Deoxynivalenol and zearalenone residues in eggs of laying hens fed with a naturally contaminated diet: effects on egg production and estimation of transmission rates from feed to eggs

Meta-Analysis of the Effects of Yeast Cell Wall Extract Supple-Mentation during Mycotoxin Challenges on the Performance of Laying Hens

A random-effects meta-analysis was conducted to investigate the effect of mycotoxins (MT) without or with the inclusion of yeast cell wall extract (YCWE, Mycosorb®, Alltech, Inc., Nicholasville, KY, USA) on laying hen performance. A total of 25 trials were collected from a literature search, and data were extracted from 8 of these that met inclusion criteria, for a total of 12 treatments and 1774 birds. Laying hens fed MT had lower (p < 0.05) body weight (BW) by -50 g, egg production by -6.3 percentage points, and egg weight by -1.95 g than control fed hens (CTRL). Inclusion of YCWE during the mycotoxin challenges (YCWE + MT) resulted in numerically greater (p = 0.441) BW by 12.5 g, while egg production and egg weight were significantly (p < 0.0001) higher by 4.2 percentage points and 1.37 g, respectively. Furthermore, economic assessment calculations indicated that YCWE may not only support hen performance but also resulted in a positive return on investment. In conclusion, mycotoxins can play a role in negatively impacting laying hen performance and profitability. Inclusion of YCWE in feed with mycotoxin challenges provided benefits to egg production and egg weight and may support profitability. As such, the inclusion of YCWE could play an important role in minimizing mycotoxin effects and in turn aid farm efficiency and profitability.

Co-Occurrence of Aflatoxin B1, Zearalenone and Ochratoxin A in Feed and Feed Materials in Central Italy from 2018 to 2022

Mycotoxin contamination of feed and feed materials represent a serious health hazard. This study details the occurrence of aflatoxin B1 (AFB1), zearalenone (ZEN) and ochratoxin A (OTA) in 826 feed and 617 feed material samples, collected in two Italian Regions (Umbria and Marche) from 2018 to 2022 analyzed using a UPLC-FLD platform. The developed method was validated and accredited (ISO/IEC 17025) with satisfactory accuracy and precision data obtained in repeatability and intralaboratory reproducibility conditions. Feed had a higher incidence of contaminated samples (26%) with respect to feed materials (6%). AFB1 was found up to 0.1045 mg/kg in cattle feeds and 0.1234 mg/kg in maize; ZEN was detected up to 6.420 mg/kg in sheep feed while OTA was rarely reported and in lower concentrations (up to 0.085 mg/kg). Co-contamination of at least two mycotoxins was reported in 0.8% of the analyzed samples. The incidence of above maximum content/guidance level samples was 2% for feed and feed materials while almost 3-fold-higher for maize (5.8%) suggesting how mycotoxin contamination can affect some matrices more than others. Obtained data can be useful to improve official monitoring plans and therefore further raise awareness of this issue between agriculture stakeholders, healthcare entities and non-professionals.

Impact of Enniatin and Deoxynivalenol Co-Occurrence on Plant, Microbial, Insect, Animal and Human Systems: Current Knowledge and Future Perspectives

Fusarium mycotoxins commonly contaminate agricultural products resulting in a serious threat to both animal and human health. The co-occurrence of different mycotoxins in the same cereal field is very common, so the risks as well as the functional and ecological effects of mycotoxins cannot always be predicted by focusing only on the effect of the single contaminants. Enniatins (ENNs) are among the most frequently detected emerging mycotoxins, while deoxynivalenol (DON) is probably the most common contaminant of cereal grains worldwide. The purpose of this review is to provide an overview of the simultaneous exposure to these mycotoxins, with emphasis on the combined effects in multiple organisms. Our literature analysis shows that just a few studies on ENN-DON toxicity are available, suggesting the complexity of mycotoxin interactions, which include synergistic, antagonistic, and additive effects. Both ENNs and DON modulate drug efflux transporters, therefore this specific ability deserves to be explored to better understand their complex biological role. Additionally, future studies should investigate the interaction mechanisms of mycotoxin co-occurrence on different model organisms, using concentrations closer to real exposures.

Effects of moldy corn on the performance, antioxidant capacity, immune function, metabolism and residues of mycotoxins in eggs, muscle, and edible viscera of laying hens

Mycotoxins, including aflatoxin B1 (AFB₁), zearalenone (ZEN) and deoxynivalenol (DON), are common contaminants of moldy feeds. Mycotoxins can cause deleterious effects on the health of chickens and can be carried over in poultry food products. This study was conducted to investigate the effects of moldy corn (containing AFB₁, ZEN, and DON) on the performance, health, and mycotoxin residues of laying hens. One hundred and eighty 400-day-old laying hens were divided into 4 treatments: basal diet (Control), basal diet containing 20% moldy corn (MC20), 40% moldy corn (MC40) and 60% moldy corn (MC60). At d 20, 40, and 60, the performance, oxidative stress, immune function, metabolism, and mycotoxin residues in eggs were determined. At d 60, mycotoxin residues in muscle and edible viscera were measured. Results showed the average daily feed intake (ADFI) and laying performance of laying hens were decreased with moldy corn treatments. All the moldy corn treatments also induced significant oxidative stress and immunosuppression, reflected by decreased antioxidase activities, contents of cytokines, immunoglobulins, and increased malonaldehyde level. Moreover, the activities of aspartate aminotransferase and alanine transaminase were increased by moldy corn treatments. The lipid metabolism was influenced in laying hens receiving moldy corn, reflected by lowered levels of total protein, high density lipoprotein cholesterol, low density lipoprotein cholesterol, total cholesterol, and increased total triglyceride as well as uric acid. The above impairments were aggravated with the increase of mycotoxin levels. Furthermore, AFB₁ and ZEN residues were found in eggs, muscle, and edible viscera with moldy corn treatments, but the residues were below the maximum residue limits. In conclusion, moldy corn impaired the performance, antioxidant capacity, immune function, liver function, and metabolism of laying hens at d 20, 40, and 60. Moldy corn also led to AFB₁ residue in eggs at d 20, 40, and 60, and led to both AFB₁ and ZEN residues in eggs at days 40 and 60, and in muscle and edible viscera at d 60. The toxic effects and mycotoxin residues were elevated with the increase of moldy corn levels in feed.

Effects of Zearalenone on Production Performance, Egg Quality, Ovarian Function and Gut Microbiota of Laying Hens

Zearalenone (ZEN) is a ubiquitous contaminant in poultry feed, since ZEN and its metabolites can interfere with estrogen function and affect the reproductive ability of animals. The estrogen-like effect of ZEN on mammal is widely reported, while little information is available, regarding the effect of relatively low dose of ZEN on estrogen function and production performance of laying hens, and the relationship between them. This work was aimed to investigate the effects of ZEN on the production performance, egg quality, ovarian function and gut microbiota of laying hens. A total of 96 Hy-line brown laying hens aged 25-week were randomly divided into 3 groups including basal diet group (BD group), basal diet supplemented with 250 μg/kg (250 μg/kg ZEN group) and 750 μg/kg (750 μg/kg ZEN group) ZEN group. Here, 750 μg/kg ZEN resulted in a significant increase in the feed conversion ratio (FCR) (g feed/g egg) (p < 0.05), a decrease in the egg production (p > 0.05), albumen height and Haugh unit (p > 0.05), compared to the BD group. The serum Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) levels significantly decreased in ZEN supplemented groups (p < 0.05). Serum Luteinizing hormone (LH) and Progesterone (P) levels in the 750 μg/kg ZEN group were significantly lower than those in the BD group (p < 0.05). 16S rRNA sequencing indicated that ZEN reduced cecum microbial diversity (p < 0.05) and altered gut microbiota composition. In contrast to 250 μg/kg ZEN, 750 μg/kg ZEN had more dramatic effects on the gut microbiota function. Spearman’s correlation analysis revealed negative correlations between the dominant bacteria of the 750 μg/kg ZEN group and the production performance, egg quality and ovarian function of hens. Overall, ZEN was shown to exert a detrimental effect on production performance, egg quality and ovarian function of laying hens in this study. Moreover, alterations in the composition and function of the gut microbiota induced by ZEN may be involved in the adverse effects of ZEN on laying hens.

A global systematic review and meta-analysis of concentration and prevalence of mycotoxins in birds' egg

In the current study, the concentration and prevalence of birds' egg's mycotoxins among 11 articles (66 studies) based on countries, part of eggs, and type of mycotoxins subgroups were meta-analyses using a random-effect model. The order of mycotoxin according to concentration of mycotoxin was Deoxynivalenol (20.083 μg/kg) > Zearalenone (2.065 μg/kg) > Enniatin (1.120 μg/kg) > Total aflatoxin (0.371 μg/kg) > Beauvericin (0.223 μg/kg) > Ochratoxins (0.087 μg/kg) > Citrinin (0.010 μg/kg). Further, the mycotoxins' concentration in the yolk part (2.070 μg/kg) was higher than the mixed eggs (0.283 μg/kg). The rank order of mycotoxin based on country was China (14.990 μg/kg) > Cameroon (7.594 μg/kg) > Thailand (1.870 μg/kg) > Finland (0.920 μg/kg) > Iran (0.312 μg/kg) > Jordan (0.202 μg/kg) > Belgium (0.183 μg/kg) > Spain (<Lod μg/kg) > South Korea (<Lod μg/kg). The rank order of mycotoxins based on prevalence was BEA (99.73%) > DON (85.00%) > AFT (20.15%) > OT (16.00%). The overall prevalence of mycotoxin was equal to 29.65%. Also, the concentration of mycotoxins in China and Cameroon was higher than in other countries. Therefore, the monitoring programs to reduce mycotoxins in bird eggs consumed in some countries such as China and Cameroon should be considered.

Mycotoxins in Poultry Feed and Feed Ingredients from Sub-Saharan Africa and Their Impact on the Production of Broiler and Layer Chickens: A Review

The poultry industry in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) is faced with feed insecurity, associated with high cost of feeds, and feed safety, associated with locally produced feeds often contaminated with mycotoxins. Mycotoxins, including aflatoxins (AFs), fumonisins (FBs), trichothecenes, and zearalenone (ZEN), are common contaminants of poultry feeds and feed ingredients from SSA. These mycotoxins cause deleterious effects on the health and productivity of chickens and can also be present in poultry food products, thereby posing a health hazard to human consumers of these products. This review summarizes studies of major mycotoxins in poultry feeds, feed ingredients, and poultry food products from SSA as well as aflatoxicosis outbreaks. Additionally reviewed are the worldwide regulation of mycotoxins in poultry feeds, the impact of major mycotoxins in the production of chickens, and the postharvest use of mycotoxin detoxifiers. In most studies, AFs are most commonly quantified, and levels above the European Union regulatory limits of 20 μg/kg are reported. Trichothecenes, FBs, ZEN, and OTA are also reported but are less frequently analyzed. Co-occurrences of mycotoxins, especially AFs and FBs, are reported in some studies. The effects of AFs on chickens’ health and productivity, carryover to their products, as well as use of mycotoxin binders are reported in few studies conducted in SSA. More research should therefore be conducted in SSA to evaluate occurrences, toxicological effects, and mitigation strategies to prevent the toxic effects of mycotoxins.

Prevalence, level and health risk assessment of mycotoxins in the fried poultry eggs from Jordan

In the current study, level and prevalence of deoxynivalenol (DON), aflatoxin B1 (AFB1), zearalenone (ZEN), and ochratoxin A (OTA) in fried poultry eggs in Jordan was investigated. Poultry egg samples (n = 250) were collected from March to September 2017. The level of DON, AFB1, ZEN and OTA in the white and yolk of poultry eggs was measured using LC-MS-MS. The health risk assessment was calculated using Margin of Exposures (MOEs) for AFB1 and OTA and hazard index (HI) for ZEN and DON. The highest prevalence in yolk and white of eggs was related to ZEN (96.56 %) and OTA (97.44 %), respectively. Also, the highest level in white and yolk was related to DON (1.07 μg/kg) and DON (1.65 μg/kg), respectively. Level of DON in the yolk of eggs was significantly higher than white of eggs (P-value < 0.05). Risk assessment indicated that exposed population are at high risk of AFB1 (MOEs < 10,000) in fried poultry eggs.

Contamination With Fumonisin B and Deoxynivalenol Is a Threat to Egg Safety and Contributes to Gizzard Ulcerations of Newborn Chickens

Fumonisin B (FB) and other fumonisins, deoxynivalenol (DON), and zearalenone (ZEN) are mycotoxins (secondary metabolites of fungi) present at high levels of contamination in poultry diets and threatening the sustainability of the poultry industry and egg safety for consumers. However, residual mycotoxins in breeder eggs and their effects on chicken progeny and gizzard ulcerations remain unclear. To unveil mycotoxin contaminations from daily diets to breeder eggs, 293 poultry feed samples were collected from three large-scale poultry provinces across Northern China to Southern China. Average levels of 1,628 ± 4.36 μg/kg of FB₁, 593 ± 11.16 μg/kg of DON, 69 ± 9.21 μg/kg of ZEN, 52 ± 7.33 μg/kg of OTA, and 24 ± 5.85 μg/kg of AFB₁ were found in feedstuffs and poultry diets using commercial ELISA kits. In terms of residual mycotoxins in breeder eggs, FB₁ and DON contaminations dominated residues in egg albumen and yolk samples. Out of 221 breeder eggs, the average residual of FB₁ in albumen were 320.6 ± 10.12 μg/kg (Hebei), 420.2 ± 10.98 μg/kg (Guangdong), and 549.4 ± 10.27 (Guangxi). Moreover, higher residual of DONs were determined in Guangdong and Guangxi provinces compared to Hebei province. ZEN, ochratoxins A (OTA), and aflatoxin B₁ (AFB₁) contamination at low levels were found in the above samples collected from afronmentioned three provinces. Based on residual mycotoxins in breeder eggs, SPF embryonated eggs aged 11 days were inoculated into albumen with different doses of FB₁, FB₂ or DON, or a combination of FB₁ and DON, or a combination of FB₁ with FB₂ and FB₃. A lower hatching rate was observed in the chicken progenies with the combination of 24 μg of FB₁ and 0.1 μg of DON compared to other treatments. Moreover, typical gizzard ulcerations with hemorrhagic lungs were observed in the progeny of breeder eggs post-inoculation of 24 μg of FB₁ and synergetic inoculation of FB₁ and DON. Finally, residual FB mycotoxins were detected in the gizzards and in the lungs of the progenies. Based on the above evidence, feed-borne FB₁ and DON are dominant mycotoxins in breeder eggs and threatening food security using breeder eggs as a Trojan horse. More importantly, the residual of FB₁ alone and in combination with of DON contamination are associated with low hatching rate and gizzard ulcerations in chicken progenies, hampering sustainable development perspectives of the poultry industry.

Mitigation Effects of Bentonite and Yeast Cell Wall Binders on AFB1, DON, and OTA Induced Changes in Laying Hen Performance, Egg Quality, and Health

The objective of this study was to evaluate the efficacy of mycotoxin binders in reducing the adverse effects of co-occurring dietary aflatoxin B₁ (AFB₁), deoxynivalenol (DON) and ochratoxin A (OTA) on laying hens. Three hundred and sixty 26-week-old Roman laying hens were randomly allocated into four experimental groups with 10 replicates of nine birds each. The four groups received either a basal diet (BD; Control), a BD supplemented with 0.15 mg/kg AFB₁ + 1.5 mg/kg DON + 0.12 mg/kg OTA (Toxins), a BD + Toxins with Toxo-HP binder (Toxins + HP), or a BD + Toxins with TOXO XL binder (Toxins + XL) for 12 weeks. Compared to the control, dietary supplementation of mycotoxins decreased (P < 0.10) total feed intake, total egg weight, and egg-laying rate, but increased feed/egg ratio by 2.5–6.1% and mortality during various experimental periods. These alterations induced by mycotoxins were alleviated by supplementation with both TOXO HP and XL binders (P < 0.10). Furthermore, dietary mycotoxins reduced (P < 0.05) eggshell strength by 12.3% and caused an accumulation of 249 μg/kg of DON in eggs at week 12, while dietary supplementation with TOXO HP or XL mitigated DON-induced changes on eggshell strength and prevented accumulation of DON in eggs (P < 0.05). Moreover, dietary mycotoxins increased relative liver weight, but decreased spleen and proventriculus relative weights by 11.6–22.4% (P < 0.05). Mycotoxin exposure also increased alanine aminotransferase activity and reduced immunoglobulin (Ig) A, IgM, and IgG concentrations in serum by 9.2–26.1% (P < 0.05). Additionally, mycotoxin exposure induced histopathological damage and reduced villus height, villus height/crypt depth, and crypt depth in duodenum, jejunum and (or) ileum (P < 0.05). Notably, most of these histological changes were mitigated by supplementation with both TOXO HP and XL (P < 0.05). In conclusion, the present study demonstrated that the mycotoxin binders TOXO HP and XL can help to mitigate the combined effects of AFB₁, DON, and OTA on laying hen performance, egg quality, and health.

Carry-over of some Fusarium mycotoxins in tissues and eggs of chickens fed experimentally mycotoxin-contaminated diets

Fusarium mycotoxins are fungal contaminants found in different crops intended for human and animal consumption. Due to the co-occurrence of several of mycotoxins, the present study aimed at examining the transfer of these toxins into tissues of broiler chickens and eggs of laying hens fed contaminated diets. After an adaptation period, the chickens were fed contaminated diets containing mg/kg levels of deoxynivalenol (DON), enniatins (ENN A, A₁, B, B₁) and beauvericin (BEA) and high μg/kg levels of HT-2 toxin (HT-2), T-2 toxin (T-2) and zearalenone (ZEN) during a repletion period of two weeks, followed by a depletion period of two weeks. DON, ZEN, T-2 and HT-2 were not carried out into the skin and the liver of broiler chickens. ENN B (20.5 ± 6.6 μg/kg) and BEA (162 ± 55 μg/kg) were found in the liver, while in the skin their respective concentrations were 50 ± 17 μg/kg and 120 ± 16 μg/kg during the first week of the repletion period. Carry-over rates into liver and skin were higher for BEA (1.6% and 1.2%, respectively) than for ENNs (0.1 and 0.4%, respectively). During the depletion period, ENNs and BEA were eliminated from the skin and the liver. ENN B, ENN B₁ and BEA were carried over into eggs at 0.1%, 0.05% and 0.44% upon 2-3 days of feeding the contaminated diet, respectively. These transfers were fully eliminated 9-10 days after feeding the control diet again. These results indicate the transfer of ENN B, ENN B₁ and BEA from feed to chicken offal, meat products and eggs at a very low degree, thus marginally contribute to the total dietary intake of these fusariotoxins for consumers. Nevertheless, taking precautionary measures in the field, harvest, transport and storage of the raw materials is required to keep the mycotoxin concentration in feed below the safe levels.

Physiological impact on layer chickens fed corn distiller's dried grains with solubles naturally contaminated with deoxynivalenol

Objective

An experiment was conducted to investigate the response of laying hens fed corn distiller’s dried grains with solubles (DDGS) that are naturally contaminated with deoxynivalenol (DON).

Methods

One hundred and sixty 52-week-old Lohmann Brown Lite hens were randomly allotted to five dietary treatments with 8 replicates per treatment. The dietary treatments were formulated to provide a range of corn DDGS contaminated with DON from 0% to 20% (i.e., 5% scale of increment). All laying hens were subjected to the same management practices in a controlled environment. Body weight, feed intake and egg production were measured biweekly for the entire 8-week experiment. The egg quality was measured biweekly for 8 weeks. On weeks 4 and 8, visceral organ weights, blood metabolites, intestinal morphology, and blood cytokine concentrations were measured.

Results

The inclusion of corn DDGS contaminated with DON in the diet did not alter (p> 0.05) the body weight, feed intake, hen-day egg production, egg mass and feed efficiency of the laying hens. No difference was found (p>0.05) in the egg quality of hens that were fed the dietary treatments. Furthermore, hens that were fed a diet containing corn DDGS contaminated with DON showed no change (p>0.05) in the visceral organ weights, the blood metabolites, and the cytokine concentrations. The crypt depth increased (p<0.05) as the amount of corn DDGS contaminated with DON increased. Proportionately, the villus height to crypt depth ratio of the laying hens decreased (p<0.05) with the increasing level of corn DDGS contaminated with DON in the diet.

Conclusion

The inclusion of corn DDGS contaminated with DON up to 20% in layer diets did not cause changes in egg production performance and egg quality, which indicates that DON is less toxic at the concentration of 1.00 mg DON/kg.

Deoxynivalenol-3-sulphate is the major metabolite of dietary deoxynivalenol in eggs of laying hens

Previous studies reported very low carry-over of dietary deoxynivalenol (DON) into eggs of laying hens. However, recent studies showed that DON is extensively metabolised to DON-3-sulphate (DON-3S) in chickens. We therefore hypothesised that DON-3S might also be a major DON metabolite in eggs of laying hens fed with DON contaminated diet. The aim of the work was to develop, validate and apply an LC-MS/MS based method for determination of DON, deepoxy-DON (DOM), DON-3S, and DOM-3-sulphate (DOM-3S) in freeze-dried eggs of laying hens. Laying hens were allocated to three treatment groups (negative control (NC); DON low (3.8 mg/kg DON in feed); DON high (7.5 mg/kg DON in feed)) and eggs were collected in the 5th, 7th and 10th week of the trial. DON-3S was identified as the major DON metabolite in eggs for the first time with average concentrations in fresh eggs <0.74 ng/g in the NC, 4.4-6.4 ng/g in the DON low group and 7.9-9.7 ng/g in the DON high group. DON-3S was also the major DON metabolite in chicken plasma, with average concentrations of 6.8±4.1 and 10±7 ng/ml in the DON low and DON high group, respectively. Experiments with intestinal explants indicated that DON-3S is in part already formed in intestinal mucosa cells. Considering the carry-over factor of 0.001, the European guidance value of DON in poultry feed (5 mg/kg), the tolerable daily intake of DON (1 μg/kg body weight and day) and the average egg consumption in Europe (0.5 egg/day/person), there is no significant health risk due to carry-over of DON or DON-3S into eggs, even if the per se non-toxic metabolite DON-3S might be hydrolysed back to free DON in the gut of the egg consumer.

Occurrence and Quantitative Risk Assessment of Twelve Mycotoxins in Eggs and Chicken Tissues in China

Aflatoxins (AFs), deoxynivalenols (DONs), and zearalenones (ZENs) are common mycotoxins that contaminate feedstuff, causing contamination of poultry products. In our study, these mycotoxins were quantified in 152 egg samples collected from markets in Jiangsu (JS), Zhejiang (ZJ), and Shanghai (SH) and in 70 chicken tissue samples (liver, heart, and gizzard) from ZJ in China. The main mycotoxins observed in egg samples were DON, 15-AcDON, and ZEN, although only ZEN family mycotoxins (ZEN, α-ZEL, β-ZEL, and α-ZAL) were detected in chicken tissues. Furthermore, for the first time, we assessed the health risks of exposure of three populations (children, adults, and elder adults) to DONs (DON, 3-AcDON, and 15-AcDON) and ZEN in eggs (from three different areas) and to ZEN in chicken tissues. We show that the mean dietary intake (DI) values and the 97.5th percentile DI values of DON and ZEN through egg ingestion were lower than the provisional maximum tolerable daily intake (PMTDI) (1 μg/kg body weight (BW)/day) for the three populations in the three geographical areas studied. However, eggs contaminated with high levels of DONs and ZEN contributed to a large proportion of the PMTDI of these mycotoxins, especially in children and elder adults. Although ZEN was highly detected in the chicken tissues, no significant health risk was observed.

Characterisation of the Mycobiota on the Shell Surface of Table Eggs Acquired from Different Egg-Laying Hen Breeding Systems

Microbial safety is an important factor contributing to the egg quality. During egg acquisition, there is significant risk of contamination of the eggshell surface with microscopic fungi. Mycelial hyphae may grow on the eggshell surface and penetrate into the egg content. However, there is no information on the populations of microscopic fungi on the eggshell surface and, consequently, on possible production of mycotoxins. Therefore, the aim of the study was to identify the species of microscopic fungi present on the eggshell surface acquired from different breeding systems and to measure the number of selected mycotoxins. The qualitative analysis resulted in the identification of 41 isolates on the surface of eggs. There were 7 isolates from the organic production system, 11 from the free-range production system, 14 from the deep litter indoor housing system and 9 from the cage farming production system. The research proved that the diversification in the population of mycobiota on the eggshells depended on the egg-laying hen breeding system. The microscopic fungi isolated from the eggshells included toxigenic and pathogenic species such as Fusarium culmorum and F. equiseti. As the egg storage time increased, fungi, including the pathogenic species, penetrated through the eggshells. In consequence, mycotoxins were identified in the egg whites. Type-A and type-B trichothecenes were found in the eggshell samples containing F. culmorum.

Fusarium Molds and Mycotoxins: Potential Species-Specific Effects

This review summarizes the information on biochemical and biological activity of the main Fusarium mycotoxins, focusing on toxicological aspects in terms of species-specific effects. Both in vitro and in vivo studies have centered on the peculiarity of the responses to mycotoxins, demonstrating that toxicokinetics, bioavailability and the mechanisms of action of these substances vary depending on the species involved, but additional studies are needed to better understand the specific responses. The aim of this review is to summarize the toxicological responses of the main species affected by Fusarium mycotoxins.

Risks to human and animal health related to the presence of deoxynivalenol and its acetylated and modified forms in food and feed

Deoxynivalenol (DON) is a mycotoxin primarily produced by Fusarium fungi, occurring predominantly in cereal grains. Following the request of the European Commission, the CONTAM Panel assessed the risk to animal and human health related to DON, 3-acetyl-DON (3-Ac-DON), 15-acetyl-DON (15-Ac-DON) and DON-3-glucoside in food and feed. A total of 27,537, 13,892, 7,270 and 2,266 analytical data for DON, 3-Ac-DON, 15-Ac-DON and DON-3-glucoside, respectively, in food, feed and unprocessed grains collected from 2007 to 2014 were used. For human exposure, grains and grain-based products were main sources, whereas in farm and companion animals, cereal grains, cereal by-products and forage maize contributed most. DON is rapidly absorbed, distributed, and excreted. Since 3-Ac-DON and 15-Ac-DON are largely deacetylated and DON-3-glucoside cleaved in the intestines the same toxic effects as DON can be expected. The TDI of 1 μg/kg bw per day, that was established for DON based on reduced body weight gain in mice, was therefore used as a group-TDI for the sum of DON, 3-Ac-DON, 15-Ac-DON and DON-3-glucoside. In order to assess acute human health risk, epidemiological data from mycotoxicoses were assessed and a group-ARfD of 8 μg/kg bw per eating occasion was calculated. Estimates of acute dietary exposures were below this dose and did not raise a health concern in humans. The estimated mean chronic dietary exposure was above the group-TDI in infants, toddlers and other children, and at high exposure also in adolescents and adults, indicating a potential health concern. Based on estimated mean dietary concentrations in ruminants, poultry, rabbits, dogs and cats, most farmed fish species and horses, adverse effects are not expected. At the high dietary concentrations, there is a potential risk for chronic adverse effects in pigs and fish and for acute adverse effects in cats and farmed mink.

The toxic effects of combined aflatoxins and zearalenone in naturally contaminated diets on laying performance, egg quality and mycotoxins residues in eggs of layers and the protective effect of Bacillus subtilis biodegradation product

The toxic effect of aflatoxins (AF) and zearalenone (ZEA) and their combination on laying performance, egg quality and toxins residues in eggs, as well as the efficacy of Bacillus subtilis biodegradation product (BDP) for ameliorating these effects in layers were evaluated. Layers were submitted to a two phase experiment. The first phase was an intoxication period (18-23 wk) with birds fed 7 (3 × 2 + 1) diets (3 treatments with mycotoxins: AF (123.0 μg/kg), ZEA (260.2 μg/kg), or AF + ZEA (123.0 + 260.2 μg/kg); 2 treatments with or without BDP (1000 g/t); and a control group contained no toxins nor BDP). The next phase was a recovery period (24-29 wk) in which birds were fed a toxin-free diet. In the intoxication period, AF and AF + ZEA groups exhibited lower egg production, feed intake and shell thickness, and higher AFB1, AFB2 and AFM1 residues as compared with the control group. In addition, AF and ZEA exerted synergistic effects on egg production and feed intake. Moreover, AF alone or combined with ZEA had a continuous toxic effect on laying performance in the recovery phase. Addition of BDP offset these negative effects, showing that BDP has a protective effect on layers fed contaminated diets.

Toxicokinetics and tissue distribution of nivalenol in broiler chickens

Nivalenol (NIV), a type B trichothecene mycotoxin, is mainly produced by the fungi of Fusarium genus, which naturally occurs in agricultural commodities. Consumers are particularly concerned over the toxicity and safety of NIV in food animal products. To evaluate the toxicokinetics and persistence of residues of NIV, NIV was administered intravenously (iv) or orally (po) to broiler chickens at a dosage of 0.8 mg/kg body weight. The concentration of NIV in the plasma and various tissues was detected using liquid chromatography tandem-mass spectrometry. The plasma concentration of NIV in broilers could be measured up to 24 h and 12 h after iv and po administration, respectively. The value of elimination half-life of NIV was 5.27 ± 0.82 h and 2.51 ± 0.88 h after iv and po administration, respectively. The absolute oral bioavailability was 3.98 ± 0.08%. NIV was detected in the intestine, kidney, muscle, heart and liver after po administration. Regarding tissue residues, largest quantities of NIV were found in the small intestine. These results suggest that NIV is absorbed from the gastrointestinal tract with low bioavailability and it has the ability to diffuse into various tissues of broilers.

A simple sample pretreatment method for multi-mycotoxin determination in eggs by liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry

In this study, a reliable and fast method using a quick, easy, cheap, effective, rugged, and safe (QuEChERS) extraction procedure without any clean-up step was developed for simultaneous extraction of 15 mycotoxins, i.e., aflatoxin B1, aflatoxin B2, aflatoxin G1, aflatoxin G2, aflatoxin M1, aflatoxin M2, deoxynivalenol, 3-acetyldeoxynivalenol, 15-acetyldeoxynivalenol, de-epoxy-DON, zearalenone, α-zearalenol, β-zearalenol, α-zearalanol, and β-zearalanol, from eggs. High-performance liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry was used to separate and detect all of the analytes. Electrospray ionization at both negative and positive modes and multiple reaction-monitoring mode were applied to detect these analytes. The main factors, such as extraction time, extraction solvent, evaporation temperature, and pH of the solvent, were carefully optimized to improve the extraction efficiency. The coefficients of determination of the calibration curves ranged from 0.9884 to 0.9998. The recoveries of most of the analytes were between 71.3% and 105.4% at three concentration levels, except for AFB1 that showed recovery rates of not more than 67.5% in all concentrations. The repeatability and intra-lab reproducibility of this method were both lower than 15% and 25%, respectively. The limit of quantification ranged from 0.2 μg/kg to 5 μg/kg. The matrix effect was evaluated and reduced by the use of matrix-matched calibration curves. The validated method was applied in a pilot study to analyze mycotoxin contamination in 12 eggs, and trace amounts of deoxynivalenol, 15-acetyldeoxynivalenol, aflatoxin B1, aflatoxin G2, zearalenone and β-zearalenol were detected in these samples.

Invited review: Diagnosis of zearalenone (ZEN) exposure of farm animals and transfer of its residues into edible tissues (carry over)

The aim of the review was to evaluate the opportunities for diagnosing the zearalenone (ZEN) exposure and intoxication of farm animals by analyzing biological specimens for ZEN residue levels. Metabolism is discussed to be important when evaluating species-specific consequences for the overall toxicity of ZEN. Besides these toxicological facts, analytics of ZEN residues in various animal-derived matrices requires sensitive, matrix-adapted multi-methods with low limits of quantification, which is more challenging than the ZEN analysis in feed. Based on dose-response experiments with farm animals, the principle usability of various specimens as bio-indicators for ZEN exposure is discussed with regard to individual variation and practicability for the veterinary practitioner. ZEN residue analysis in biological samples does not only enable evaluation of ZEN exposure but also allows the risk for the consumer arising from contaminated foodstuffs of animal origin to be assessed. It was compiled from literature that the tolerable daily intake of 0.25 μg ZEN/kg body weight and day is exploited to approximately 8%, when a daily basket of animal foodstuffs and associated carry over factors are assumed at reported ZEN contamination levels of complete feed.

Fusariotoxins in Avian Species: Toxicokinetics, Metabolism and Persistence in Tissues

Fusariotoxins are mycotoxins produced by different species of the genus Fusarium whose occurrence and toxicity vary considerably. Despite the fact avian species are highly exposed to fusariotoxins, the avian species are considered as resistant to their toxic effects, partly because of low absorption and rapid elimination, thereby reducing the risk of persistence of residues in tissues destined for human consumption. This review focuses on the main fusariotoxins deoxynivalenol, T-2 and HT-2 toxins, zearalenone and fumonisin B1 and B2. The key parameters used in the toxicokinetic studies are presented along with the factors responsible for their variations. Then, each toxin is analyzed separately. Results of studies conducted with radiolabelled toxins are compared with the more recent data obtained with HPLC/MS-MS detection. The metabolic pathways of deoxynivalenol, T-2 toxin, and zearalenone are described, with attention paid to the differences among the avian species. Although no metabolite of fumonisins has been reported in avian species, some differences in toxicokinetics have been observed. All the data reviewed suggest that the toxicokinetics of fusariotoxins in avian species differs from those in mammals, and that variations among the avian species themselves should be assessed.

Development of a liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry method for the simultaneous determination of zearalenone, deoxynivalenol and their metabolites in pig serum

A sensitive and selective liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry method using negative electrospray ionisation (LC-ESI-MS/MS) was developed for the simultaneous determination of zearalenone (ZEN), deoxynivalenol (DON) and their metabolites α-zearalenol, β-zearalenol, zearalanone, α-zearalanol, β-zearalanol and de-epoxy-deoxynivalenol in pig serum. For method development, different sample preparation columns were tested for their suitability for extraction and clean up. Finally, preparation of serum samples was carried out using Oasis™ HLB solid-phase extraction (SPE) columns. The analyte concentrations were determined by the use of isotopically labelled internal standards (IS). The method was in-house validated for all analytes. Calibration graphs (0.3-480 ng/ml) were prepared and high degree of linearity was achieved (r ≥ 0.99). Results for method precision ranged between 2.7 and 21.5 % for inter-day and between 1.1 and 11.1 % for intra-day. The recoveries were in the range of 82-131 %. Limits of detection and quantification ranged 0.03-0.71 and 0.08-2.37 ng/ml, respectively. The method has been successfully used for quantitative determination of ZEN, DON and their metabolites in pig serum from a feeding trial with practically relevant ZEN and DON concentrations. This method is precise and reproducible and can be used as a multi-biomarker method to assess animal exposure to these mycotoxins and for diagnosis of intoxications.

Effects of feeding deoxynivalenol (DON)-contaminated wheat to laying hens and roosters of different genetic background on the reproductive performance and health of the newly hatched chicks

A total of 216 23-week-old laying hens from two different genetic backgrounds (half of the birds were Lohmann brown [LB] and [LSL] hens, respectively) and 24 adult roosters were assigned to a feeding trial to study the effect of increasing concentrations of deoxynivalenol (DON) in the diet (0, 5, 10 mg/kg) on the reproductive performance of hens and roosters, and the health of the newly hatched chicks. Hatchability was adversely affected by the presence of DON in LB hens' diet, while the hatchability of the LSL chicks was significantly higher than LB chicks. An interaction effect between DON in the hens' diet and the breed was noticed on fertility, as the fertility was decreased in the eggs of LB hens receiving 10 mg/kg DON in their diet and increased in the eggs of LSL hens fed 10 mg/kg DON. Moreover, spleen relative weight was significantly decreased in the chicks hatched from eggs of hens fed contaminated diets, while gizzard relative weight was significantly decreased in LB chicks with 10 mg/kg DON in their diet compared with the control group. On the other hand, the chicks' haematology and organ histopathology were not affected by the dietary treatment. Additionally, the presence of DON in the roosters' diet had no effect on fertility (the percentage of fertile eggs of all laid eggs). Consequently, the current results indicate a negative impact of DON in LB hens' diet on fertility and hatchability, indicating that the breed of the hens seems to be an additional factor influencing the effect of DON on reproductive performance of the laying hens.

Single laboratory method validation comparing MS3 with FI/MS fingerprinting, and quantitation strategies for the accurate determination of ochratoxins in beer

The current mycotoxin safety concerns demand the availability of reliable and selective control systems to measure the content of mycotoxins present in daily food. To address this, we report a prospective analytical tool involving the application of a flow injection mass spectrometry (FI/MS) tandem artificial neural network (ANN) strategy to predict the amount of ochratoxin A and B (OTA and OTB) in beer. Triple stage mass spectrometry (MS3) aided by chromatographic separation was applied as a reference method for comparison. 0.1% formic acid and methanol were used to convert ochratoxins into their respective ions under negative MS polarity. For experiments involving MS3, ochratoxins were separated by reversed-phase liquid chromatography in a 6 min run, ionised using electrospray ionisation, and detected by tandem mass spectrometry. Analyte-specific mass-to-charge ratios were used to perform quantitation in MS3 mode. For experiments involving FI/MS, no chromatographic separation was performed. Approximately 2% of the mass spectra was used for model construction. ANN models representing each ochratoxin were individually trained and validated using three sets of matrix-matched and matrix-free calibration curves at nine concentration levels of 2.5, 10, 25, 50, 100, 200, 300, 400 and 500 μg/l. Quintuplicate analyses were made in FI/ MS mode providing a total of 270 spectra for both OTA and OTB. Single measurement was made for each sample in MS3 mode. A root-mean-square error value of <1% was reported for both ochratoxin models in beer. Limits of quantitation were determined to be 0.2 μg/kg for both MS3 and FI/MS mode. Recovery assessment was performed over two days using beer blanks (n=6) spiked at three concentration levels of 5, 100 and 200 μg/kg. Extraction using acetonitrile provided excellent recovery ranges of 88 to 102% for both MS techniques. Relative standard deviations of 10% or better were achieved for interday spike recovery experiments. The successful utilisation of FI/MS without performing chromatographic separation implies the availability of a new analytical tool relevant to the field of mycotoxin analysis, possibly offering analyte specificity exceeding the capability of MS3 through chemometry.

The impact of the Fusarium mycotoxin deoxynivalenol on the health and performance of broiler chickens

The aim of the present experiment was to investigate the effects of feeding grains naturally contaminated with Fusarium mycotoxins on morphometric indices of jejunum and to follow the passage of deoxynivalenol (DON) through subsequent segments of the digestive tract of broilers. A total of 45 1-d-old broiler chickens (Ross 308 males) were randomly allotted to three dietary treatments (15 birds/treatment): (1) control diet; (2) diet contaminated with 1 mg DON/kg feed; (3) diet contaminated with 5 mg DON/kg feed for five weeks. None of the zootechnical traits (body weight, body weight gain, feed intake, and feed conversion) responded to increased DON levels in the diet. However, DON at both dietary levels (1 mg and 5 mg DON/kg feed) significantly altered the small intestinal morphology. In the jejunum, the villi were significantly (P < 0.01) shorter in both DON treated groups compared with the controls. Furthermore, the dietary inclusion of DON decreased (P < 0.05) the villus surface area in both DON treated groups. The absolute or relative organ weights (liver, heart, proventriculus, gizzard, small intestine, spleen, pancreas, colon, cecum, bursa of Fabricius and thymus) were not altered (P > 0.05) in broilers fed the diet containing DON compared with controls. DON and de-epoxy-DON (DOM-1) were analyzed in serum, bile, liver, feces and digesta from consecutive segments of the digestive tract (gizzard, cecum, and rectum). Concentrations of DON and its metabolite DOM-1 in serum, bile, and liver were lower than the detection limits of the applied liquid chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) method. Only about 10 to 12% and 6% of the ingested DON was recovered in gizzard and feces, irrespective of the dietary DON-concentration. However, the DON recovery in the cecum as percentage of DON-intake varied between 18 to 22% and was not influenced by dietary DON-concentration. Interestingly, in the present trial, DOM-1 did not appear in the large intestine and in feces. The results indicate that deepoxydation in the present study hardly occurred in the distal segments of the digestive tract, assuming that the complete de-epoxydation occurs in the proximal small intestine where the majority of the parent toxin is absorbed. In conclusion, diets with DON contamination below levels that induce a negative impact on performance could alter small intestinal morphology in broilers. Additionally, the results confirm that the majority of the ingested DON quickly disappears through the gastrointestinal tract.

Deoxynivalenol and its toxicity

Deoxynivalenol (DON) is one of several mycotoxins produced by certain Fusarium species that frequently infect corn, wheat, oats, barley, rice, and other grains in the field or during storage. The exposure risk to human is directly through foods of plant origin (cereal grains) or indirectly through foods of animal origin (kidney, liver, milk, eggs). It has been detected in buckwheat, popcorn, sorgum, triticale, and other food products including flour, bread, breakfast cereals, noodles, infant foods, pancakes, malt and beer. DON affects animal and human health causing acute temporary nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, abdominal pain, headache, dizziness, and fever. This review briefly summarizes toxicities of this mycotoxin as well as effects on reproduction and their antagonistic and synergic actions.

Multi-mycotoxin analysis in eggs using a QuEChERS-based extraction procedure and ultra-high-pressure liquid chromatography coupled to triple quadrupole mass spectrometry

A reliable and rapid method has been developed for the determination of 10 mycotoxins (beauvericin, enniatin A, A1, B1, citrinin, aflatoxin B1, B2, G1, G2 and ochratoxin A) in eggs at trace levels. Ultra-high-pressure liquid chromatography coupled to tandem mass spectrometry (UHPLC-MS/MS) has been used for the analysis of these compounds in less than 7 min. Mycotoxins have been extracted from egg samples using a QuEChERS-based extraction procedure (Quick, Easy, Cheap, Effective, Rugged and Safe) without applying any further clean-up step. Extraction, chromatographic and detection conditions were optimised in order to increase sample throughput and sensitivity. Matrix-matched calibration was used for quantification. Blank samples were fortified at 10, 25, 50 and 100 μg kg(-1), and recoveries ranged from 70% to 110%, except for ochratoxin A and aflatoxin G1 at 10 μg kg(-1), and aflatoxin G2 at 50 μg kg(-1). Relative standard deviations were lower than 25% in all the cases. Limits of detection ranged from 0.5 μg kg(-1) (for aflatoxins B1, B2 and G1) to 5 μg kg(-1) (for enniatin A, citrinin and ochratoxin A) and limits of quantification ranged from 1 μg kg(-1) (for aflatoxins B1, B2 and G1) to 10 μg kg(-1) (for enniatin A, citrinin and ochratoxin A). Seven samples were analyzed and aflatoxins B1, B2, G1, G2, and beauvericin were detected at trace levels.

Zearalenone occurrence and human exposure

Among the mycotoxins zearalenone (ZEA) is of interest because of the oestrogenic effects that it, and certain of its metabolites possess. The fungi that produce ZEA are found worldwide, particularly in cereal grains and derived products. This has prompted many surveys to detect these compounds in commodities and foods. As a result, the widespread occurrence of ZEA in foods is well documented. Previous summaries including extensive reports by the Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives (JECFA), the European Commission's Scientific Cooperation on Questions Relating to Food (SCOOP), and others, have provided significant information on the occurrence of ZEA in commodities and foods. Publication of occurrence data has continued at a rapid pace, and certain of that data, as well as highlights from previous intake and exposure assessments, are summarised herein. Comparing estimates of intake (exposure) with previous estimates of tolerable daily intakes, suggests that, for many of the countries where exposure assessments have been done, the populations are exposed to levels that would be considered safe. The situation may be different in populations that consume large quantities of foods that are susceptible to contamination, or in instances where contamination is atypically high. For much of the world estimates of exposure have not been reported, meaning that for much of the world, the true extent of the relevance of ZEA to human health remains uncharacterised.

Development and validation of a liquid chromatography/atmospheric pressure photoionization-tandem mass spectrometric method for the analysis of mycotoxins subjected to commission regulation (EC) No. 1881/2006 in cereals

A sensitive and reliable liquid chromatography/photoionization (APPI) tandem mass spectrometry method has been developed for determining nine selected mycotoxins in wheat and maize samples. The analytes were chosen on the basis of the mycotoxins under EU Commission Regulation (EC) No. 1881/2006, i.e., deoxynivalenol (DON), zearalenone (ZON), aflatoxins (AFs), and ochratoxin A (OTA), and considering the possibility of a near future regulation for T-2 and HT-2 toxins. Mycotoxins were extracted from samples by means of an one-step solvent extraction without any cleanup. The developed multi-mycotoxin method permits simultaneous, simple, and rapid determination of several co-existing toxins separated in a single chromatographic run, in which AFs, T-2 and HT-2 toxin are acquired in positive, while OTA, DON and ZON in negative mode. Although a moderate signal suppression was noticeable, matrix effect did not give significant differences at p=0.05. Then, calibration in standard solution were used for quantitation. Based on the EU Commission Decision 2002/657/EC, the method was in-house validated in terms of ruggedness, specificity, linearity, trueness, within-laboratory reproducibility, decision limit (CCalpha) and detection capability (CCbeta). For all the analytes, the regression coefficient r ranged between 0.8752 (DON in wheat) and 0.9465 (ZON in maize), biases related to mean concentrations were from -13% to +12% of the nominal spiking level, and the overall within-laboratory reproducibility ranged 3-16%; finally, CCalpha values did not differ more than 20% and CCbeta not more than 42% from their respective maximum limit. Method quantification limits ranged from 1/20 (AFG1) to 1/4 (AFG2 and OTA) the maximum limit established by European Union in the Commission Regulation (EC) No. 1881/2006 and its subsequent amendments.

Mycotoxin analyses in some home produced eggs in Belgium reveal small contribution to the total daily intake

Low levels of deoxynivalenol (DON, range: 2.6-17.9 ng/g) and its metabolite de-epoxy-DON (DOM-1, range: 2.4-23.7 ng/g) were found in 20 home-produced egg samples collected in Belgium during autumn 2006 (from 10 breeders) and spring 2007 (same breeders). DON intake assessment showed that the consumption of these eggs may contribute to less than 1% of the provisional maximum tolerable daily intake of 1 microg/kg body weight established by FAO/WHO. None of the egg samples analyzed had quantifiable levels of zearalenone (ZEA), alpha-zearalenol, beta-zearalenol, ochratoxin A (OTA) and citrinin (CIT). Intake of DON, ZEA, OTA and CIT via the consumption of home produced eggs seems not to be a matter of concern. Despite this, we recommend to continue in screening other eggs allowing to increase the sample size and the subsequent conclusion for mycotoxin contamination in eggs. As home produced food is generally not submitted to any compliance control and may be consumed in large quantities by their producers and other household members, it is worthwhile to further pay attention to the quality of feed as well as the environment in which the hens live.