In-Situ Formed Protecting Layer from Organic/Inorganic Concrete for Dendrite-Free Lithium Metal Anodes

Fluorine Chemistry in Rechargeable Batteries: Challenges, Progress, and Perspectives

The renewable energy industry demands rechargeable batteries that can be manufactured at low cost using abundant resources while offering high energy density, good safety, wide operating temperature windows, and long lifespans. Utilizing fluorine chemistry to redesign battery configurations/components is considered a critical strategy to fulfill these requirements due to the natural abundance, robust bond strength, and extraordinary electronegativity of fluorine and the high free energy of fluoride formation, which enables the fluorinated components with cost effectiveness, nonflammability, and intrinsic stability. In particular, fluorinated materials and electrode|electrolyte interphases have been demonstrated to significantly affect reaction reversibility/kinetics, safety, and temperature tolerance of rechargeable batteries. However, the underlining principles governing material design and the mechanistic insights of interphases at the atomic level have been largely overlooked. This review covers a wide range of topics from the exploration of fluorine-containing electrodes, fluorinated electrolyte constituents, and other fluorinated battery components for metal-ion shuttle batteries to constructing fluoride-ion batteries, dual-ion batteries, and other new chemistries. In doing so, this review aims to provide a comprehensive understanding of the structure-property interactions, the features of fluorinated interphases, and cutting-edge techniques for elucidating the role of fluorine chemistry in rechargeable batteries. Further, we present current challenges and promising strategies for employing fluorine chemistry, aiming to advance the electrochemical performance, wide temperature operation, and safety attributes of rechargeable batteries.

Ionic Layer Epitaxy Growth of Organic/Inorganic Composite Protective Layers for Large-Area Li and Zn Metal Anodes

Li and Zn metal batteries using organic and aqueous electrolytes, respectively, are desirable next-generation energy storage systems to replace the traditional Li-ion batteries. However, their cycle life and safety performance are severely constrained by a series of issues that are attributed to dendrite growth. To solve these issues, a nanothick ZnO-oleic acid (ZnO-OA) composite protective layer is developed by a facile ionic layer epitaxy method. The ZnO-OA layer provides strong lithophilic and zincophilic properties, which can effectively induce uniform ion deposition. As a result, the ZnO-OA protected Li and Zn metal anodes can cycle stably for over 600 and 1000 h under a large current density of 10 mA cm-2. Employing the ZnO-OA protected anodes, the Li||LiFePO4 cell can maintain a capacity retention of 99.5% after 600 cycles at a 1 C rate and the Zn||MnO2 cell can operate stably for 1000 cycles at 1 A g-1 current density.

Research Progress of Liquid Electrolytes for Lithium Metal Batteries at High Temperatures

Lithium metal batteries (LMBs) are the most promising high energy density energy storage technologies for electric vehicles, military, and aerospace applications. LMBs require further improvement to operate efficiently when chronically or routinely exposed to high temperatures. Electrolyte engineering with high temperature tolerance and electrode compatibility has been essential to the development of LMBs. In this review, the primary obstacles to achieving high-temperature LMBs are first explored. Subsequently, electrolyte tailoring options, such as lithium salt optimization, solvation structure modification, and the addition of additives are reviewed in detail. In addition, the feasibility of utilizing LMBs at high temperatures has been investigated. In conclusion, this study provides insights and perspectives for future research on electrolyte design at high temperatures.

A LiF-Rich Solid Electrolyte Interphase in a Routine Carbonate Electrolyte by Tuning the Interfacial Chemistry Behavior of LiPF6 for Stable Li Metal Anodes

Lithium (Li) dendrite growth in a routine carbonate electrolyte (RCE) is the main culprit hindering the practical application of Li metal anodes. Herein, we realize the regulation of the LiPF6 decomposition pathway in RCE containing 1.0 M LiPF6 by introducing a "self-polymerizing" additive, ethyl isothiocyanate (EITC), resulting in a robust LiF-rich solid electrolyte interphase (SEI). The effect of 1 vol % EITC on the electrode/electrolyte interfacial chemistry slows the formation of the byproduct LixPOFy. Such a LiF-rich SEI with EITC polymer winding exhibits a high Young's modulus and a uniform Li-ion flux, which suppresses dendrite growth and interface fluctuation. The EITC-based Li metal cell using a Li4Ti5O12 cathode delivers a capacity retention of 81.4% over 1000 cycles at 10 C, outperforming its counterpart. The cycling stability of 1 Ah pouch cells was further evaluated under EITC. We believe that this work provides a new method for tuning the interfacial chemistry of Li metal through electrolyte additives.

A liquid metal-fluoropolymer artificial protective film enables robust lithium metal batteries at sub-zero temperatures

Batteries that are both high-energy-density and durable at sub-zero temperatures are highly desirable for deep space and subsea exploration and military defense applications. Our design incorporates a casting membrane technology to prepare a gallium indium liquid metal (LM)/fluoropolymer hybrid protective film on a lithium metal anode. The LM not only spontaneously forms a passivation alloy layer with lithium but also reduces the nucleation potential barrier and homogenizes the Li+ flux on the surface of the lithium anode. The fluoropolymer's polar functional groups (-C-F-) effectively induce targeted dispersion of gallium indium seeds, and the unique pit structure on the surface provides oriented sites for lithium plating. By implementing these strategies optimally, the protected lithium metal anode remains in operation at a current density of 20 mA cm-2 with an over-potential of about 50.4 mV after 500 h, and the full cells have a high capacity retention rate of up to 98.5% at a current density of 0.5 C after 100 cycles. Furthermore, the battery shows improved low temperature performance at -30 °C, validating the potential of the protective film to enable battery operation at sub-zero temperatures.

Exploiting Zirconium-Based Metallic Glass Thin Films for Anode-Free Lithium-Ion Batteries and Lithium Metal Batteries With Ultra-Long Cycling Life

Coating Zr-based metallic glass, Zr53 Cu31 Ni11 Al5 (Zr-MG), on a Cu current collector (CC) and Li metal anode (LMA) significantly improves the cycle performance of both types of Li-ion batteries, namely, anode-free Li-ion batteries (AFLBs) and Li metal batteries (LMB). The inherent isotropy and homogeneity of the Zr-MG significantly improve the surface uniformity of the CC and LMA. A 12 nm-thick Zr-MG thin film coating on the CC reduces the overpotential in the AFLB, leading to a more uniform Li plating morphology. The Li film covers almost the entire surface of the Zr-CC, whereas it only covers ≈75% of the bare CC during charging. An LFP||Zr-CC full-cell exhibits a capacity retention of 63.6% after the 100th cycle, with an average CE of 99.55% at a 0.2 C rate. In the case of the LMB, a 12 nm-thick Zr-MG thin film-coated LMA (Zr-LMA) exhibits a stable capacity of up to 1500 cycles. An LFP||Zr-LMA full-cell exhibits capacity retention and CE after 1500 cycles of 66.6% and 99.97%, respectively, at a 1 C rate. Zirconium-MG thin films with atomic-level uniformity, outstanding corrosion resistance, lithiophilic characteristics, and high diffusivity result in superior AFLB and LMB performances.

Ultrasmooth and Dense Lithium Deposition Toward High-Performance Lithium-Metal Batteries

Lithium (Li)-metal batteries (LMBs) with stable solid electrolyte interphase (SEI) and dendrite-free formation have great potential in next-generation energy storage devices. Here, vertically aligned 3D Cu₂ S nanosheet arrays are fabricated on the surface of commercial Cu foils, which in situ generate ultrathin Cu nanosheet arrays to reduce local current density and Li₂ S layers on the surfaces to work as an excellent artificial SEI. It is found that Li presents a 3D-to-planar deposition model, and Li₂ S layers are reversibly movable between the 3D nanosheet surface and 2D planar surface of Li during long-term cycling. This enables ultrasmooth and dense Li deposition at 1 mA cm^-2 , presenting an average thickness of ≈53.0 µm at 10 mAh cm^-2 , which is close to the theoretical Li foil thickness and is highly reversible at different cycles. Thus, 1150 stable cycles with high Coulombic efficiency (CE, 99.1%) at ether-based electrolytes and 300 stable cycles with high CE (98.8%) at carbonate electrolytes are realized in half-cell with a capacity of 1 mAh cm^-2 at 1 mA cm^-2 . When coupled with commercial cathodes (LiFePO₄ or LiNi_0.8 Co_0.1 Mn_0.1 O₂ ), the full cells present substantially enhanced cyclability under high cathode loading, limited (or zero) Li excess, and lean electrolyte conditions, even at -20 °C.

Stabilization of Lithium Metal Interfaces by Constructing Composite Artificial Solid Electrolyte Interface with Mesoporous TiO2 and Perfluoropolymers

The next generation of high-energy-density storage devices is expected to be rechargeable lithium metal batteries. However, unstable metal-electrolyte interfaces, dendrite growth, and volume expansion will compromise lithium metal batteries (LMB) safety and life. A simple drop-casting method is used to create a double-layer functional interface composed of inorganic mesoporous TiO₂ and F-rich organics PFDMA. For high-quality lithium deposition, TiO₂ can provide uniform mechanical pressure, abundant mesoporous channels, and increased ionic conductivity, while PFDMA provides enough F to form LiF in the first cycle and improves Li-electrolyte compatibility. Experiments and simulations are combined to investigate the optimized mechanism of the LiF-rich solid electrolyte interface (SEI). The high binding energy of organic matter and Li demonstrates that Li⁺ preferentially binds with the F atom in organic matter. As a result, the tightly bound double-layer structure can inhibit lithium dendrite growth and slow electrolyte decomposition. Consequently, the symmetric Li||Li cell has a high stability performance of over 800 h. The assembled LiFePO₄ ||Li cell can sustain 300 cycles at a 1 C rate and has a reversible capacity of 136.7 mAh g^-1 .

Ionic Conductive and Highly-Stable Interface for Alkali Metal Anodes

Alkali metals are regarded as the most promising candidates for advanced anode for the next-generation batteries due to their high specific capacity, low electrochemical potential, and lightweight. However, critical problems of the alkali metal anodes, especially dendrite formation and interface stabilization, remain challenging to overcome. The solid electrolyte interphase (SEI) is a key factor affecting Li and Na deposition behavior and electrochemical performances. Herein, a facile and universal approach is successfully developed to fabricate ionic conductive interfaces for Li and Na metal anodes by modified atomic layer deposition (ALD). In this process, the Li metal (or Na metal) plays the role of Li (or Na) source without any additional Li (or Na) precursor during ALD. Moreover, the key questions about the influence of ALD deposition temperature on the compositions and structure of the coatings are addressed. The optimized ionic conductive coatings have significantly improved the electrochemical performances. In addition, the electrochemical phase-field model is performed to prove that the ionic conductive coating is very effective in promoting uniform electrodeposition. This approach is universal and can be potentially applied to other different metal anodes. At the same time, it can be extended to other types of coatings or other deposition techniques.

Commercially Viable Hybrid Li-Ion/Metal Batteries with High Energy Density Realized by Symbiotic Anode and Prelithiated Cathode

The energy density of commercial lithium (Li) ion batteries with graphite anode is reaching the limit. It is believed that directly utilizing Li metal as anode without a host could enhance the battery's energy density to the maximum extent. However, the poor reversibility and infinite volume change of Li metal hinder the realistic implementation of Li metal in battery community. Herein, a commercially viable hybrid Li-ion/metal battery is realized by a coordinated strategy of symbiotic anode and prelithiated cathode. To be specific, a scalable template-removal method is developed to fabricate the porous graphite layer (PGL), which acts as a symbiotic host for Li ion intercalation and subsequent Li metal deposition due to the enhanced lithiophilicity and sufficient ion-conducting pathways. A continuous dissolution-deintercalation mechanism during delithiation process further ensures the elimination of dead Li. As a result, when the excess plating Li reaches 30%, the PGL could deliver an ultrahigh average Coulombic efficiency of 99.5% for 180 cycles with a capacity of 2.48 mAh cm^-2 in traditional carbonate electrolyte. Meanwhile, an air-stable recrystallized lithium oxalate with high specific capacity (514.3 mAh g^-1) and moderate operating potential (4.7-5.0 V) is introduced as a sacrificial cathode to compensate the initial loss and provide Li source for subsequent cycles. Based on the prelithiated cathode and initial Li-free symbiotic anode, under a practical-level 3 mAh capacity, the assembled hybrid Li-ion/metal full cell with a P/N ratio (capacity ratio of LiNi_0.8Co_0.1Mn_0.1O₂ to graphite) of 1.3 exhibits significantly improved capacity retention after 300 cycles, indicating its great potential for high-energy-density Li batteries.

Stable Lithium Plating and Stripping Enabled by a LiPON Nanolayer on PP Separator

The practical application of the Li metal anode (LMA) is hindered by its low coulombic efficiency and dendrite formation. Although solid-state electrolytes hold promise as ideal partners for LMA, their effectiveness is limited by the poor workability and ionic conductivity. Herein, a modified separator combining the rapid Li⁺ transport of a liquid electrolyte and the interfacial stability of a solid-state electrolyte is explored to realize stable cycling of the LMA. A conformal nanolayer of LiPON is coated on a polypropylene separator by a scalable magnetron sputtering method, which is compatible with current Li-ion battery production lines and promising for the practical applications. The resulting LMA-electrolyte/separator interface is Li⁺ -conductive, electron-insulating, mechanically and chemically stable. Consequently, Li|Li cells maintain stable dendrite-free cycling with overpotentials of 10 and 40 mV over 2000 h at 1 and 5 mA cm^-2 , respectively. Additionally, the Li|LiFePO₄ full cells achieve a capacity retention of 92% after 550 cycles, confirming its application potential.

Review of Multifunctional Separators: Stabilizing the Cathode and the Anode for Alkali (Li, Na, and K) Metal-Sulfur and Selenium Batteries

Alkali metal batteries based on lithium, sodium, and potassium anodes and sulfur-based cathodes are regarded as key for next-generation energy storage due to their high theoretical energy and potential cost effectiveness. However, metal-sulfur batteries remain challenged by several factors, including polysulfides' (PSs) dissolution, sluggish sulfur redox kinetics at the cathode, and metallic dendrite growth at the anode. Functional separators and interlayers are an innovative approach to remedying these drawbacks. Here we critically review the state-of-the-art in separators/interlayers for cathode and anode protection, covering the Li-S and the emerging Na-S and K-S systems. The approaches for improving electrochemical performance may be categorized as one or a combination of the following: Immobilization of polysulfides (cathode); catalyzing sulfur redox kinetics (cathode); introduction of protective layers to serve as an artificial solid electrolyte interphase (SEI) (anode); and combined improvement in electrolyte wetting and homogenization of ion flux (anode and cathode). It is demonstrated that while the advances in Li-S are relatively mature, less progress has been made with Na-S and K-S due to the more challenging redox chemistry at the cathode and increased electrochemical instability at the anode. Throughout these sections there is a complementary discussion of functional separators for emerging alkali metal systems based on metal-selenium and the metal-selenium sulfide. The focus then shifts to interlayers and artificial SEI/cathode electrolyte interphase (CEI) layers employed to stabilize solid-state electrolytes (SSEs) in metal-sulfur solid-state batteries (SSBs). The discussion of SSEs focuses on inorganic electrolytes based on Li- and Na-based oxides and sulfides but also touches on some hybrid systems with an inorganic matrix and a minority polymer phase. The review then moves to practical considerations for functional separators, including scaleup issues and Li-S technoeconomics. The review concludes with an outlook section, where we discuss emerging mechanics, spectroscopy, and advanced electron microscopy (e.g. cryo-transmission electron microscopy (cryo-TEM) and cryo-focused ion beam (cryo-FIB))-based approaches for analysis of functional separator structure-battery electrochemical performance interrelations. Throughout the review we identify the outstanding open scientific and technological questions while providing recommendations for future research topics.

Regulating Interfacial Li-Ion Transport via an Integrated Corrugated 3D Skeleton in Solid Composite Electrolyte for All-Solid-State Lithium Metal Batteries

Although solid composite electrolytes show tremendous potential for the practical solid-state lithium metal batteries, searching for a straightforward tactic to promote the ion conduction at electrolyte/electrode interface, especially settling lithium dendrites formation caused by the concentration gradient polarization, are still long-standing problems. Here, the authors report a corrugated 3D nanowires-bulk ceramic-nanowires (NCN) skeleton reinforced composite electrolyte with regulated interfacial Li-ion transport behavior. The special and integrated NCN skeleton endows the electrolyte with fast Li-ion transfer and solves the Li⁺ concentration polarization at electrode/electrolyte interface, thereby eliminating the energy barrier originated from the redistribution of charge carriers and offering homogeneous interfacial Li-ion flux on lithium anode. As a "double insurance", the bulk ceramic sheet in 3D framework enables the electrolyte to block the mobility of anions. The rational designed NCN composite electrolyte exhibits excellent ionic conductivity and the assembled all-solid-state battery possesses 90.2% capacity retention after 500 cycles. The proposed strategy affords a special insight in designing high-performance solid composite electrolytes.

Lithium reduction reaction for interfacial regulation of lithium metal anode

The lithium metal anode (LMA) is regarded as a very promising candidate for next-generation lithium batteries. The interfacial issue plays a pivotal role in affecting the lithium plating/stripping behavior, Coulombic efficiency and cycling lifespan of an LMA. The lithium reduction reaction (LRR) is an advanced regulating technique for optimizing the LMA interphase, which intelligently utilizes lithium metal itself as an interphase precursor. This strategy also possesses moderate operating conditions, high efficiency, great convenience and scalability. In this review, the latest developments of LRRs in interfacial regulation for LMAs are summarized, focusing on the interfacial regulation mechanism and the construction of various inorganic/organic interfaces in lithium metal liquid/solid batteries. The target interface properties and corresponding influence factors during LRRs are investigated in detail. Besides this, the superiority and insufficiency of LRRs are discussed and possible directions for LRRs are presented. This review highlights in situ modification characteristics for anode interface regulation during the LRR and can be extended to other metal anodes such as sodium, potassium and zinc.

Effect of the supergravity on the formation and cycle life of non-aqueous lithium metal batteries

Extra-terrestrial explorations require electrochemical energy storage devices able to operate in gravity conditions different from those of planet earth. In this context, lithium (Li)-based batteries have not been fully investigated, especially cell formation and cycling performances under supergravity (i.e., gravity > 9.8 m s-2) conditions. To shed some light on these aspects, here, we investigate the behavior of non-aqueous Li metal cells under supergravity conditions. The physicochemical and electrochemical characterizations reveal that, distinctly from earth gravity conditions, smooth and dense Li metal depositions are obtained under supergravity during Li metal deposition on a Cu substrate. Moreover, supergravity allows the formation of an inorganic-rich solid electrolyte interphase (SEI) due to the strong interactions between Li+ and salt anions, which promote significant decomposition of the anions on the negative electrode surface. Tests in full Li metal pouch cell configuration (using LiNi0.8Co0.1Mn0.1O2-based positive electrode and LiFSI-based electrolyte solution) also demonstrate the favorable effect of the supergravity in terms of deposition morphology and SEI composition and ability to carry out 200 cycles at 2 C (400 mA g-1) rate with a capacity retention of 96%.

Gradient Structure Design of a Floatable Host for Preferential Lithium Deposition

Herein, a novel sandwichlike host with expandable accommodation and gradient characteristics of lithiophilicity and conductivity is prepared by constructing a reduced graphene oxide (rGO)/SiO₂/rGO intercalated structure on the basis of electrospraying and coating an additional PVDF-HFP layer on the top surface. This gradient host electrode enables preferential, ordered, and uniform Li deposition in the SiO₂-embedded interlayer space. The dendrite growth and isolated Li are suppressed by the combined rGO/PVDF-HFP layer with robust, flexible, and floatable features, which could function as an artificial solid-electrolyte interphase to impede reckless electrolyte infiltration, homogenize the Li ion flux distribution, and build a stable electrochemical interface. The designed electrodes could be stably cycled with a high capacity of 5 mAh cm^-2 and give rise to a high average Coulombic efficiency (CE) of 99.14%. Furthermore, the derived full cells can deliver an average CE of 99.87% in 300 cycles with a capacity retention of 90.22% and successfully operate under lean electrolyte conditions.

Commercialization-Driven Electrodes Design for Lithium Batteries: Basic Guidance, Opportunities, and Perspectives

Current lithium-ion battery technology is approaching the theoretical energy density limitation, which is challenged by the increasing requirements of ever-growing energy storage market of electric vehicles, hybrid electric vehicles, and portable electronic devices. Although great progresses are made on tailoring the electrode materials from methodology to mechanism to meet the practical demands, sluggish mass transport, and charge transfer dynamics are the main bottlenecks when increasing the areal/volumetric loading multiple times to commercial level. Thus, this review presents the state-of-the-art developments on rational design of the commercialization-driven electrodes for lithium batteries. First, the basic guidance and challenges (such as electrode mechanical instability, sluggish charge diffusion, deteriorated performance, and safety concerns) on constructing the industry-required high mass loading electrodes toward commercialization are discussed. Second, the corresponding design strategies on cathode/anode electrode materials with high mass loading are proposed to overcome these challenges without compromising energy density and cycling durability, including electrode architecture, integrated configuration, interface engineering, mechanical compression, and Li metal protection. Finally, the future trends and perspectives on commercialization-driven electrodes are offered. These design principles and potential strategies are also promising to be applied in other energy storage and conversion systems, such as supercapacitors, and other metal-ion batteries.

Electroless Formation of a Fluorinated Li/Na Hybrid Interphase for Robust Lithium Anodes

Engineering a stable solid electrolyte interphase (SEI) is one of the critical maneuvers in improving the performance of a lithium anode for high-energy-density rechargeable lithium batteries. Herein, we build a fluorinated lithium/sodium hybrid interphase via a facile electroless electrolyte-soaking approach to stabilize the repeated plating/stripping of lithium metal. Jointed experimental and computational characterizations reveal that the fluorinated hybrid SEI mainly consisting of NaF, LiF, Li_xPO_yF_z, and organic components features a mosaic polycrystalline structure with enriched grain boundaries and superior interfacial properties toward Li. This LiF/NaF hybrid SEI exhibits improved ionic conductivity and mechanical strength in comparison to the SEI without NaF. Remarkably, the fluorinated hybrid SEI enables an extended dendrite-free cycling of metallic Li over 1300 h at a high areal capacity of 10 mAh cm^-2 in symmetrical cells. Furthermore, full cells based on the LiFePO₄ cathode and hybrid SEI-protected Li anode sustain long-term stability and good capacity retention (96.70% after 200 cycles) at 0.5 C. This work could provide a new avenue for designing robust multifunctional SEI to upgrade the metallic lithium anode.

Electrophoretic Deposited Black Phosphorus on 3D Porous Current Collectors to Regulate Li Nucleation for Dendrite-Free Lithium Metal Anodes

Li metal is considered a highly desirable anode for next-generation high-energy-density rechargeable lithium batteries. However, irregular Li dendrite formation and infinite relative volume changes prevent the commercial adoption of Li-metal anodes. Here, electrophoretic deposition of black phosphorus (BP) on commercial Cu foam (BP@Cu foam) is reported to regulate Li nucleation for the first time. First-principles calculations reveal that the unique two-dimensional (2D) structure of BP is beneficial to Li intercalation and propagation. Compared with the random Li nucleation and growth on bare Cu foam, Li ions are preferably confined into the BP layers, which induces uniform Li nucleation at the early stage of the Li deposition and guides the following lateral Li growth on BP@Cu foam. In addition, the three-dimensional (3D) porous and conductive framework of Cu foams further mitigate the volume change and dissipate the current density. Attributing to these merits, the BP@Cu foam exhibits significantly enhanced Coulombic efficiency and cycling stability compared with bare Cu foam. In the full-cell configuration paired with a Li₄Ti₅O₁₂ or LiFePO₄ cathode, the BP@Cu foam also boosts the battery performances. This work provides new insights into the development of BP and other elaborate 2D materials for achieving dendrite-free Li-metal anodes.

Stabilizing a Lithium Metal Battery by an In Situ Li2S-modified Interfacial Layer via Amorphous-Sulfide Composite Solid Electrolyte

A novel strategy has been proposed to produce in situ Li₂S at the interfacial layer between lithium anode and the solid electrolyte, by using an amorphous-sulfide-LiTFSI-poly(vinylidene difluoride) (PVDF) composite solid electrolyte (SLCSE). Besides retarding the decomposition of PVDF in CSE, the Li₂S-modified interfacial layer (SMIL) also improves the wettability between lithium metal and SLCSE which in turn optimizes the lithium deposition process. Our density functional theory calculation results reveal that the migration energy barrier of Li passing through SMIL is much lower than that of Li passing through LiF-modified interfacial layer (FMIL) formed from the decomposition of PVDF. The as-prepared SLCSE shows a Li ionic transference number of 0.44 and Li ion conductivity of 3.42 × 10^-4 S/cm at room temperature, and the Li||SLCSE||LiFePO₄ cell exhibits an outstanding rate performance with a capacity of 153, 144, 131, and 101 mAh/g at a current density of 0.05, 0.10, 0.25, and 0.50 mA/cm², respectively.