisting impact of child abuse appears relevant to antidepressant efficacy, with susceptibility to such possibly being influence by NET rs2242446 polymorphism. Larger studies may be merited to expand on this pilot level finding given potential for biomarker utility.

Mind the gap: why many geneticists and psychological scientists have discrepant views about gene-environment interaction (G×E) research

As our field seeks to elucidate the biopsychosocial etiologies of mental health disorders, many traditional psychological and social science researchers have added, or plan to add, genetic components to their programs of research. An understanding of the history, methods, and perspectives of the psychiatric genetics community is useful in this pursuit. In this article we provide a brief overview of psychiatric genetic methods and findings. This overview lays the groundwork for a more thorough review of gene-environment interaction (G×E) research and the candidate gene approach to G×E research that remains popular among many psychologists and social scientists. We describe the differences in perspective between psychiatric geneticists and psychological scientists that have contributed to a growing divide between the research cited and conducted by these two related disciplines. Finally, we outline a strategy for the future of research on gene-environment interactions that capitalizes on the relative strengths of each discipline. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2014 APA, all rights reserved).

Association study of monoamine oxidase-A gene promoter polymorphism (MAOA-uVNTR) with self-reported anxiety and other psychopathological symptoms in a community sample of early adolescents

The polymorphism upstream of the gene for monoamine oxidase A (MAOA-uVNTR) is reported to be an important enzyme involved in human physiology and behavior. With a sample of 228 early-adolescents from a community sample (143 girls) and adjusting for environmental variables, we examined the influence of MAOA-uVNTR alleles on the scores obtained in the Screen for Childhood Anxiety and Related Emotional Disorders and in the Child Symptom Inventory-4. Our results showed that girls with the high-activity MAOA allele had higher scores for generalized and total anxiety than their low-activity peers, whereas boys with the low-activity allele had higher social phobia scores than boys with the high-activity allele. Results for conduct disorder symptoms did not show a significant relationship between the MAOA alleles and the presence of these symptoms. Our findings support a possible association, depending on gender, between the MAOA-uVNTR polymorphism and psychopathological disorders such as anxiety, which affects high rates of children and adolescents.

Evidence for a Sex-Dependent MAOA× Childhood Stress Interaction in the Neural Circuitry of Aggression

Converging evidence emphasizes the role of an interaction between monoamine oxidase A (MAOA) genotype, environmental adversity, and sex in the pathophysiology of aggression. The present study aimed to clarify the impact of this interaction on neural activity in aggression-related brain systems. Functional magnetic resonance imaging was performed in 125 healthy adults from a high-risk community sample followed since birth. DNA was genotyped for the MAOA-VNTR (variable number of tandem repeats). Exposure to childhood life stress (CLS) between the ages of 4 and 11 years was assessed using a standardized parent interview, aggression by the Youth/Young Adult Self-Report between the ages of 15 and 25 years, and the VIRA-R (Vragenlijst Instrumentele En Reactieve Agressie) at the age of 15 years. Significant interactions were obtained between MAOA genotype, CLS, and sex relating to amygdala, hippocampus, and anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) response, respectively. Activity in the amygdala and hippocampus during emotional face-matching increased with the level of CLS in male MAOA-L, while decreasing in male MAOA-H, with the reverse pattern present in females. Findings in the opposite direction in the ACC during a flanker NoGo task suggested that increased emotional activity coincided with decreased inhibitory control. Moreover, increasing amygdala activity was associated with higher Y(A)SR aggression in male MAOA-L and female MAOA-H carriers. Likewise, a significant association between amygdala activity and reactive aggression was detected in female MAOA-H carriers. The results point to a moderating role of sex in the MAOA× CLS interaction for intermediate phenotypes of emotional and inhibitory processing, suggesting a possible mechanism in conferring susceptibility to violence-related disorders.

An update on the interaction between the serotonin transporter promoter variant (5-HTTLPR), stress and depression, plus an exploration of non-confirming findings

In the three years since the most recent meta-analysis of the association between the serotonin transported promoter polymorphism (5-HTTLPR), stress and the development of depression, another 27 studies have been published on this issue, which is an increase of 50% more studies than were previously reviewed. In addition, previous findings of inconsistency of results across studies argued for further exploration of this relationship. From the 81 studies identified to June 2013, the significant relationship between the short form of the 5-HTTLPR was confirmed (p=.0000009), which is stronger than the relationship reported in the most recent meta-analysis in 2011. However, nearly 26% of the 81 studies reviewed failed to show any significant association between the 5-HTTLPR, stress and depression, and four studies found opposite results to those expected. Examination of the methodologies of all studies failed to indicate any flaws in the opposite or unequivocal studies, and the latter had larger sample sizes than those studies which supported the expected association, arguing that the null results were not an outcome of insufficient statistical power. The need to consider aspects of samples and measures of depression, particularly the presence of subtypes of depression in future research is discussed.