A Concise History of Mycotoxin Research

Attenuated total reflection mid-infrared spectroscopy to screen Austrian and French wheat from multiple years for deoxynivalenol

The high-throughput capability of attenuated total reflection mid-infrared spectroscopy (ATR-MIRS) makes it a promising analytical technique for rapid and green mycotoxin screening. In ATR-MIRS, changes in samples induced by mycotoxigenic fungi are correlated with mycotoxin concentrations obtained through reference analysis. Due to its indirect nature, limited research has explored the applicability of this technique for complex sample sets. We demonstrate that ATR-MIRS can effectively screen for deoxynivalenol (DON) contamination in wheat samples collected across two countries over multiple years. A total of 320 naturally contaminated samples from Austria and France were analyzed to develop screening models. Partial least squares discriminant analysis (PLS-DA) was used to classify samples as compliant or non-compliant with the European Commission (EC) limit of 1000 µg/kg DON in unprocessed wheat. Model performance during repeated nested cross-validation exhibited a true positive rate ranging from 0.32 to 1. This variability was primarily influenced by sample splitting, as well as by dataset balancing and spectral preprocessing approaches. These findings underscore the critical importance of sample selection when developing chemometric models for mycotoxin screening. Analysis of variable importance in projection (VIP) scores revealed that classification into compliant or non-compliant is based on wavenumbers associated with dissolved proteins and carbohydrates in the MIRS spectra. Overall, our results demonstrate the feasibility of using ATR-MIRS to assess DON contamination in complex, multiyear wheat sample sets while adhering to regulatory limits. Additionally, this study highlights the potential of MIRS for investigating the effects of mycotoxigenic fungi on wheat composition during the development of DON screening models.

From traditional to modern: Nanotechnology-driven innovation in mycotoxin sensing for Chinese herbal medicines

Mycotoxin contamination in Chinese herbal medicines (CHMs) is a pressing concern that jeopardizes their quality and safety, despite their widespread therapeutic use. Conventional detection methods are often limited by complexity, cost, and sensitivity, particularly in resource-limited settings. This gap in effective and efficient mycotoxin detection necessitates a comprehensive review that explores innovative solutions to enhance the safety and efficacy of CHMs. Advancements in nanomaterials and related advanced sensing techniques have emerged as a beacon of hope. Therefore, this review aims to fill the knowledge gap by providing a comprehensive overview of the latest developments in mycotoxin detection in CHMs, spotlighting the transformative role of nanomaterials and advanced sensing techniques. This review stands out for its in-depth exploration of functional nanomaterials across dimensions and their innovative applications in mycotoxin detection. Its innovation stems from a holistic approach that not only surveys current technologies but also charts a forward-looking path, emphasizing novel nanomaterial development, refined pretreatment, and advanced biosensing for on-site detection. It delves into the integration of nanomaterials with advanced sensing technologies, discussing the advantages and limitations of these approaches. A significant innovation of this review lies in the nuanced integration of nanomaterials with machine learning and artificial intelligence, revealing untapped potential for accuracy enhancement. Through this synthesis of knowledge, we hope to inspire further research and development in this critical area, ensuring the continued safe use of CHMs in traditional medicine practices.

Dual-Mode Microfluidic Workstation for Rapid Detection of Multiple Mycotoxins on Chip

The assurance of food safety requires sensitive monitoring of multiple mycotoxins due to their severe impacts on the food industry and high health risks posed to consumers. Herein, we proposed a chemiluminescent/colorimetric dual-signal readout microfluidic method, incorporating a streptavidin-biotin-alkaline phosphatase (SA-Biotin-ALP) signal amplification system for the highly sensitive detection of Deoxynivalenol (DON), Ochratoxin A (OTA), and Aflatoxin B1 (AFB1). The indirect competitive enzyme-linked immunoassay (ic-ELISA) was integrated into microfluidic chip, resulting in sensitive detection ranges of DON in the range of 4-128 ng/mL, 2-64 ng/mL for OTA, and 0.2-6.4 ng/mL for AFB1, with the limit of detection (LOD) being 2.636 ng/mL, 1.492 ng/mL, and 0.131 ng/mL, respectively. Recovery rates in beer samples ranged from 91.93% to 109.31%. Furthermore, a dual-mode microfluidic workstation (DMMW) was developed to facilitate rapid, automated detection for these mycotoxins, simplifying the detection procedure, enhancing the detection efficiency, and reducing the requirement for specialized personnel, thus confirming significant potential for the rapid detection of mycotoxins in complex matrices such as beer.

Exploring Hidden Dangers: Predicting Mycotoxin-like Toxicity and Mapping Toxicological Networks in Hepatocellular Carcinoma

Mycotoxins are potent triggers of hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) due to their intricate interplay with cellular macromolecules and signaling pathways. This study integrates machine learning and biomolecular analyses to elucidate the mechanisms underlying mycotoxin-induced hepatocarcinogenesis. Using a data set of 1767 mycotoxins and 1706 non-mycotoxin fungal metabolites, we evaluated 51 machine learning models. The KPGT model achieved optimal performance with an ROC-AUC of 0.979 and balanced accuracy of 0.930. Clustering analysis identified six distinct mycotoxin clusters with unique structural features. Network toxicology analysis revealed distinct protein-protein interaction patterns across different mycotoxin clusters, identifying key regulatory proteins including EGFR, SRC, and ESR1. GO enrichment analysis uncovered cluster-specific effects on protein complexes and macromolecular assemblies, particularly in membrane organization and vesicular transport. KEGG pathway analysis demonstrated systematic perturbation of major signaling cascades, with each mycotoxin cluster distinctly modulating protein kinase networks and receptor tyrosine kinase pathways. Molecular docking analyses validated these interactions, with binding affinities ranging from -9.6 to -4.7 kcal/mol. Notably, cluster 5 showed strong binding to SRC (-9.6 kcal/mol), EGFR (-9.5 kcal/mol), and ESR1 (-7.8 kcal/mol), providing structural insights into toxin-macromolecule recognition. These findings enhance our understanding of mycotoxin-protein interactions in HCC development and suggest potential therapeutic strategies targeting these macromolecular interfaces.

Metagenomics Insights into the Role of Microbial Communities in Mycotoxin Accumulation During Maize Ripening and Storage

Mycotoxins are among the primary factors compromising food quality and safety. To investigate mycotoxin contamination, microbial diversity, and functional profiles in maize across distinct geographic regions, this study analyzed samples from Xuanwei, Fuyuan, and Zhanyi. Mycotoxin concentrations were quantified through standardized assays, while microbial community structures were characterized using metagenomics sequencing. Metabolic pathways, functional genes, and enzymatic activities were systematically annotated with the KEGG, eggNOG, and CAZy databases. The results demonstrated an absence of detectable aflatoxin (AF) levels. Deoxynivalenol (DON) concentrations varied significantly among experimental cohorts, although all values remained within regulatory thresholds. Zearalenone (ZEN) contamination exceeded permissible limits by 40%. The metagenomic profiling identified 85 phyla, 1219 classes, 277 orders, 590 families, 1171 genera, and 2130 species of microorganisms, including six mycotoxigenic fungal species. The abundance and diversity of microorganisms were similar among different treatment groups. Among 32,333 annotated KEGG pathways, primary metabolic processes predominated (43.99%), while glycoside hydrolases (GH) and glycosyltransferases (GT) constituted 76.67% of the 40,202 carbohydrate-active enzymes. These empirical findings establish a scientific framework for optimizing agronomic practices, harvest scheduling, and post-harvest management in maize cultivation.

Lipoic acid as a protective agent against lipopolysaccharide and other natural toxins: a comprehensive review

Alpha-lipoic acid, also known as lipoate or lipoic acid (LA), is naturally present in the mitochondria of cells, where it functions as a cofactor for dehydrogenase enzyme complexes. It has also been reported that LA is a potent antioxidant. Not only does it scavenge free radicals directly, but it can also regenerate other essential cellular antioxidants. LA exhibits various anti-inflammatory effects and offers protection to mitochondria. Numerous studies have assessed the potential protective effects of LA against natural toxins, including lipopolysaccharides, galactosamine, mycotoxins, snake venoms, and toxins derived from cyanobacteria and plants. In general, the results of these studies indicate that LA can be effective in mitigating various toxicities, primarily due to the previously mentioned capabilities. Furthermore, novel mechanisms have been proposed for LA against specific toxins, for example, direct inactivation of secretory phospholipase A2 in some snake venoms or enhancement of p-glycoprotein activity to prevent saxitoxin entry into the neuronal cells. However, the gaps in the available data from most animal experiments conducted to date have resulted in insufficient evidence to justify further clinical evaluations of the effects of LA on human poisoning cases. Consequently, more extensive research is required to address these gaps and fully realize the therapeutic potential of this valuable substance.

Warm and humid environment induces gut microbiota dysbiosis and bacterial translocation leading to inflammatory state and promotes proliferation and biofilm formation of certain bacteria, potentially causing sticky stool

BACKGROUND AND AIMS OF THE STUDY

Fluctuations in environmental temperature and humidity significantly affect human physiology and disease manifestation. In the Lingnan region of China, high summer temperatures and humidity often cause symptoms like diminished appetite, sticky tongue coating, sticky stool, unsatisfactory defecation, lethargy, and joint heaviness. These are referred to as "Dampness Syndrome" in Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM). Thick and greasy tongue fur and sticky feces are characteristic symptoms of "Dampness Syndrome" and serve as crucial diagnostic indicators in TCM for assessing health conditions. However, the specific mechanisms that lead to these symptoms, such as sticky feces and thick and greasy tongue fur, have not been fully elucidated. Understanding these external symptoms is essential, as they reflect internal health status. Warm, humid environments favor microorganism growth, potentially disrupting gut microbiota and bacterial translocation, which could induce an immune-inflammatory response. The primary objective of this study is to explore the potential significant role of immune response products in influencing the proliferation and biofilm formation of gut microbiota, which may subsequently lead to changes in fecal characteristics.

METHODS

In this study, mice were exposed to a controlled warm and humid environment (25 ± 3 °C with 95% humidity) for 16 days to simulate conditions associated with "Dampness Syndrome." After this period, Huoxiang Zhengqi Water, a traditional remedy, has been administrated for four days. On the one hand saliva and tongue coating samples were also taken from human subjects with "Dampness Syndrome" for microorganism culturing and to assess biofilm formation, on the other hand the co-culture products of a macrophage cell line RAW264.7 and Candida albicans and the effect of tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) were evaluated for their impact on the proliferation and biofilm-forming abilities of different bacterial strains.

RESULTS

Compared to a control group, the treatment group exhibited significant changes in gut microbiota, including increased biofilm formation, which was mitigated by Huoxiang Zhengqi Water. In the model group, fungal translocation was observed, potentially triggering an inflammatory response. Intraperitoneal injections of various bacterial strains in mice reproduced the sticky stool characteristics. Both mice and human subjects with "Dampness Syndrome" displayed elevated serum levels of inflammatory cytokines TNF-α and interleukin-17 A (IL-17A). Interestingly, Saliva samples from individuals with "Dampness Syndrome" showed elevated TNF-α levels, accompanied by thick and greasy tongue fur. Culturing samples from the tongue coating of individuals in the "Dampness Syndrome" group revealed an increased biofilm formation capability. C. albicans co-cultured with RAW264.7 cells increased TNF-α secretion, and the supernatant promoted pathogenic bacterial proliferation and biofilm formation. TNF-α specifically enhanced biofilm formation in microorganism like C. albicans and Staphylococcus aureus, with minimal effect on beneficial bacteria like Lacticaseibacillus paracasei and Lactiplantibacillus plantarum in the tested conditions.

CONCLUSIONS

These findings provided new insights into the biological mechanisms of 'Dampness Syndrome' and support the therapeutic role of Huoxiang Zhengqi Water in treating symptoms associated with microbial dysbiosis and inflammation. Additionally, they indicate that TNF-α seems to have selective effects in promoting the proliferation and biofilm formation of different microbial species.

The Role of AFB1, OTA, TCNs, and Patulin in Forensic Sciences: Applications in Autopsy, Criminal Investigations, and Public Health Prevention

Mycotoxins, specifically aflatoxin B1 (AFB1), ochratoxin A (OTA), trichothecenes (TCNs), and patulin, are a group of secondary metabolites that can contaminate food, leading to severe health implications for humans. Their detection and analysis within forensic toxicology are crucial, particularly as they can be implicated in cases of poisoning, foodborne illnesses, or lethal chronic exposure. However, little is known about the application that mycotoxins could have in forensic investigations and especially about the possibility of extracting and quantifying these molecules on tissues or post-mortem fluids collected at autopsy. We propose a review of the scientific literature on autopsy case studies in which the presence of mycotoxins on cadavers in cases of acute and chronic exposure has been investigated and identified. This review demonstrates how the analysis of mycotoxins on cadavers could be fundamental in the study of mushroom poisonings or even in the investigation of the chronic effects of mycotoxins on the human organism, by virtue of the known carcinogenic and mutagenic effects of many of them. This paper aims to explore the multifaceted role of mycotoxins within forensic sciences, focusing on their detection methods, implications in criminal contexts, and their potential as forensic evidence, thereby underscoring the critical importance they could assume in post-mortem toxicology, public health prevention, and forensic investigations.

Silver amplified immunosensor via effective fluorogenic Ag+-imidazole aggregation for detection of AFB1

BACKGROUND

Cereals are susceptible to aflatoxin contamination during storage and transportation, which is highly carcinogenic and teratogenic, and seriously threaten human health. The accurate and rapid detection of total aflatoxin (including aflatoxin B1, B2, G1, and G2) is of great importance for food safety. Conventional fluorescence immunoassays have the advantage of being sensitive and fast; however, these methods can be affected by strong background and matrix interference. Therefore, the development of ultrasensitive, cost-effective, and interference rejection sensors for detecting aflatoxins in moldy grains is vital for food safety and human health.

RESULTS

In this paper, a broad-spectrum aflatoxin monoclonal antibody was prepared by using hybridoma cell fusion technology. An aggregation-induced emission (AIE) based immunosensor via silver amplification coupled with a fluorogenic Ag+ probe was established for AFB1 analysis. Silver nanoparticles are decomposed into numerous Ag+ by H2O2, and then Ag+ further specifically binds with imidazole-modified AIE molecules, improving the sensitivity and anti-interference ability of the method. The IC50 and IC15 of AIE-based immunosensor for AFB1 were 0.019 and 0.0014 μg/L, respectively, 2.3-fold and 5.8-fold higher than those of icELISA. The AIE-based immunosensor was also used to analyze AFB1 from actual cereal samples, with spiked recoveries ranging from 72.91 to 115.92 %. In addition, the method was used to detect total aflatoxins in moldy grains.

SIGNIFICANCE

Based on the advantages of broad-spectrum aflatoxin monoclonal antibody, high-efficiency metal signal amplification, and functional AIE molecule, a sensitive, accurate, cost-effective, and time-saving method was developed for the analysis of total aflatoxins in cereals. Moreover, the proposed signal amplification strategy shows great potential for analyzing other trace-level small molecular pollutants.

Highly Sensitive One-Pot Isothermal Assay Combining Rolling Circle Amplification and CRISPR/Cas12a for Aflatoxin B1 Detection

Occurrences of mycotoxins in cereals are widespread throughout the world. However, the lack of efficient and ultrasensitive tests has largely impeded the identification of these substances in actual samples. Herein, a novel one-pot isothermal assay that integrates rolling-circle amplification (RCA) and CRISPR/Cas12a to detect aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) is reported. Upon addition of AFB1 to the magnetic bead functionalized with a duplex of the AFB1 aptamer and its complementary DNA (cDNA), the specific recognition of AFB1 by the aptamer causes the release of cDNA to activate the RCA reaction. Subsequently, the RCA amplicon initiates both trans-cleavage and cis-cleavage activities of the endonuclease Cas12a. The synergistic coupling of RCA and CRISPR/Cas12a enables exponential amplification of cDNA, which further promotes CRISPR/Cas12a to nonspecifically cleave the single-stranded DNA reporters with enhanced detection signals. Remarkably, the CRISPR/Cas12a-assisted one-pot isothermal assay can not only achieve ultrasensitive quantitative detection through fluorescence detection, but also achieve visual detection through a lateral flow strip, which improves accessibility to mycotoxin detection in resource-limited regions. The limit of detection was 0.016 and 0.408 ng/mL, respectively. The proposed assay successfully applies in real samples with satisfactory recoveries from 90 to 114%. This study presents a powerful and versatile method for reliable and ultrasensitive detection of mycotoxins in various applications.

Occurrence and Fate Analysis of Mycotoxins in Maize During the Post-Harvest Period

The consumption of agricultural products contaminated with mycotoxins poses a significant threat to the health of both humans and animals. Maize frequently becomes contaminated with toxic fungi while it is still growing in the field. Therefore, more proactive measures should be implemented to reduce mycotoxin levels during the storage and processing of maize after harvest. This article analyzes the prevalent mycotoxins found in maize, specifically aflatoxins, ochratoxins, trichothecenes, fumonisins, and zearalenone. The study provides a comprehensive analysis of the occurrence of mycotoxins in maize during storage, as well as fate analysis of them during processing. It summarizes the impacts of storage time, environmental conditions, storage methods, and agricultural practices on mycotoxin occurrence during storage in the post-harvest period. Furthermore, the different distribution of mycotoxins across various fractions during both dry- and wet-milling processes in the post-harvest processing period is analyzed. Additionally, the strategies to control mycotoxins in maize are also proposed during the post-harvest period. This review offers valuable insights for future research on mycotoxin contamination in maize during the post-harvest period.

The interplay of dietary mycotoxins and oncogenic viruses toward human carcinogenesis: a scoping review

BACKGROUND

Mycotoxins, fungal metabolites prevalent in many foods, are recognized for their role in carcinogenesis, especially when interacting with oncogenic viruses.

OBJECTIVES

This scoping review synthesizes current evidence on the human cancer risk associated with mycotoxin exposure and oncogenic virus infections.

METHODS

Searches were conducted on PubMed, Embase, and Web of Science. Studies were selected based on the PECOS framework. Data extraction involved narrative and qualitative presentation of findings, with meta-analysis where feasible. Risk of bias and outcome quality were assessed using the OHAT tool and GRADE approach.

RESULTS

From 25 included studies, 18 focused on aflatoxins and hepatitis viruses in hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). Four studies examined aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) and human papilloma virus (HPV) in cervical cancer, while three investigated AFB1 with Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) in lymphomagenesis. The review highlights a significant synergistic effect between AFB1 and hepatitis B and C viruses in HCC development. Significant interactions between AFB1 and HPV, as well as AFB1 and EBV, were observed, but further research is needed.

CONCLUSIONS

The synergistic impact of mycotoxins and oncogenic viruses is a critical public health concern. Future research, especially prospective cohort studies and investigations into molecular mechanisms, is essential to address this complex issue.

Endoplasmic reticulum stress promotes oxidative stress, inflammation, and apoptosis: A novel mechanism of citrinin-induced renal injury and dysfunction

Citrinin (CTN) has been reported to induce renal failure and structural damage, but its nephrotoxic effects and mechanisms are not fully understood. Therefore, we established a model by orally administering CTN (0, 1.25, 5, or 20 mg/kg) to mice for 21 consecutive days. Histological and biochemical analyses revealed that CTN caused structural damage to renal tubules, increased inflammatory cell infiltration, and elevated levels of serum markers of renal function (creatinine, urea, and uric acid). Moreover, mRNA transcript levels of the inflammatory factors TNF-α, IL-1β, and IL-6 were increased, indicating the occurrence of an inflammatory response. Furthermore, exposure to CTN induced renal oxidative stress by decreasing antioxidant GSH levels, antioxidant enzyme (SOD, CAT) activities, and increasing oxidative products (ROS, MDA). In addition, CTN increased the expression of proteins associated with endoplasmic reticulum (ER)stress and apoptotic pathways. ER stress has been shown to be involved in regulating various models of kidney disease, but its role in CTN-induced renal injury has not been reported. We found that pretreatment with the ER stress inhibitor 4-PBA (240 mg/kg, ip) alleviated CTN-induced oxidative stress, NF-κB pathway mediated inflammatory response, and apoptosis. Interestingly, 4-PBA also partially alleviated renal structural damage and dysfunction. Thus, ER stress may be a novel target for the prevention and treatment of CTN-induced renal injury.

[Medical clinical diagnostics for indoor mould exposure - Update 2023 (AWMF Register No. 161/001)]

This article is an abridged version of the updated AWMF mould guideline "Medical clinical diagnostics in case of indoor mould exposure - Update 2023", presented in July 2023 by the German Society of Hygiene, Environmental Medicine and Preventive Medicine (Gesellschaft für Hygiene, Umweltmedizin und Präventivmedizin, GHUP), in collaboration with German and Austrian scientific medical societies, and experts. Indoor mould growth is a potential health risk, even if a quantitative and/or causal relationship between the occurrence of individual mould species and health problems has yet to be established. There is no evidence for a causal relationship between moisture/mould damage and human diseases, mainly because of the ubiquitous presence of fungi and hitherto inadequate diagnostic methods. Sufficient evidence for an association between moisture/mould damage and the following health effects has been established for: allergic respiratory diseases, allergic rhinitis, allergic rhino-conjunctivitis, allergic bronchopulmonary aspergillosis (ABPA), other allergic bronchopulmonary mycosis (ABPM), aspergilloma, Aspergillus bronchitis, asthma (manifestation, progression, exacerbation), bronchitis (acute, chronic), community-acquired Aspergillus pneumonia, hypersensitivity pneumonitis (HP; extrinsic allergic alveolitis (EEA)), invasive Aspergillosis, mycoses, organic dust toxic syndrome (ODTS) [workplace exposure], promotion of respiratory infections, pulmonary aspergillosis (subacute, chronic), and rhinosinusitis (acute, chronically invasive, or granulomatous, allergic). In this context the sensitizing potential of moulds is obviously low compared to other environmental allergens. Recent studies show a comparatively low sensitization prevalence of 3-22,5 % in the general population across Europe. Limited or suspected evidence for an association exist with respect to atopic eczema (atopic dermatitis, neurodermatitis; manifestation), chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), mood disorders, mucous membrane irritation (MMI), odor effects, and sarcoidosis. (iv) Inadequate or insufficient evidence for an association exist for acute idiopathic pulmonary hemorrhage in infants, airborne transmitted mycotoxicosis, arthritis, autoimmune diseases, cancer, chronic fatigue syndrome (CFS), endocrinopathies, gastrointestinal effects, multiple chemical sensitivity (MCS), multiple sclerosis, neuropsychological effects, neurotoxic effects, renal effects, reproductive disorders, rheumatism, sick building syndrome (SBS), sudden infant death syndrome, teratogenicity, thyroid diseases, and urticaria.The risk of infection posed by moulds regularly occurring indoors is low for healthy persons; most species are in risk group 1 and a few in risk group 2 (Aspergillus fumigatus, A. flavus) of the German Biological Agents Act (Biostoffverordnung). Only moulds that are potentially able to form toxins can be triggers of toxic reactions. Whether or not toxin formation occurs in individual cases is determined by environmental and growth conditions, water activity, temperature and above all the growth substrates.In case of indoor moisture/mould damage, everyone can be affected by odor effects and/or mood disorders.However, this is not an acute health hazard. Predisposing factors for odor effects can include genetic and hormonal influences, imprinting, context and adaptation effects. Predisposing factors for mood disorders may include environmental concerns, anxiety, condition, and attribution, as well as various diseases. Risk groups to be protected particularly regarding infection risk are immunocompromised persons according to the classification of the German Commission for Hospital Hygiene and Infection Prevention (Kommission für Krankenhaushygiene und Infektionsprävention, KRINKO) at the Robert Koch-Institute (RKI), persons suffering from severe influenza, persons suffering from severe COVID-19, and persons with cystic fibrosis (mucoviscidosis); with regard to allergic risk, persons with cystic fibrosis (mucoviscidosis) and patients with bronchial asthma must be protected. The rational diagnostics include the medical history, physical examination, and conventional allergy diagnostics including provocation tests if necessary; sometimes cellular test systems are indicated. In the case of mould infections, the reader is referred to the specific guidelines. Regarding mycotoxins, there are currently no useful and validated test procedures for clinical diagnostics. From a preventive medical point of view, it is important that indoor mould infestation in relevant magnitudes cannot be tolerated for precautionary reasons.For evaluation of mould damage in the indoor environment and appropriate remedial procedures, the reader is referred to the mould guideline issued by the German Federal Environment Agency (Umweltbundesamt, UBA).

Tenuazonic acid-induced mycotoxicosis in an immunosuppressed mouse model and its prophylaxis with cinnamaldehyde

Patients with impaired immune systems are particularly vulnerable to infections. With the increasing number of immunocompromised patients, it becomes necessary to design studies that evaluate the effects of toxic contaminants that are a part of our daily lives. Simultaneously, the management of these toxic components also becomes essential. Therefore, the present study evaluated the possible protective role of cinnamaldehyde (Cin) against tenuazonic acid-induced mycotoxicosis in the immunosuppressed murine model. Tenuazonic acid (TeA), a toxin usually produced by Alternaria species, is a common contaminant in tomato and tomato-based products. Evaluating the potential toxicity of a hazardous chemical necessitates the use of in vitro, in vivo, and in silico methods. Here, the immunomodulatory effect of TeA was assessed in vitro using mouse splenocytes. In silico docking was carried out for the tumour markers of eight organs and TeA. The haematological, histopathological, and biochemical aspects were analysed in vivo. The sub-chronic intoxication of mice with TeA showed elevated malondialdehyde, reduced catalase, and superoxide dismutase production, along with abnormal levels of aspartate aminotransferase and alanine transaminase. The treatment with Cin prevented TeA-induced alterations of antioxidant defense enzyme activities and significantly forbade TeA-induced organ damage, showing therapeutic effects and toxicity reduction in TeA-induced mycotoxicosis.

A Multi-Year Study of Mycotoxin Co-Occurrence in Wheat and Corn Grown in Ontario, Canada

Mycotoxin emergence and co-occurrence trends in Canadian grains are dynamic and evolving in response to changing weather patterns within each growing season. The mycotoxins deoxynivalenol and zearalenone are the dominant mycotoxins detected in grains grown in Eastern Canada. Two potential emerging mycotoxins of concern are sterigmatocystin, produced by Aspergillus versicolor, and diacetoxyscirpenol, a type A trichothecene produced by a number of Fusarium species. In response to a call from the 83rd Joint Expert Committee on Food Additives and Contaminants, we conducted a comprehensive survey of samples from cereal production areas in Ontario, Canada. Some 159 wheat and 160 corn samples were collected from farms over a three-year period. Samples were extracted and analyzed by LC-MS/MS for 33 mycotoxins and secondary metabolites. Ergosterol was analyzed as an estimate of the overall fungal biomass in the samples. In wheat, the ratio of DON to its glucoside, deoxynivalenol-3-glucoside (DON-3G), exhibited high variability, likely attributable to differences among cultivars. In corn, the ratio was more consistent across the samples. Sterigmatocystin was detected in some wheat that had higher concentrations of ergosterol. Diacetoxyscirpenol was not detected in either corn or wheat over the three years, demonstrating a low risk to Ontario grain. Overall, there was some change to the mycotoxin profiles over the three years for wheat and corn. Ongoing surveys are required to reassess trends and ensure the safety of the food value chain, especially for emerging mycotoxins.

Involvement of LaeA and Velvet Proteins in Regulating the Production of Mycotoxins and Other Fungal Secondary Metabolites

Fungi are rich sources of secondary metabolites of agrochemical, pharmaceutical, and food importance, such as mycotoxins, antibiotics, and antitumor agents. Secondary metabolites play vital roles in fungal pathogenesis, growth and development, oxidative status modulation, and adaptation/resistance to various environmental stresses. LaeA contains an S-adenosylmethionine binding site and displays methyltransferase activity. The members of velvet proteins include VeA, VelB, VelC, VelD and VosA for each member with a velvet domain. LaeA and velvet proteins can form multimeric complexes such as VosA-VelB and VelB-VeA-LaeA. They belong to global regulators and are mainly impacted by light. One of their most important functions is to regulate gene expressions that are responsible for secondary metabolite biosynthesis. The aim of this mini-review is to represent the newest cognition of the biosynthetic regulation of mycotoxins and other fungal secondary metabolites by LaeA and velvet proteins. In most cases, LaeA and velvet proteins positively regulate production of fungal secondary metabolites. The regulated fungal species mainly belong to the toxigenic fungi from the genera of Alternaria, Aspergillus, Botrytis, Fusarium, Magnaporthe, Monascus, and Penicillium for the production of mycotoxins. We can control secondary metabolite production to inhibit the production of harmful mycotoxins while promoting the production of useful metabolites by global regulation of LaeA and velvet proteins in fungi. Furthermore, the regulation by LaeA and velvet proteins should be a practical strategy in activating silent biosynthetic gene clusters (BGCs) in fungi to obtain previously undiscovered metabolites.

A Portable Automated Microfluidic Platform for Point-of-Care Testing for Multiple Mycotoxins in Wine

Food safety requires point-of-care testing (POCT) for mycotoxins, since their presence in wine significantly impacts the wine industry and poses a severe threat to human life. Traditional detection methods are usually limited to detecting one mycotoxin and cannot achieve high-throughput, automated, and rapid quantitative analysis of multiple mycotoxins in real samples. Here, we propose a portable automated microfluidic platform (PAMP) integrating a chemiluminescence (CL) imaging system and a microfluidic chip to realize POCT for multiple mycotoxins in real samples, simplifying complex manual operations, shortening the detection time, and improving the detection sensitivity. Specially, silicone films were used as substrates on microfluidic chips to incubate mycotoxin conjugations, and the streptavidin-biotin (SA-B) system and an indirect immunoassay were implemented on silicone films to improve the sensitivity of reaction results. Interestingly, these methods significantly improved detection results, resulting in sensitive detection of mycotoxins, including zearalenone (ZEA) ranging from 1 to 32 ng/mL, aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) ranging from 0.2 to 6.4 ng/mL, and ochratoxin A (OTA) ranging from 2 to 64 ng/mL. The recovery of samples reached 91.39-109.14%, which verified the reliability and practicability of the PAMP. This PAMP enables sensitive and rapid detection of multiple mycotoxins in markets or wineries that lack advanced laboratory facilities. Therefore, it is essential to develop a portable microfluidic platform for POCT to detect mycotoxins in real samples.

Recent advances in nanomaterial-based optical biosensors for food safety applications: Ochratoxin-A detection, as case study

Global population growth tremendously impacts the global food industry, endangering food safety and quality. Mycotoxins, particularly Ochratoxin-A (OTA), emerge as a food chain production threat, since it is produced by fungus that contaminates different food species and products. Beyond this, OTA exhibits a possible human toxicological risk that can lead to carcinogenic and neurological diseases. A selective, sensitive, and reliable OTA biodetection approach is essential to ensure food safety. Current detection approaches rely on accurate and time-consuming laboratory techniques performed at the end of the food production process, or lateral-flow technologies that are rapid and on-site, but do not provide quantitative and precise OTA concentration measurements. Nanoengineered optical biosensors arise as an avant-garde solution, providing high sensing performance, and a fast and accurate OTA biodetection screening, which is attractive for the industrial market. This review core presents and discusses the recent advancements in optical OTA biosensing, considering engineered nanomaterials, optical transduction principle and biorecognition methodologies. Finally, the major challenges and future trends are discussed, and current patented OTA optical biosensors are emphasized for a particular promising detection method.

Our extended microbiome: The human-relevant metabolites and biology of fermented foods

One of the key modes of microbial metabolism occurring in the gut microbiome is fermentation. This energy-yielding process transforms common macromolecules like polysaccharides and amino acids into a wide variety of chemicals, many of which are relevant to microbe-microbe and microbe-host interactions. Analogous transformations occur during the production of fermented foods, resulting in an abundance of bioactive metabolites. In foods, the products of fermentation can influence food safety and preservation, nutrient availability, and palatability and, once consumed, may impact immune and metabolic status, disease expression, and severity. Human signaling pathways perceive and respond to many of the currently known fermented food metabolites, though expansive chemical novelty remains to be defined. Here we discuss several aspects of fermented food-associated microbes and metabolites, including a condensed history, current understanding of their interactions with hosts and host-resident microbes, connections with commercial probiotics, and opportunities for future research on human health and disease and food sustainability.

Removal of ochratoxin A in wine by Cryptococcus albidus and safety assessment of degradation products

BACKGROUND

Ochratoxin A (OTA) is a mycotoxin that contaminates grape-based products and is extremely harmful to the health of the host. It is effectively removed by yeast during the fermentation of wine, whereas the removal mechanism of OTA remains unclear. Therefore, the present study aimed to investigate the removal mechanism of ochratoxin A by yeast and to evaluate the safety of its degradation products.

RESULTS

Cryptococcus albidus (20-G) with better effect on ochratoxin A (OTA) was screened out in the main fermentation stage of wine. The results showed that 20-G removed OTA through biosorption and biodegradation. Intracellular enzymes played the main role (18.44%) and yeast cell walls adsorbed a small amount of OTA (8.44%). Furthermore, the identification of proteins in 20-G revealed that the decrease in OTA content was mainly a result of the action of peroxidase, and validation tests were carried out. By analyzing the degradation products of OTA, OTα and phenylalanine with lower toxicity were obtained. Animal experiments showed that the intervention of yeast 20-G reduced the damage and adverse effects caused by OTA toxicity to the mice.

CONCLUSION

The present study demonstrates the mechanism of OTA removal by 20-G and the toxicity of OTA was reduced by peroxidase in 20-G. © 2023 Society of Chemical Industry.

Mycotoxin contamination in the Arab world: Highlighting the main knowledge gaps and the current legislation

Since the discovery of aflatoxins in the 1960s, knowledge in the mycotoxin research field has increased dramatically. Hundreds of review articles have been published summarizing many different aspects, including mycotoxin contamination per country or region. However, mycotoxin contamination in the Arab world, which includes 22 countries in Africa and Asia, has not yet been specifically reviewed. To this end, the contamination of mycotoxins in the Arab world was reviewed not only to profile the pervasiveness of the problem in this region but also to identify the main knowledge gaps imperiling the safety of food and feed in the future. To the best of our knowledge, 306 (non-)indexed publications in English, Arabic, or French were published from 1977 to 2021, focusing on the natural occurrence of mycotoxins in matrices of 14 different categories. Characteristic factors (e.g., detected mycotoxins, concentrations, and detection methods) were extracted, processed, and visualized. The main results are summarized as follows: (i) research on mycotoxin contamination has increased over the years. However, the accumulated data on their occurrences are scarce to non-existent in some countries; (ii) the state-of-the-art technologies on mycotoxin detection are not broadly implemented neither are contemporary multi-mycotoxin detection strategies, thus showing a need for capacity-building initiatives; and (iii) mycotoxin profiles differ among food and feed categories, as well as between human biofluids. Furthermore, the present work highlights contemporary legislation in the Arab countries and provides future perspectives to mitigate mycotoxins, enhance food and feed safety, and protect the consumer public. Concluding, research initiatives to boost mycotoxin research among Arab countries are strongly recommended.

Dietary mycotoxin exposure and human health risks: A protocol for a systematic review

BACKGROUND

Mycotoxins are toxic fungal secondary metabolites that contaminate a wide spectrum of essential foods worldwide, such as grain-based products, nuts and spices, causing adverse health effects pertaining to their carcinogenic, nephrotoxic and hepatotoxic nature, among others.

AIM

The aim of this systematic review (SR) is to systematically search for, appraise and synthesize primary research evidence to identify what is known about dietary mycotoxin-related health effects and what remains unknown, as well as the uncertainty around findings and the recommendations for the future.

SEARCH STRATEGY AND ELIGIBILITY CRITERIA

Search strategies, as well as eligibility criteria were structured according to a predefined PECO (population, exposure, comparison, and outcome) research question and developed in an iterative scoping process. Several bibliographic databases, including Embase, Cochrane Library, Pubmed, Web of Science Core Collection and Scopus, will be searched. Primary research on any measured or modelled dietary exposure to a single or multiple mycotoxins, and adverse human health outcomes (i.e. cancer, non-carcinogenic diseases, and reproductive & developmental adverse outcomes) will be included, and references will be imported into Covidence. In vitro, ex vivo, in silico, animal and review studies, as well as expert's opinions, secondary literature, conference abstracts, presentations, posters, book chapters, dissertations and studies involving non-dietary mycotoxin exposure, will be excluded.

STUDY SELECTION

Two independent reviewers will screen titles and abstracts, and review full-texts. Any disagreements will be resolved by a third reviewer based on two-third majority.

DATA EXTRACTION

Data from retained eligible studies will be extracted by the principal reviewer, and peer-checked by a second reviewer.

STUDY QUALITY ASSESSMENT

Eligible studies will be evaluated for risk of bias (Overall High-Quality Assessment Tool, OHAT) and certainty of evidence (Grading of Recommendations Assessment, Development and Evaluation, GRADE).

EVIDENCE SYNTHESIS

A detailed summary of the included studies will be provided within a tabular format and narratively discussed. Heat maps will be constructed to provide information on available knowledge (gaps), and a meta-analysis may be performed based on the variability in predefined PECO elements and depending on the heterogeneity of studies.

CONCLUSION

This protocol describes the methodology for the conduct of a SR on mycotoxin-related human health risks, that could guide future research and inform regulatory decisions, as emphasized by the European Commission within the field of regulatory risk assessment for emerging chemicals.

Ochratoxin A case study: Establish metrological traceability of mycotoxin measurements using certified reference materials

For the US Food and Drug Administration's (FDA) mycotoxin program, the desired application of certified reference materials (CRMs) is primarily for validating methods for the determination of mycotoxins in foods and establishing metrological traceability of measurement results generated by such validated methods. The latter has been an important but insufficiently addressed challenge due to the lack of appropriate protocols and CRMs. Taking advantage of two recently available mycotoxin CRMs, OTAN-1 and Standard Reference Material (SRM) 1565, a protocol was developed for systematically examining uncertainty and establishing metrological traceability of measurement results of ochratoxin A (OTA) in corn through a series of calibration operations using the two CRMs. Instrument and method calibrations were performed using OTAN-1 and SRM 1565. The OTA value and its standard and expanded (k = 2, approximately 95% confidence) uncertainties were estimated from the calibration data and documented. These results demonstrate that the major contributing source of uncertainty is the sample matrix, highlighting the important role of the certified matrix reference material in method calibration. The value of OTA (38.5 ± 7.2 µg/g; 95% confidence interval) in the incurred sample was metrologically traceable to the International System of Units through two CRMs using the multi-laboratory validated liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry FDA compendial method. In addition, an alternative estimation of uncertainty was conducted using a one-point calibration, resulting in comparable uncertainty.

Interconnectable 3D-printed sample processing modules for portable mycotoxin screening of intact wheat

BACKGROUND

The increasing demand for food and feed products is stretching the capacity of the food value chain to its limits. A key step for ensuring food safety is checking for mycotoxin contamination of wheat. However, this analysis is typically performed by rather complex and expensive chromatographic methods, such as liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). These costly methods require extensive sample preparation that is not easily carried out at different points along the food supply chain. To overcome such challenges in sample processing, an inexpensive and portable sample preparation device was needed, that required low skill, for rapid sample-to-result mycotoxin screening.

RESULTS

We describe 3D-printed and interconnectable modules for simple, integrated and on-site sample preparation, including grinding of wheat kernels, and solvent-based extraction. We characterized these 3D-printed modules for mycotoxin screening and benchmarked them against a laboratory mill using commercial lateral flow device(s) (LFD) and in-house validated LC-MS/MS analysis. Different integrated sieve configurations were compared based on grinding efficiency, and we selected a sieve size of 2 mm allowing grinding of 10 g of wheat within 5 min. Moreover, 10 first time-users were able to operate the grinder module with minimal instructions. Screening for deoxynivalenol (DON) in naturally contaminated samples at the regulatory/legal limit (1.25 mg kg-1) was demonstrated using the developed 3D-printed prototype. The whole process only takes 15 min, from sample preparation to screening result. The results showed a clear correlation (R2 = 0.96) between the LFD and LC-MS/MS.

SIGNIFICANCE

Our findings demonstrate the potential of 3D-printed sample handling equipment as a valuable extension of existing analytical procedures, facilitating the on-site implementation of rapid methods for the determination of mycotoxins in grains. The presented prototype is inexpensive with material costs of 2.5€, relies on biodegradable 3D printing filament and can be produced with consumer-grade printers, making the prototype readily available. As a future perspective, the modular character of our developed tool kit will allow for adaptation to other hard food commodities beyond the determination of DON in wheat.

Discovery of novel salicylaldehyde derivatives incorporating an α-methylene-γ-butyrolactone moiety as fungicidal agents

BACKGROUND

Plant diseases caused by phytopathogenic fungi and oomycetes pose a serious threat to ensuring crop yield and quality. Finding novel fungicidal candidates based on natural products is one of the critical methods for developing effective and environmentally friendly pesticides. In this study, a series of salicylaldehyde derivatives containing an α-methylene-γ-butyrolactone moiety were designed, synthesized, and their fungicidal activities were evaluated.

RESULTS

The bioassay studies indicated that compound C3 displayed an excellent in vitro activity against Rhizoctonia solani with a half-maximal effective concentration (EC50 ) value of 0.65 μg/mL, higher than that of pyraclostrobin (EC50  = 1.44 μg/mL) and comparable to that of carbendazim (EC50  = 0.33 μg/mL). For Valsa mali and Phytophthora capsici, compound C3 also showed good fungicidal activities with EC50 values of 0.91 and 1.33 μg/mL, respectively. In addition, compound C3 exhibited promising protective in vivo activity against R. solani (84.1%) at 100 μg/mL, which was better than that of pyraclostrobin (78.4%). The pot experiment displayed that compound C3 had 74.8% protective efficacy against R. solani at 200 μg/mL, which was comparable to that of validamycin (78.2%). The antifungal mode of action research indicated that compound C3 could change the mycelial morphology and ultrastructure, increase cell membrane permeability, affect respiratory metabolism by binding to complex III, and inhibit the germination and formation of sclerotia, thereby effectively controlling the disease.

CONCLUSION

The present study provides support for the application of these salicylaldehyde derivatives as promising potential pesticides with remarkable and broad-spectrum fungicidal activities against phytopathogenic fungi and oomycetes in crop protection. © 2023 Society of Chemical Industry.

Fungal and Toxin Contaminants in Cereal Grains and Flours: Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

Cereal grains serve as the cornerstone of global nutrition, providing a significant portion of humanity's caloric requirements. However, the presence of fungal genera, such Fusarium, Penicillium, Aspergillus, and Alternaria, known for their mycotoxin-producing abilities, presents a significant threat to human health due to the adverse effects of these toxins. The primary objective of this study was to identify the predominant fungal contaminants in cereal grains utilized in breadmaking, as well as in flour and bread. Moreover, a systematic review, including meta-analysis, was conducted on the occurrence and levels of mycotoxins in wheat flour from the years 2013 to 2023. The genera most frequently reported were Fusarium, followed by Penicillium, Aspergillus, and Alternaria. Among the published reports, the majority focused on the analysis of Deoxynivalenol (DON), which garnered twice as many reports compared to those focusing on Aflatoxins, Zearalenone, and Ochratoxin A. The concentration of these toxins, in most cases determined by HPLC-MS/MS or HPLC coupled with a fluorescence detector (FLD), was occasionally observed to exceed the maximum limits established by national and/or international authorities. The prevalence of mycotoxins in flour samples from the European Union (EU) and China, as well as in foods intended for infants, exhibited a significant reduction compared to other commercial flours assessed by a meta-analysis investigation.

The epigenetic regulator Set9 harmonizes fungal development, secondary metabolism, and colonization capacity of Aspergillus flavus

As a widely distributed food-borne pathogenic fungus, Aspergillus flavus and its secondary metabolites, mainly aflatoxin B1 (AFB1), pose a great danger to humans. It is urgent to reveal the complex regulatory network of toxigenic and virulence of this fungus. The bio-function of Set9, a SET-domain-containing histone methyltransferase, is still unknown in A. flavus. By genetic engineering means, this study revealed that, through catalyzing H4K20me2 and -me3, Set9 is involved in fungal growth, reproduction, and mycotoxin production via the orthodox regulation pathway, and regulates fungal colonization on crop kernels through adjusting fungal sensitivity reactions to oxidation stress and cell wall integrity stress. Further domain deletion and point mutation inferred that the SET domain is the core element in catalyzing H4K20 methylation, and D200 site of the domain is the key amino acid in the active center of the methyltransferase. Combined with RNA-seq analysis, this study revealed that Set9 regulates the aflatoxin gene cluster by the AflR-like protein (ALP), other than traditional AflR. This study revealed the epigenetic regulation mechanism of fungal morphogenesis, secondary metabolism, and pathogenicity of A. flavus mediated by the H4K20-methyltransferase Set9, which might provide a potential new target for early prevention of contamination of A. flavus and its deadly mycotoxins.

Rapid and sensitive point-of-need aflatoxin B1 testing in feedstuffs using a smartphone-powered mobile microfluidic lab-on-fiber device

Rapid, high-frequency, and accurate identification of aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) is crucial for ensuring food safety and reducing population mortality. Herein, we constructed Smartphone powered Mobile mIcrofluidic Lab-on-fiber dEvice (SMILE) comprising a compact optical system, fiber nano-bioprobe-embedded microfluidic-chip system, mini-photodetector, and software application to facilitate the rapid and sensitive point-of-need quantitative testing for AFB1. The elegant optical design of SMILE significantly improves light transmission efficiency, detection sensitivity, and portability by integrating a compacted all-fiber optical structure with a fiber nano-bioprobe-embedded microfluidic chip. Furthermore, the nanopore layer of the fiber nano-bioprobe improves detection sensitivity by increasing the biorecognition molecule number and enhancing the interaction between the evanescent field and dye. Through an indirect competitive immunoassay mechanism, SMILE achieves sensitive quantitative detection of AFB1 with a detection limit of 0.08 µg/L. Herein, SMILE was validated using several feedstuff samples tested with a simple aqueous extraction protocol, demonstrating good correlation with high-performance liquid chromatography for AFB1-contaminated feedstuffs. The immunoassay process is completed within 12 min, boasting high sensitivity, specificity, reusability, and reproducibility. Owing to its sensitivity, portability, flexibility, plug-and-play, and smartphone integration, SMILE is highly scalable for rapid and high-frequency point-of-need testing for AFB1 and other trace contaminants.

Diverse mycotoxin threats to safe food and feed cereals

Toxigenic fungi, including Aspergillus and Fusarium species, contaminate our major cereal crops with an array of harmful mycotoxins, which threaten the health of humans and farmed animals. Despite our best efforts to prevent crop diseases, or postharvest spoilage, our cereals are consistently contaminated with aflatoxins and deoxynivalenol, and while established monitoring systems effectively prevent acute exposure, Aspergillus and Fusarium mycotoxins still threaten our food security. This is through the understudied impacts of: (i) our chronic exposure to these mycotoxins, (ii) the underestimated dietary intake of masked mycotoxins, and (iii) the synergistic threat of cocontaminations by multiple mycotoxins. Mycotoxins also have profound economic consequences for cereal and farmed-animal producers, plus their associated food and feed industries, which results in higher food prices for consumers. Climate change and altering agronomic practices are predicted to exacerbate the extent and intensity of mycotoxin contaminations of cereals. Collectively, this review of the diverse threats from Aspergillus and Fusarium mycotoxins highlights the need for renewed and concerted efforts to understand, and mitigate, the increased risks they pose to our food and feed cereals.

Effects of supplemented multicomponent mycotoxin detoxifying agent in laying hens fed aflatoxin B1 and T2-toxin contaminated feeds

The present study was conducted to determine the ability of multicomponent mycotoxin detoxifying agent (MMDA) in feed to prevent the gastrointestinal absorption of aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) and T2-toxin supplemented via spiked maize. For comparisons, hens were fed with uncontaminated basal diet without or with addition of MMDA at 2 g/kg feed. The trial consisted of 105 laying hens (Lohmann Brown) without obvious signs of disease allocated to 7 treatment groups in 35 pens. Responses were demonstrated on laying performance and health status throughout the 42 d experimental period. The results of laying performance indicated significantly decreased egg mass with increasing mycotoxin (AFB1 and T2-toxin) levels up to the maximum tolerated dosage, however simultaneous presence of MMDA laying performance was slightly modified linearly to increasing application. Dose-dependent pathological changes in liver and kidneys and their relative weights, changes in blood parameters and reduced eggshell weights were observed in the hens fed AFB1 and T2-toxin. The pathological changes in the hens fed with diets containing AFB1 and T2-toxin without MMDA were significantly higher as compared with the control group, but eggshell stability was not affected. The contents of AFB1, T2-toxin and their metabolites in liver and kidney tissues were significantly decreased in the hens supplemented with MMDA at 2 and 3 g/kg in feed. MMDA supplementation significantly reduced the deposition of AFB1, T2-toxin and their metabolites in liver and kidneys at the maximum tolerated dosage (2 and 3 g/kg) indicating specific binding to AFB1 and T2-toxin in the digestive tract as compared to the corresponding diets without MMDA. Exposure of AFB1 and T2-toxin indicated significantly decreased egg mass with increasing mycotoxin levels up to the maximum tolerated dosage because of the significantly reduced egg production. Therefore, in this study, MMDA could reduce negative effects of feeding AFB1 and T-2 to laying hens.

Mycotoxins and consumers' awareness: Recent progress and future challenges

While food shortages have become an important challenge, providing safe food resources is a point of interest on a global scale. Mycotoxins are secondary metabolites that are formed through various fungi species. They are mainly spread through diets such as food or beverages. About one quarter of the world's food is spoiled with mycotoxins. As this problem is not resolved, it represents a significant threat to global food security. Besides the current concerns regarding the contamination of food items by these metabolites, the lack of knowledge by consumers and their possible growth and toxin production attracted considerable attention. While globalization provides a favorite condition for some countries, food security still is challenging for most countries. There are various approaches to reducing the mycotoxigenic fungi growth and formation of mycotoxins in food, include as physical, chemical, and biological processes. The current article will focus on collecting data regarding consumers' awareness of mycotoxins. Furthermore, a critical overview and comparison among different preventative approaches to reduce risk by consumers will be discussed. Finally, the current effect of mycotoxins on global trade, besides future challenges faced by mycotoxin contamination on food security, will be discussed briefly.

The potential of lactic acid bacteria isolated from ikan budu (fermented fish) to inhibit the growth of pathogenic fungi and detoxify aflatoxin B1

Background and Aim

Market demand for safe feed and food supply and consumer preferences for safe and healthy products are increasing. Control measures to counter threats to the feed supply need to be implemented as early as possible to prevent economic losses. Mycotoxins produced by certain groups of fungi are a problem that can disrupt the feed supply or pose a threat to the health of animals and humans. Biological control to detoxify contaminated feed ingredients can be carried out on a large scale economically. For example, lactic acid bacteria (LAB) can act as biological agents for eliminating mycotoxins. This study aimed to clarify the value of screening LAB to inhibit Aspergillus flavus growth and detoxify aflatoxin B1 (AFB1).

Materials and Methods

In this study, using a completely randomized design with three replications, five isolates of LAB (LA.1, LA.6, LA.8, LA.12, and LA.22) along with their supernatants were tested qualitatively and quantitatively for their ability to counter mycotoxins using A. flavus and corn kernels. The isolates with the best activity were identified by sequencing 16S rDNA.

Results

The results showed that the five LAB isolates can inhibit the growth of A. flavus and detoxify AFB1. Among these isolates, LA.12 showed the best performance, followed by LA.22, LA.8, LA.6, and then LA.1. The sequencing results confirmed that LA.12 was Lactobacillus harbinensis strain 487.

Conclusion

All of the isolates in this study have the potential as biological agents for detoxifying AFB1, with isolate LA.12 appearing to be the most promising biodetoxification agent for feed (AFB1 in corn) based on its ability to inhibit pathogenic fungi.

Multiple Clonostachys rosea UDP-Glycosyltransferases Contribute to the Production of 15-Acetyl-Deoxynivalenol-3-O-Glycoside When Confronted with Fusarium graminearum

Mycotoxins, derived from toxigenic fungi such as Fusarium, Aspergillus, and Penicillium species have impacted the human food chain for thousands of years. Deoxynivalenol (DON), is a tetracyclic sesquiterpenoid type B trichothecene mycotoxin predominantly produced by F. culmorum and F. graminearum during the infection of corn, wheat, oats, barley, and rice. Glycosylation of DON is a protective detoxification mechanism employed by plants. More recently, DON glycosylating activity has also been detected in fungal microparasitic (biocontrol) fungal organisms. Here we follow up on the reported conversion of 15-acetyl-DON (15-ADON) into 15-ADON-3-O-glycoside (15-ADON-3G) in Clonostachys rosea. Based on the hypothesis that the reaction is likely being carried out by a uridine diphosphate glycosyl transferase (UDP-GTase), we applied a protein structural comparison strategy, leveraging the availability of the crystal structure of rice Os70 to identify a subset of potential C. rosea UDP-GTases that might have activity against 15-ADON. Using CRISPR/Cas9 technology, we knocked out several of the selected UDP-GTases in the C. rosea strain ACM941. Evaluation of the impact of knockouts on the production of 15-ADON-3G in confrontation assays with F. graminearum revealed multiple UDP-GTase enzymes, each contributing partial activities. The relationship between these positive hits and other UDP-GTases in fungal and plant species is discussed.

Recent Advances in Electrochemiluminescence Biosensors for Mycotoxin Assay

Rapid and efficient detection of mycotoxins is of great significance in the field of food safety. In this review, several traditional and commercial detection methods are introduced, such as high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC), liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry (LC/MS), enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), test strips, etc. Electrochemiluminescence (ECL) biosensors have the advantages of high sensitivity and specificity. The use of ECL biosensors for mycotoxins detection has attracted great attention. According to the recognition mechanisms, ECL biosensors are mainly divided into antibody-based, aptamer-based, and molecular imprinting techniques. In this review, we focus on the recent effects towards the designation of diverse ECL biosensors in mycotoxins assay, mainly including their amplification strategies and working mechanism.

Glycyrrhinic acid and probiotics alleviate deoxynivalenol-induced cytotoxicity in intestinal epithelial cells

Deoxynivalenol (DON) is one of the most prevalent mycotoxin contaminants, which posing a serious health threat to animals and humans. Previous studies have found that individually supplemented probiotic or glycyrrhinic acid (GA) could degrade DON and alleviate DON-induced cytotoxicity. The present study investigated the effect of combining GA with Saccharomyces cerevisiae (S. cerevisiae) and Enterococcus faecalis (E. faecalis) using orthogonal design on alleviating IPEC-J2 cell damage induced by DON. The results showed that the optimal counts of S. cerevisiae and E. faecalis significantly promoted cell viability. The optimal combination for increasing cell viability was 400 µg/mL GA, 1 × 10⁶ CFU/mL S. cerevisiae and 1 × 10⁶ CFU/mL E. faecalis to make GAP, which not only significantly alleviated the DON toxicity but also achieved the highest degradation rate of DON (34.7%). Moreover, DON exposure significantly increased IL-8, Caspase3 and NF-κB contents, and upregulated the mRNA expressions of Bax, Caspase 3, NF-κB and the protein expressions of Bax, TNF-α and COX-2. However, GAP addition significantly reduced aforementioned genes and proteins. Furthermore, GAP addition significantly increased the mRNA expressions of Claudin-1, Occludin, GLUT2 and ASCT2, and the protein expressions of ZO-1, Claudin-1 and PePT1. It was inferred that the combination of GA, S. cerevisiae, and E. faecalis had the synergistic effect on enhancing cell viability and DON degradation, which could protect cells from DON-induced damage by reducing DON cytotoxicity, alleviating cell apoptosis and inflammation via inhibiting NF-κB signaling pathway, improving intestinal barrier function, and regulating nutrient absorption and transport. These findings suggest that GAP may have potential as a dietary supplement for livestock or humans exposed to DON-contaminated food or feed.

Isolation of a potential probiotic strain Bacillus amyloliquefaciensLPB-18 and identification of antimicrobial compounds responsible for inhibition of food-borne pathogens

This study was carried out to screen a potential probiotic microbe with broad-spectrum antagonistic activity against food-borne pathogens and identify the antimicrobial compounds. Based on morphological and molecular analysis, a new Bacillus strain with the ability to produce effective antimicrobial agents was isolated from the breeding soil of earthworms and identified as having a close evolutionary footprint to Bacillus amyloliquefaciens. The antimicrobial substances produced by B. amyloliquefaciens show effective inhibition of Aspergillus flavus and Fusarium oxysporum in an agar diffusion assay. Antimicrobial agents were identified as a series of fengycin and its isoforms (fengycin A and fengycin B) after being submitted to RT-HPLC and MALDI-TOF MS analyses. To evaluate the probiotic activity of the B. amyloliquefaciens, antibiotic safety and viability of the isolated strain in a simulated gastrointestinal environment were carried out. The safety test result revealed that strain LPB-18 is susceptible to multiple common antibiotics. Moreover, acidic condition and bile salts assay were carried out, and the results revealed that it couble be a potential probiotic microbe B. amyloliquefaciens LPB-18 is good choice for biological strains in agricultural commodities and animal feedstuffs.

Quantification of Ergot Alkaloids via Lysergic Acid Hydrazide-Development and Comparison of a Sum Parameter Screening Method

Ergot alkaloids are a group of mycotoxins occurring in products derived from various grasses (e.g., rye) and have been regulated in the EU recently. The new maximum levels refer to the sum of the six most common ergot alkaloids in their two stereoisomeric forms in different food matrices. Typically, these twelve compounds are individually quantified via HPLC-MS/MS or -FLD and subsequently summed up to evaluate food safety in a time-consuming process. Since all these structures share the same ergoline backbone, we developed a novel sum parameter method (SPM) targeting all ergot alkaloids simultaneously via lysergic acid hydrazide. After extraction and clean-up, in analogy to the current European standard method EN 17425 (ESM) for ergot alkaloid quantitation, the samples were derivatized by an optimized hydrazinolysis protocol, which allowed quantitative conversion after 20 min at 100 °C. The new SPM was evaluated against another established HPLC-FLD-based method (LFGB) and the HPLC-MS/MS-based ESM using six naturally contaminated rye and wheat matrix reference materials. While the SPM provided comparable values to the ESM, LFGB showed deviating results. Determined recovery rates, limits of detection and quantification of all three employed methods confirm that the new SPM is a promising alternative to the classical approaches for ergot alkaloid screening in food.

Prioritization of mycotoxins based on mutagenicity and carcinogenicity evaluation using combined in silico QSAR methods

Mycotoxins and their metabolites are a family of compounds that contains a great diversity of both structure and biological properties. Information on their toxicity is spread within several databases and in scientific literature. Due to the number of molecules and their structure diversity, the cost and time required for hazard evaluation of each compound is unrealistic. In that purpose, new approach methodologies (NAMs) can be applied to evaluate such large set of molecules. Among them, quantitative structure-activity relationship (QSAR) in silico models could be useful to predict the mutagenic and carcinogenic properties of mycotoxins. First, a complete list of 904 mycotoxins and metabolites was built. Then, some known mycotoxins were used to determine the best QSAR tools for mutagenicity and carcinogenicity predictions. The best tool was further applied to the whole list of 904 mycotoxins. At the end, 95 mycotoxins were identified as both mutagen and carcinogen and should be prioritized for further evaluation.

Stilbenoids as Promising Natural Product-Based Solutions in a Race against Mycotoxigenic Fungi: A Comprehensive Review

Exposure to mycotoxins can pose a variety of adverse health effects to mammals. Despite dozens of mycotoxin decontamination strategies applied from pre- to postharvest stages, it is always challenging to guarantee a safe level of these natural toxic compounds in food and feedstuffs. In the context of the increased occurrence of drug-resistance strains of mycotoxin-producing fungi driven by the overuse of fungicides, the search for new natural-product-based solutions is a top priority. This review aims to shed a light on the promising potential of stilbenoids extracted from renewable agricultural wastes (e.g., grape canes and forestry byproducts) as antimycotoxin agents. Deeper insights into the mode of actions underlying the bioactivity of stilbenoid molecules against fungal pathogens, together with their roles in plant defense responses, are provided. Safety aspects of these natural compounds on humans and ecology are discussed. Perspectives on the development of stilbenoid-based formulations using encapsulation technology, which allows the bypassing of the limitations related to stilbenoids, particularly low aqueous solubility, are addressed. Optimistically, the knowledge gathered in the present review supports the use of currently underrated agricultural byproducts to produce stilbenoid-abundant extracts with a high efficiency in the mitigation of mycotoxins in food and feedstuffs.

Contamination and Health Risk Assessment of Multiple Mycotoxins in Edible and Medicinal Plants

Edible and medicinal plants (EMPs) are widely used but are easily infected by harmful fungi which produce mycotoxins. Herein, 127 samples from 11 provinces were collected to investigate 15 mycotoxins based on geographic, demographic, processing, and risk characteristics. A total of 13 mycotoxins were detected, and aflatoxin B1 (0.56~97.00 μg/kg), deoxynivalenol (9.41~1570.35 μg/kg), fumonisin B1 (8.25~1875.77 μg/kg), fumonisin B2 (2.74~543.01 μg/kg), ochratoxin A (0.62~19.30 μg/kg), and zearalenone (1.64~2376.58 μg/kg) occurred more frequently. Mycotoxin levels and species were significantly different by region, types of EMPs, and method of processing. The margin of exposure (MOE) values was well below the safe MOE (10,000). AFB1 exposure from Coix seed and malt consumption in China was of high health concern. The hazard Index (HI) method showed the range of 113.15~130.73% for malt, indicating a public health concern. In conclusion, EMPs should be concerned because of the cumulative effects of co-occurred mycotoxins, and safety management strategies should be developed in follow-up studies.

The natural occurrence, toxicity mechanisms and management strategies of Fumonisin B1：A review

Fumonisin B1 (FB1) contaminates various crops, causing huge losses to agriculture and livestock worldwide. This review summarizes the occurrence regularity, toxicity, toxic mechanisms and management strategies of FB1. Specifically, FB1 contamination is particularly serious in developing countries, humid and hot regions. FB1 exposure can produce different toxic effects on the nervous system, respiratory system, digestive system and reproductive system. Furthermore, FB1 can also cause systemic immunotoxicity. The mechanism of toxic effects of FB1 is to interfere with the normal pathway of sphingolipid de novo biosynthesis by acting as a competitive inhibitor of ceramide synthase. Meanwhile, the toxic products of sphingolipid metabolic disorders can cause oxidative stress and apoptosis. FB1 also often causes feed contamination by mixing with other mycotoxins, and then exerts combined toxicity. For detection, lateral flow dipstick technology and enzyme linked immunosorbent assay are widely used in the detection of FB1 in commercial feeds, while mainstream detection methods such as high performance liquid chromatography and liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry are widely used in the laboratory theoretical study of FB1. For purification means of FB1, some natural plant extracts (such as Zingiber officinale and Litsea Cubeba essential oil) and their active compounds have been proved to inhibit the toxic effects of FB1 and protect livestock due to their antifungal and antioxidant effects. Natural plant extract has the advantages of high efficiency, low cost and no contamination residue. This review can provide information for comprehensive understanding of FB1, and provide reference for formulating reasonable treatment and management strategies in livestock production.

Taraxasterol alleviates aflatoxin B1-induced liver damage in broiler chickens via regulation of oxidative stress, apoptosis and autophagy

Aflatoxin B₁ (AFB₁) is the most dangerous and abundant mycotoxin, which is toxic to almost all animals, and poultry is more sensitive to AFB₁ toxicity. Ingesting AFB₁-contaminated feed can cause significant liver damage and brings serious harm to poultry, which greatly restricts the development of the poultry industry. The present research was implemented to explore the intervention effect and its mechanism of taraxasterol on liver damage induced by AFB₁ in broiler chickens. The liver damage model in broiler chickens was established by feeding 0.5 mg/kg AFB₁ feed, and taraxasterol (25, 50 and 100 mg/kg BW, respectively) was given in the drinking water for 21 days. The growth performance, liver function, oxidative stress, apoptosis and autophagy were evaluated. The results showed that taraxasterol increased BW and reduced feed-to-gain ratio of broiler chickens induced by AFB₁. Taraxasterol improved the levels of serum alanine aminotransferase (ALT), aspartate aminotransferase (AST), γ-glutamyltransferase (GGT), total bilirubin (TBIL) and alkaline phosphatase (ALP), and attenuated hepatic histopathological changes induced by AFB₁. Meantime, taraxasterol down-regulated cytochrome P450 (CYP450) enzyme system CYP1A1 and CYP2A6 mRNA expression, inhibited the overproduction of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and malondialdehyde (MDA), and enhanced the activities of antioxidant enzymes glutathione (GSH) and catalase (CAT) and the content of antioxidant superoxide dismutase (SOD) of the liver in broiler chickens induced by AFB₁. Furthermore, taraxasterol up-regulated the mRNA and protein expression of hepatic nuclear factor E2 related factor 2 (Nrf2), heme oxygenase 1 (HO-1) and NAD(P)H: quinone oxidoreductase 1 (NQO1), and down-regulated the expression of hepatic kelch like ECH associated protein 1 (Keap1) induced by AFB₁ in Keap1/Nrf2 signaling pathway. The ultrastructural observation and RT-qPCR results found that taraxasterol inhibited apoptosis of hepatocytes, up-regulated the expression of B-cell lymphoma-2 (Bcl-2) mRNA and down-regulated the expression of Bax and caspase3 mRNA. Further, taraxasterol restored the autophagy of hepatocytes and down-regulated the mRNA expression of phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase K (PI3K), protein kinase B (AKT) and mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) in AFB₁-induced liver of broiler chickens. The above results indicate that taraxasterol alleviates liver damage induced by AFB₁ in broiler chickens through regulation of Keap1/Nrf2 signaling pathway to exert its antioxidant effect, mitochondrial apoptosis pathway to improve anti-apoptotic ability and PI3K/AKT/mTOR pathway to restore autophagy.

Current Developments of Analytical Methodologies for Aflatoxins' Determination in Food during the Last Decade (2013-2022), with a Particular Focus on Nuts and Nut Products

This review aims to provide a clear overview of the most important analytical development in aflatoxins analysis during the last decade (2013-2022) with a particular focus on nuts and nuts-related products. Aflatoxins (AFs), a group of mycotoxins produced mainly by certain strains of the genus Aspergillus fungi, are known to impose a serious threat to human health. Indeed, AFs are considered carcinogenic to humans, group 1, by the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC). Since these toxins can be found in different food commodities, food control organizations worldwide impose maximum levels of AFs for commodities affected by this threat. Thus, they represent a cumbersome issue in terms of quality control, analytical result reliability, and economical losses. It is, therefore, mandatory for food industries to perform analysis on potentially contaminated commodities before the trade. A full perspective of the whole analytical workflow, considering each crucial step during AFs investigation, namely sampling, sample preparation, separation, and detection, will be presented to the reader, focusing on the main challenges related to the topic. A discussion will be primarily held regarding sample preparation methodologies such as partitioning, solid phase extraction (SPE), and immunoaffinity (IA) related methods. This will be followed by an overview of the leading analytical techniques for the detection of aflatoxins, in particular liquid chromatography (LC) coupled to a fluorescence detector (FLD) and/or mass spectrometry (MS). Moreover, the focus on the analytical procedure will not be specific only to traditional methodologies, such as LC, but also to new direct approaches based on imaging and the ability to detect AFs, reducing the need for sample preparation and separative techniques.

Set2 family regulates mycotoxin metabolism and virulence via H3K36 methylation in pathogenic fungus Aspergillus flavus

Aspergillus flavus infects various crops with aflatoxins, and leads to aspergillosis opportunistically. Though H3K36 methylation plays an important role in fungal toxin metabolism and virulence, no data about the biological function of H3K36 methylation in A. flavus virulence has been reported. Our study showed that the Set2 histone methyltransferase family, AshA and SetB, involves in morphogenesis and mycotoxin anabolism by regulating related transcriptional factors, and they are important for fungal virulence to crops and animals. Western-blotting and double deletion analysis revealed that AshA mainly regulates H3K36me2, whereas SetB is mainly responsible for H3K36me3 in the nucleus. By construction of domain deletion A. flavus strain and point mutation strains by homologous recombination, the study revealed that SET domain is indispensable in mycotoxin anabolism and virulence of A. flavus, and N455 and V457 in it are the key amino acid residues. ChIP analysis inferred that the methyltransferase family controls fungal reproduction and regulates the production of AFB1 by directly regulating the production of the transcriptional factor genes, including wetA, steA, aflR and amylase, through H3K36 trimethylation in their chromatin fragments, based on which this study proposed that, by H3K36 trimethylation, this methyltransferase family controls AFB1 anabolism through transcriptional level and substrate utilization level. This study illuminates the epigenetic mechanism of the Set2 family in regulating fungal virulence and mycotoxin production, and provides new targets for controlling the virulence of the fungus A. flavus.

AUTHOR SUMMARY

The methylation of H3K36 plays an important role in the fungal secondary metabolism and virulence, but no data about the regulatory mechanism of H3K36 methylation in the virulence of A. flavus have been reported. Our study revealed that, in the histone methyltransferase Set2 family, AshA mainly catalyzes H3K36me2, and involves in the methylation of H3K36me1, and SetB mainly catalyzes H3K36me3 and H3K36me1. Through domain deletion and point mutation analysis, this study also revealed that the SET domain was critical for the normal biological function of the Set2 family and that N455 and V457 in the domain were critical for AshA. By ChIP-seq and ChIP-qPCR analysis, H3K36 was found to be trimethylation modified in the promotors and ORF positions of wetA, steA, aflR and the amylase gene (AFLA_084340), and further qRT-PCR results showed that these methylation modifications regulate the expression levels of these genes. According to the results of ChIP-seq analysis, we proposed that, by H3K36 trimethylation, this methyltransferase family controls the metabolism of mycotoxin through transcriptional level and substrate utilization level. All the results from this study showed that Set2 family is essential for fungal secondary metabolism and virulence, which lays a theoretical groundwork in the early prevention and treatment of A. flavus pollution, and also provides an effective strategy to fight against other pathogenic fungi.

The potential and applicability of infrared spectroscopic methods for the rapid screening and routine analysis of mycotoxins in food crops

Infrared (IR) spectroscopy is increasingly being used to analyze food crops for quality and safety purposes in a rapid, nondestructive, and eco-friendly manner. The lack of sensitivity and the overlapping absorption characteristics of major sample matrix components, however, often prevent the direct determination of food contaminants at trace levels. By measuring fungal-induced matrix changes with near IR and mid IR spectroscopy as well as hyperspectral imaging, the indirect determination of mycotoxins in food crops has been realized. Recent studies underline that such IR spectroscopic platforms have great potential for the rapid analysis of mycotoxins along the food and feed supply chain. However, there are no published reports on the validation of IR methods according to official regulations, and those publications that demonstrate their applicability in a routine analytical set-up are scarce. Therefore, the purpose of this review is to discuss the current state-of-the-art and the potential of IR spectroscopic methods for the rapid determination of mycotoxins in food crops. The study critically reflects on the applicability and limitations of IR spectroscopy in routine analysis and provides guidance to non-spectroscopists from the food and feed sector considering implementation of IR spectroscopy for rapid mycotoxin screening. Finally, an outlook on trends, possible fields of applications, and different ways of implementation in the food and feed safety area are discussed.

Characterization of a Trametes versicolor aflatoxin B1-degrading enzyme (TV-AFB1D) and its application in the AFB1 degradation of contaminated rice in situ

Aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) contaminates rice during harvest or storage and causes a considerable risk to human and animal health. In this study, Trametes versicolor AFB1-degrading enzyme (TV-AFB1D) gene recombinantly expressed in engineered E. coli BL21 (DE3) and Saccharomyces cerevisiae. The TV-AFB1D enzymatic characteristics and AFB1 degradation efficiency in contaminated rice were investigated. Results showed that the size of recombinant TV-AFB1D expressing in E. coli BL21 (DE3) and S. cerevisiae was appropriately 77 KDa. The kinetic equation of TV-AFB1D was y = 0.01671x + 1.80756 (R 2 = 0.994, Km  = 9.24 mM, and Vmax  = 553.23 mM/min). The Kcat and Kcat/Km values of TV-AFB1D were 0.07392 (s-1) and 8 M-1 s-1, respectively. The AFB1 concentration of contaminated rice decreased from 100 μg/ml to 32.6 μg/ml after treatment at 32°C for 5 h under the catabolism of TV-AFB1D. S. cerevisiae engineered strains carrying aldehyde oxidase 1 (AOX1) and Cauliflower mosaic virus 35 S (CaMV 35 S) promoters caused the residual AFB1 contents, respectively, decreased to 3.4 and 2.9 μg/g from the initial AFB1 content of 7.4 μg/g after 24 h of fermentation using AFB1-contaminated rice as substrate. The AFB1 degradation rates of S. cerevisiae engineered strains carrying AOX1 and CaMV promoters were 54 and 61%, respectively. Engineered S. cerevisiae strains integrated with TV-AFB1D expression cassettes were developed to simultaneously degrade AFB1 and produce ethanol using AFB1-contaminated rice as substrate. Thus, TV-AFB1D has significant application potential in the AFB1 decomposition from contaminated agricultural products.

Mycotoxins occurrence in milk and cereals in North African countries - a review

North African countries; Algeria, Egypt, Libya, Morocco and Tunisia suffer from mycotoxin contamination. Various studies have indicated the presence of mycotoxins in raw milk and cereals (i.e. wheat, barley, maize and cereal-based products). Aflatoxins (AFs), Aflatoxin M1 (AFM1), Ochratoxin A (OTA), Fumonisin (FB1) and Zearalenone (ZEN)-mycotoxin are the most detected due to climatic change in the region. In this review, we will present the kind of foods and feeds cereals and milk based products contaminated and the level of their contaminated mycotoxin. On the other hand, researchers try to find biologic methods to remove/mitigate mycotoxins in food and feed using bio-products. But the research works concerning legislations and mycotoxin risk assessment still rare. Therefore, it appears necessary to make review on the current status of mycotoxins in North African countries in order to explore data related to contamination of basic food in this region and to highlight the problem to the policy-makers to establish a serious legislation on this matter. On the other hand, to give more information to the worldwide readers about the impact of climate change on the food and feed pollution on mycotoxins in the Mediterranean Sea region.