Extensive surface diversity of a commensal microorganism by multiple DNA inversions

A pervasive large conjugative plasmid mediates multispecies biofilm formation in the intestinal microbiota increasing resilience to perturbations

Although horizontal gene transfer is pervasive in the intestinal microbiota, we understand only superficially the roles of most exchanged genes and how the mobile repertoire affects community dynamics. Similarly, little is known about the mechanisms underlying the ability of a community to recover after a perturbation. Here, we identified and functionally characterized a large conjugative plasmid that is one of the most frequently transferred elements among Bacteroidales species and is ubiquitous in diverse human populations. This plasmid encodes both an extracellular polysaccharide and fimbriae, which promote the formation of multispecies biofilms in the mammalian gut. We use a hybridization-based approach to visualize biofilms in clarified whole colon tissue with unprecedented 3D spatial resolution. These biofilms increase bacterial survival to common stressors encountered in the gut, increasing strain resiliency, and providing a rationale for the plasmid's recent spread and high worldwide prevalence.

Inflammation and bacteriophages affect DNA inversion states and functionality of the gut microbiota

Reversible genomic DNA inversions control the expression of numerous gut bacterial molecules, but how this impacts disease remains uncertain. By analyzing metagenomic samples from inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) cohorts, we identified multiple invertible regions where a particular orientation correlated with disease. These include the promoter of polysaccharide A (PSA) of Bacteroides fragilis, which induces regulatory T cells (Tregs) and ameliorates experimental colitis. The PSA promoter was mostly oriented "OFF" in IBD patients, which correlated with increased B. fragilis-associated bacteriophages. Similarly, in mice colonized with a healthy human microbiota and B. fragilis, induction of colitis caused a decline of PSA in the "ON" orientation that reversed as inflammation resolved. Monocolonization of mice with B. fragilis revealed that bacteriophage infection increased the frequency of PSA in the "OFF" orientation, causing reduced PSA expression and decreased Treg cells. Altogether, we reveal dynamic bacterial phase variations driven by bacteriophages and host inflammation, signifying bacterial functional plasticity during disease.

Diversity of sugar-diphospholipid-utilizing glycosyltransferase families

Peptidoglycan polymerases, enterobacterial common antigen polymerases, O-antigen ligases, and other bacterial polysaccharide polymerases (BP-Pols) are glycosyltransferases (GTs) that build bacterial surface polysaccharides. These integral membrane enzymes share the particularity of using diphospholipid-activated sugars and were previously missing in the carbohydrate-active enzymes database (CAZy; www.cazy.org ). While the first three classes formed well-defined families of similar proteins, the sequences of BP-Pols were so diverse that a single family could not be built. To address this, we developed a new clustering method using a combination of a sequence similarity network and hidden Markov model comparisons. Overall, we have defined 17 new GT families including 14 of BP-Pols. We find that the reaction stereochemistry appears to be conserved in each of the defined BP-Pol families, and that the BP-Pols within the families transfer similar sugars even across Gram-negative and Gram-positive bacteria. Comparison of the new GT families reveals three clans of distantly related families, which also conserve the reaction stereochemistry.

De novo mutations mediate phenotypic switching in an opportunistic human lung pathogen

Bacteria evolving within human hosts encounter selective tradeoffs that render mutations adaptive in one context and deleterious in another. Here, we report that the cystic fibrosis-associated pathogen Burkholderia dolosa overcomes in-human selective tradeoffs by acquiring successive point mutations that alternate phenotypes. We sequenced the whole genomes of 931 respiratory isolates from two recently infected patients and an epidemiologically-linked, chronically-infected patient. These isolates are contextualized using 112 historical genomes from the same outbreak strain. Within both newly infected patients, diverse parallel mutations that disrupt O-antigen expression quickly arose, comprising 29% and 63% of their B. dolosa communities by 3 years. The selection for loss of O-antigen starkly contrasts with our previous observation of parallel O-antigen-restoring mutations after many years of chronic infection in the historical outbreak. Experimental characterization revealed that O-antigen loss increases uptake in immune cells while decreasing competitiveness in the mouse lung. We propose that the balance of these pressures, and thus whether O-antigen expression is advantageous, depends on tissue localization and infection duration. These results suggest that mutation-driven alternation during infection may be more frequent than appreciated and is underestimated without dense temporal sampling.

Massively parallel single-cell sequencing of diverse microbial populations

Single-cell genetic heterogeneity is ubiquitous in microbial populations and an important aspect of microbial biology; however, we lack a broadly applicable and accessible method to study this heterogeneity in microbial populations. Here, we show a simple, robust and generalizable method for high-throughput single-cell sequencing of target genetic loci in diverse microbes using simple droplet microfluidics devices (droplet targeted amplicon sequencing; DoTA-seq). DoTA-seq serves as a platform to perform diverse assays for single-cell genetic analysis of microbial populations. Using DoTA-seq, we demonstrate the ability to simultaneously track the prevalence and taxonomic associations of >10 antibiotic-resistance genes and plasmids within human and mouse gut microbial communities. This workflow is a powerful and accessible platform for high-throughput single-cell sequencing of diverse microbial populations.

Single-cell phenotyping of bacteria combined with deep sequencing for improved contextualization of microbiome analyses

Great effort was made to characterize the bacterial communities inhabiting the human body as a factor in disease, resulting in the realization that a wide spectrum of diseases is associated with an altered composition of the microbiome. However, the identification of disease-relevant bacteria has been hindered by the high cross-sectional diversity of individual microbiomes, and in most cases, it remains unclear whether the observed alterations are cause or consequence of disease. Hence, innovative analysis approaches are required that enable inquiries of the microbiome beyond mere taxonomic cataloging. This review highlights the utility of microbiota flow cytometry, a single-cell analysis platform to directly interrogate cellular interactions, cell conditions, and crosstalk with the host's immune system within the microbiome to take into consideration the role of microbes as critical interaction partners of the host and the spectrum of microbiome alterations, beyond compositional changes. In conjunction with advanced sequencing approaches it could reveal the genetic potential of target bacteria and advance our understanding of taxonomic diversity and gene usage in the context of the microenvironment. Single-cell bacterial phenotyping has the potential to change our perspective on the human microbiome and empower microbiome research for the development of microbiome-based therapy approaches and personalized medicine.

Intragenic DNA inversions expand bacterial coding capacity

Bacterial populations that originate from a single bacterium are not strictly clonal. Often, they contain subgroups with distinct phenotypes. Bacteria can generate heterogeneity through phase variation: a preprogrammed, reversible mechanism that alters gene expression levels across a population. One well studied type of phase variation involves enzyme-mediated inversion of specific intergenic regions of genomic DNA. Frequently, these DNA inversions flip the orientation of promoters, turning ON or OFF adjacent coding regions within otherwise isogenic populations. Through this mechanism, inversion can affect fitness, survival, or group dynamics. Here, we develop and apply bioinformatic approaches to discover thousands of previously undescribed phase-variable regions in prokaryotes using long-read datasets. We identify 'intragenic invertons', a surprising new class of invertible elements found entirely within genes, in bacteria and archaea. To date, inversions within single genes have not been described. Intragenic invertons allow a gene to encode two or more versions of a protein by flipping a DNA sequence within the coding region, thereby increasing coding capacity without increasing genome size. We experimentally characterize specific intragenic invertons in the gut commensal Bacteroides thetaiotaomicron, presenting a 'roadmap' for investigating this new gene-diversifying phenomenon.

Single-cell analysis of multiple invertible promoters reveals differential inversion rates as a strong determinant of bacterial population heterogeneity

Population heterogeneity can promote bacterial fitness in response to unpredictable environmental conditions. A major mechanism of phenotypic variability in the human gut symbiont Bacteroides spp. involves the inversion of promoters that drive the expression of capsular polysaccharides, which determine the architecture of the cell surface. High-throughput single-cell sequencing reveals substantial population heterogeneity generated through combinatorial promoter inversion regulated by a broadly conserved serine recombinase. Exploiting control over population diversification, we show that populations with different initial compositions converge to a similar composition over time. Combining our data with stochastic computational modeling, we demonstrate that the differential rates of promoter inversion are a major mechanism shaping population dynamics. More broadly, our approach could be used to interrogate single-cell combinatorial phase variable states of diverse microbes including bacterial pathogens.

The Role of Gut Dysbiosis and Potential Approaches to Target the Gut Microbiota in Multiple Sclerosis

It has now been established that a perturbation in gut microbiome composition exists in multiple sclerosis (MS) and its interplay with the immune system and brain could potentially contribute to the development of the disease and influence its course. The effects of the gut microbiota on the disease may be mediated by direct interactions between bacteria and immune cells or through interactions of products of bacterial metabolism with immune and CNS cells. In this review article we summarize the ways in which the gut microbiome of people with MS differs from controls and how bacterial metabolites can potentially play a role in MS pathogenesis, and examine approaches to alter the composition of the gut microbiota potentially alleviating gut dysbiosis and impacting the course of MS.

Dietary sugars silence the master regulator of carbohydrate utilization in human gut Bacteroides species

The mammalian gut microbiota is a critical human health determinant with therapeutic potential for remediation of many diseases. The host diet is a key factor governing the gut microbiota composition by altering nutrient availability and supporting the expansion of distinct microbial populations. Diets rich in simple sugars modify the abundance of microbial subsets, enriching for microbiotas that elicit pathogenic outcomes. We previously demonstrated that diets rich in fructose and glucose can reduce the fitness and abundance of a human gut symbiont, Bacteroides thetaiotaomicron, by silencing the production of a critical intestinal colonization protein, called Roc, via its mRNA leader through an unknown mechanism. We have now determined that dietary sugars silence Roc by reducing the activity of BT4338, a master regulator of carbohydrate utilization. Here, we demonstrate that BT4338 is required for Roc synthesis, and that BT4338 activity is silenced by glucose or fructose. We show that the consequences of glucose and fructose on orthologous transcription factors are conserved across human intestinal Bacteroides species. This work identifies a molecular pathway by which a common dietary additive alters microbial gene expression in the gut that could be harnessed to modulate targeted microbial populations for future therapeutic interventions.

A one month high fat diet disrupts the gut microbiome and integrity of the colon inducing adiposity and behavioral despair in male Sprague Dawley rats

High-fat diet (HFD) is associated with gut microbiome dysfunction and mental disorders. However, the time-dependence as to when this occurs is unclear. We hypothesized that a short-term HFD causes colonic tissue integrity changes resulting in behavioral changes. Rats were fed HFD or low-fat diet (LFD) for a month and gut microbiome, colon, and behavior were evaluated. Behavioral despair was found in the HFD group. Although obesity was absent, the HFD group showed increased percent weight gain, epididymal fat tissue, and leptin expression. Moreover, the HFD group had increased colonic damage, decreased expression of the tight junction proteins, and higher lipopolysaccharides (LPS) in serum. Metagenomic analysis revealed that the HFD group had more Bacteroides and less S24-7 which correlated with the decreased claudin-5. Finally, HFD group showed an increase of microglia percent area, increased astrocytic projections, and decreased phospho-mTOR. In conclusion, HFD consumption in a short period is still sufficient to disrupt gut integrity resulting in LPS infiltration, alterations in the brain, and behavioral despair even in the absence of obesity.

Mercury Induced Tissue Damage, Redox Metabolism, Ion Transport, Apoptosis, and Intestinal Microbiota Change in Red Swamp Crayfish (Procambarus clarkii): Application of Multi-Omics Analysis in Risk Assessment of Hg

As one of the most toxic elements, mercury (Hg) is a widespread toxicant in aquatic environments. Crayfish are considered suitable for indicating the impact of heavy metals on aquatic crustaceans. Nevertheless, Hg toxicity on Procambarus clarkii is largely unknown. In this research, the acute Hg-induced alterations of biochemical responses, histopathology, hepatopancreatic transcriptome, and intestinal microbiome of Procambarus clarkii were studied. Firstly, Hg induced significant changes in reactive oxygen species (ROS) and malonaldehyde (MDA) content as well as antioxidant enzyme activity. Secondly, Hg exposure caused structural damage to the hepatopancreas (e.g., vacuolization of the epithelium and dilatation of the lumen) as well as to the intestines (e.g., dysregulation of lamina epithelialises and extension of lamina proprias). Thirdly, after treatment with three different concentrations of Hg, RNA-seq assays of the hepatopancreas revealed a large number of differentially expressed genes (DEGs) linked to a specific function. Among the DEGs, a lot of redox metabolism- (e.g., ACOX3, SMOX, GPX3, GLO1, and P4HA1), ion transport- (e.g., MICU3, MCTP, PYX, STEAP3, and SLC30A2), drug metabolism- (e.g., HSP70, HSP90A, CYP2L1, and CYP9E2), immune response- (e.g., SMAD4, HDAC1, and DUOX), and apoptosis-related genes (e.g., CTSL, CASP7, and BIRC2) were identified, which suggests that Hg exposure may perturb the redox equilibrium, disrupt the ion homeostasis, weaken immune response and ability, and cause apoptosis. Fourthly, bacterial 16S rRNA gene sequencing showed that Hg exposure decreased bacterial diversity and dysregulated intestinal microbiome composition. At the phylum level, there was a marked decrease in Proteobacteria and an increase in Firmicutes after exposure to high levels of Hg. With regards to genus, abundances of Bacteroides, Dysgonomonas, and Arcobacter were markedly dysregulated after Hg exposures. Our findings elucidate the mechanisms involved in Hg-mediated toxicity in aquatic crustaceans at the tissue, cellular, molecular as well as microbial levels.

Mother-infant transmission of human microbiota

Humans are colonised by a highly adapted microbiota with coevolved functions that promote human health, development and disease resistance. Acquisition and assembly of the microbiota start at birth and recent evidence suggests that it coincides with, and informs, immune system development and regulation in the rapidly growing infant. Several large-scale studies have identified Bifidobacterium and Bacteroides species maternally transmitted to infants, many of which are capable of colonising over the longer term. Disruption of maternal transmission by caesarean section and antibiotic exposure around birth is associated with a higher incidence of pathogen colonisation and immune-related disorders in children. In this review, we discuss key maternally transmitted bacterial species, their sources and their potential role in shaping immune development. Maternal transmission of gut bacteria provides a microbial 'starter kit' for infants which promotes healthy growth and disease resistance. Optimising and nurturing this under-appreciated form of kinship should be considered as a priority.

Atrazine exposure and recovery alter the intestinal structure, bacterial composition and intestinal metabolites of male Pelophylax nigromaculatus

The pesticide atrazine poses a potential threat to the health of frogs living in farmland areas. The exposure concentration in traditional pesticide experiments is usually constant, while pesticide pollution in actual water may fluctuate due to periodic or seasonal application. We examined the effects of different concentrations of atrazine (50, 100 and 500 μg/L) over a 14-day exposure and a 7-day recovery on intestinal histology, bacterial composition and intestinal metabolites of male Pelophylax nigromaculatus. HE staining revealed that after a 14-day atrazine exposure, the 100 μg/L and 500 μg/L groups showed obvious cysts and significantly decreased intestinal crypt depth and villus height. After a 7-day recovery, the damaged intestine in the 100 μg/L group was partially recovered, while in the 500 μg/L exposure group there was no improvement. 16S rRNA gene analysis of intestinal bacteria showed that 500 μg/L atrazine exposure significantly caused a persistent decrease in bacterial α diversity. Compared to the control and other atrazine exposure groups, the 500 μg/L group showed significant changes in the relative abundance of predominant bacteria. In addition, most dominant bacteria in the 500 μg/L recovery group showed significant differences with the 50 μg/L and 100 μg/L recovery groups. Nontargeted metabolomics profiling based on UPLC/MS analysis showed that atrazine exposure and recovery induced changes in the intestinal metabolic profile. The changes in metabolites were mainly related to purine/pyrimidine metabolism, glycine, serine and threonine metabolism, and arginine and proline metabolism. In general, these pathways were closely related to energy metabolism and amino acid metabolism. These results suggest that the short-term exposure to 500 μg/L atrazine causes persistent harm to intestinal health. This study is an important step toward a better understanding of the toxic effects of atrazine exposure and recovery in frog intestines.

Investigation and Alteration of Organic Acid Synthesis Pathways in the Mammalian Gut Symbiont Bacteroides thetaiotaomicron

Members of the gut-dwelling Bacteroides genus have remarkable abilities in degrading a diverse set of fiber polysaccharide structures, most of which are found in the mammalian diet. As part of their metabolism, they convert these fibers to organic acids that can in turn provide energy to their host. While many studies have identified and characterized the genes and corresponding proteins involved in polysaccharide degradation, relatively little is known about Bacteroides genes involved in downstream metabolic pathways. Bacteroides thetaiotaomicron is one of the most studied species from the genus and is representative of this group in producing multiple organic acids as part of its metabolism. We focused here on several organic acid synthesis pathways in B. thetaiotaomicron, including those involved in formate, lactate, propionate, and acetate production. We identified potential genes involved in each pathway and characterized these through gene deletions coupled to growth assays and organic acid quantification. In addition, we developed and employed a Golden Gate-compatible plasmid system to simplify alteration of native gene expression levels. Our work both validates and contradicts previous bioinformatic gene annotations, and we develop a model on which to base future efforts. A clearer understanding of Bacteroides metabolic pathways can inform and facilitate efforts to employ these bacteria for improved human health or other utilization strategies.

IMPORTANCE Both humans and animals host a large community of bacteria and other microorganisms in their gastrointestinal tracts. This community breaks down dietary fiber and produces organic acids that are used as an energy source by the body and can also help the host resist infection by various pathogens. While the Bacteroides genus is one of the most common in the gut microbiota, it is only distantly related to bacteria with well-characterized metabolic pathways and it is therefore unclear whether research insights on organic acid production in those species can also be directly applied to the Bacteroides. By investigating multiple genetic pathways for organic acid production in Bacteroides thetaiotaomicron, we provide a basis for deeper understanding of these pathways. The work further enables greater understanding of Bacteroides–host relationships, as well as inter-species relationships in the microbiota, which are of importance for both human and animal gut health.

Chemical Reporters for Bacterial Glycans: Development and Applications

Bacteria possess an extraordinary repertoire of cell envelope glycans that have critical physiological functions. Pathogenic bacteria have glycans that are essential for growth and virulence but are absent from humans, making them high-priority targets for antibiotic, vaccine, and diagnostic development. The advent of metabolic labeling with bioorthogonal chemical reporters and small-molecule fluorescent reporters has enabled the investigation and targeting of specific bacterial glycans in their native environments. These tools have opened the door to imaging glycan dynamics, assaying and inhibiting glycan biosynthesis, profiling glycoproteins and glycan-binding proteins, and targeting pathogens with diagnostic and therapeutic payload. These capabilities have been wielded in diverse commensal and pathogenic Gram-positive, Gram-negative, and mycobacterial species─including within live host organisms. Here, we review the development and applications of chemical reporters for bacterial glycans, including peptidoglycan, lipopolysaccharide, glycoproteins, teichoic acids, and capsular polysaccharides, as well as mycobacterial glycans, including trehalose glycolipids and arabinan-containing glycoconjugates. We cover in detail how bacteria-targeting chemical reporters are designed, synthesized, and evaluated, how they operate from a mechanistic standpoint, and how this information informs their judicious and innovative application. We also provide a perspective on the current state and future directions of the field, underscoring the need for interdisciplinary teams to create novel tools and extend existing tools to support fundamental and translational research on bacterial glycans.

Bacteroidales species in the human gut are a reservoir of antibiotic resistance genes regulated by invertible promoters

Antibiotic-resistance genes (ARGs) regulated by invertible promoters can mitigate the fitness cost of maintaining ARGs in the absence of antibiotics and could potentially prolong the persistence of ARGs in bacterial populations. However, the origin, prevalence, and distribution of these ARGs regulated by invertible promoters remains poorly understood. Here, we sought to assess the threat posed by ARGs regulated by invertible promoters by systematically searching for ARGs regulated by invertible promoters in the human gut microbiome and examining their origin, prevalence, and distribution. Through metagenomic assembly of 2227 human gut metagenomes and genomic analysis of the Unified Human Gastrointestinal Genome (UHGG) collection, we identified ARGs regulated by invertible promoters and categorized them into three classes based on the invertase-regulating phase variation. In the human gut microbiome, ARGs regulated by invertible promoters are exclusively found in Bacteroidales species. Through genomic analysis, we observed that ARGs regulated by invertible promoters have convergently originated from ARG insertions into glycan-synthesis loci that were regulated by invertible promoters at least three times. Moreover, all three classes of invertible promoters regulating ARGs are located within integrative conjugative elements (ICEs). Therefore, horizontal transfer via ICEs could explain the wide taxonomic distribution of ARGs regulated by invertible promoters. Overall, these findings reveal that glycan-synthesis loci regulated by invertible promoters in Bacteroidales species are an important hotspot for the emergence of clinically-relevant ARGs regulated by invertible promoters.

The potential role of adherence factors in probiotic function in the gastrointestinal tract of adults and pediatrics: a narrative review of experimental and human studies

Numerous studies point to the important role of probiotic bacteria in gastrointestinal health. Probiotics act through mechanisms affecting enteric pathogens, epithelial barrier function, immune signaling, and conditioning of indigenous microbiota. Once administered, probiotics reach the gastrointestinal tract and interact with the host through bacterial surface molecules, here called adhesion factors, which are either strain- or specie-specific. Probiotic adhesion, through structural adhesion factors, is a mechanism that facilitates persistence within the gastrointestinal tract and triggers the initial host responses. Thus, an understanding of specific probiotic adhesion mechanisms could predict how specific probiotic strains elicit benefits and the potential of adherence factors as a proxy to predict probiotic function. This review summarizes the present understanding of probiotic adherence in the gastrointestinal tract. It highlights the bacterial adhesion structure types, their molecular communication with the host and the consequent impact on intestinal diseases in both adult and pediatric populations. Finally, we discuss knockout/isolation studies as direct evidence for adhesion factors conferring anti-inflammatory and pathogen inhibition properties to a probiotic.What is known: Probiotics can be used to treat clinical conditions.Probiotics improve dysbiosis and symptoms.Clinical trials may not confirm in vitro and animal studies.What is new: Adhesion structures may be important for probiotic function.Need to systematically determine physical characteristics of probiotics before selecting for clinical trials.Probiotics may be genetically engineered to add to clinical efficacy.

A Combination of Structural, Genetic, Phenotypic and Enzymatic Analyses Reveals the Importance of a Predicted Fucosyltransferase to Protein O-Glycosylation in the Bacteroidetes

Diverse members of the Bacteroidetes phylum have general protein O-glycosylation systems that are essential for processes such as host colonization and pathogenesis. Here, we analyzed the function of a putative fucosyltransferase (FucT) family that is widely encoded in Bacteroidetes protein O-glycosylation genetic loci. We studied the FucT orthologs of three Bacteroidetes species-Tannerella forsythia, Bacteroides fragilis, and Pedobacter heparinus. To identify the linkage created by the FucT of B. fragilis, we elucidated the full structure of its nine-sugar O-glycan and found that l-fucose is linked β1,4 to glucose. Of the two fucose residues in the T. forsythia O-glycan, the fucose linked to the reducing-end galactose was shown by mutational analysis to be l-fucose. Despite the transfer of l-fucose to distinct hexose sugars in the B. fragilis and T. forsythia O-glycans, the FucT orthologs from B. fragilis, T. forsythia, and P. heparinus each cross-complement the B. fragilis ΔBF4306 and T. forsythia ΔTanf_01305 FucT mutants. In vitro enzymatic analyses showed relaxed acceptor specificity of the three enzymes, transferring l-fucose to various pNP-α-hexoses. Further, glycan structural analysis together with fucosidase assays indicated that the T. forsythia FucT links l-fucose α1,6 to galactose. Given the biological importance of fucosylated carbohydrates, these FucTs are promising candidates for synthetic glycobiology.

Gut biofilms: Bacteroides as model symbionts to study biofilm formation by intestinal anaerobes

Bacterial biofilms are communities of adhering bacteria that express distinct properties compared to their free-living counterparts, including increased antibiotic tolerance and original metabolic capabilities. Despite the potential impact of the biofilm lifestyle on the stability and function of the dense community of micro-organisms constituting the mammalian gut microbiota, the overwhelming majority of studies performed on biofilm formation by gut bacteria focused either on minor and often aerobic members of the community or on pathogenic bacteria. In this review, we discuss the reported evidence for biofilm-like structures formed by gut bacteria, the importance of considering the anaerobic nature of gut biofilms and we present the most recent advances on biofilm formation by Bacteroides, one of the most abundant genera of the human gut microbiota. Bacteroides species can be found attached to food particles and colonizing the mucus layer and we propose that Bacteroides symbionts are relevant models to probe the physiology of gut microbiota biofilms.

Roles of the Cell Surface Architecture of Bacteroides and Bifidobacterium in the Gut Colonization

There are numerous bacteria reside within the mammalian gastrointestinal tract. Among the intestinal bacteria, Akkermansia, Bacteroides, Bifidobacterium, and Ruminococcus closely interact with the intestinal mucus layer and are, therefore, known as mucosal bacteria. Mucosal bacteria use host or dietary glycans for colonization via adhesion, allowing access to the carbon source that the host’s nutrients provide. Cell wall or membrane proteins, polysaccharides, and extracellular vesicles facilitate these mucosal bacteria-host interactions. Recent studies revealed that the physiological properties of Bacteroides and Bifidobacterium significantly change in the presence of co-existing symbiotic bacteria or markedly differ with the spatial distribution in the mucosal niche. These recently discovered strategic colonization processes are important for understanding the survival of bacteria in the gut. In this review, first, we introduce the experimental models used to study host-bacteria interactions, and then, we highlight the latest discoveries on the colonization properties of mucosal bacteria, focusing on the roles of the cell surface architecture regarding Bacteroides and Bifidobacterium.

The effect of atrazine on intestinal histology, microbial community and short chain fatty acids in Pelophylax nigromaculatus tadpoles

The intestine is the main organ for nutrient absorption in amphibians. It is sensitive to atrazine, which is a herbicide widely used in agricultural areas. At present, there is a lack of systematic research on the effect of atrazine on the amphibian intestine. In this study, we evaluated the effects of atrazine exposure (0, 50 μg/L, 100 μg/L, and 500 μg/L) for 20 days on intestinal histology, microbiota and short chain fatty acids in Pelophylax nigromaculatus tadpoles. Our research showed that 500 μg/L atrazine exposure significantly decreased the height of microvilli and epithelial cells, and altered the composition and diversity of intestinal microbiota in P. nigromaculatus tadpoles compared to the control. At the phylum level, the abundance of Bacteroidetes and Fusobacteria increased significantly, while that of Verrucomicrobia and Firmicutes decreased significantly in the 500 μg/L atrazine treatment group. At the genus level, Akkermansia and Lactococcus had significantly lower abundance in the 100 μg/L and 500 μg/L atrazine exposure group, while Cetobacterium was only detected in the 100 μg/L and 500 μg/L atrazine treated group. Also, function prediction of intestinal microbiota showed that atrazine treatment significantly changed the metabolism pathways of P. nigromaculatus tadpoles. In addition, 500 μg/L atrazine exposure changed the content of short chain fatty acids by significantly increasing the content of total SFCAs, butyric acid, and valeric acid, and decreasing the content of isovaleric acid in the intestine. Taken together, atrazine exposure could affect the intestinal histology and induce intestinal microbiota imbalance and metabolic disorder in amphibian tadpoles.

The aadE*-sat4-aphA-3 Gene Cluster of Mycoplasma bovirhinis HAZ141_2 Undergoes Genomic Rearrangements Influencing the Primary Promoter Sequence

The 54 kb GC-rich prophage region of Mycoplasma bovirhinis HAZ141_2 contains three structural 'compartments', one of which is a highly transmittable cluster of three genes, aadE-like (aadE*), sat4, and aphA-3. In this study, we characterized recombination events and their consequences occurred within the aadE*-sat4-aphA-3 containing region. Analysis of this region revealed direct repeats (DRs) of 155 and invert repeats (IRs) of 197 base pairs (bps) each, flanking and overlapping with the primary promoter P* located upstream of the aadE*. Two recombination events, including inversions via both 197 and 155-bp IRs (the latter become inverted after the initial 197-bp IRs associated inversion) and the excision of the aadE*-sat4-aphA-3 cluster, were confirmed. Inversion via 155-IRs results in changes within the P* promoter region. Using Escherichia coli JM109 carrying plasmids containing derivatives of the aadE*-sat4-aphA-3 cluster, we validated the expression of those genes from different promoters. Our results showed no difference in the minimal inhibitory concentrations (MICs) to kanamycin and neomycin and only 2-fold decrease in MIC (from 512 to 256 μg/mL) to nourseothricin between the wild type and a P* derivative promoter. However, the MICs to kanamycin and neomycin were at least 4-fold lower in the construct where aphA-3 expressed under its P2 promoter (128 µg/mL) in comparison to the construct where aphA-3 expressed under P1″ promoter located within the sat4 gene (512-1024 µg/mL). PCR confirmed the excision of the aadE*-sat4-aphA-3 cluster via 197- and 155-bp DRs, but no selection of antibiotic-sensitive M. bovirhinis were obtained after 100 passages in kanamycin-free medium.

A Novel Family of RNA-Binding Proteins Regulate Polysaccharide Metabolism in Bacteroides thetaiotaomicron

Human gut microbiome composition is constantly changing, and diet is a major driver of these changes. Gut microbial species that persist in mammalian hosts for long periods of time must possess mechanisms for sensing and adapting to nutrient shifts to avoid being outcompeted. Global regulatory mechanisms mediated by RNA-binding proteins (RBPs) that govern responses to nutrient shifts have been characterized in Proteobacteria and Firmicutes but remain undiscovered in the Bacteroidetes. Here, we report the identification of RBPs that are broadly distributed across the Bacteroidetes, with many genomes encoding multiple copies. Genes encoding these RBPs are highly expressed in many Bacteroides species. A purified RBP, RbpB, from Bacteroides thetaiotaomicron binds to single-stranded RNA in vitro with an affinity similar to other characterized regulatory RBPs. B. thetaiotaomicron mutants lacking RBPs show dramatic shifts in expression of polysaccharide utilization and capsular polysaccharide loci, suggesting that these RBPs may act as global regulators of polysaccharide metabolism. A B. thetaiotaomicron ΔrbpB mutant shows a growth defect on dietary sugars belonging to the raffinose family of oligosaccharides (RFOs). The ΔrbpB mutant had reduced expression of BT1871, encoding a predicted RFO-degrading melibiase, compared to the wild-type strain. Mutation of BT1871 confirmed that the enzyme it encodes is essential for growth on melibiose and promotes growth on the RFOs raffinose and stachyose. Our data reveal that RbpB is required for optimal expression of BT1871 and other polysaccharide-related genes, suggesting that we have identified an important new family of global regulatory proteins in the Bacteroidetes. IMPORTANCE The human colon houses hundreds of bacterial species, including many belonging to the genus Bacteroides, that aid in breaking down our food to keep us healthy. Bacteroides have many genes responsible for breaking down different dietary carbohydrates, and complex regulatory mechanisms ensure that specific genes are only expressed when the right carbohydrates are available. In this study, we discovered that Bacteroides use a family of RNA-binding proteins as global regulators to coordinate expression of carbohydrate utilization genes. The ability to turn different carbohydrate utilization genes on and off in response to changing nutrient conditions is critical for Bacteroides to live successfully in the gut, and thus the new regulators we have identified may be important for life in the host.

THE INTESTINAL COMMENSAL, Bacteroides fragilis, MODULATES HOST RESPONSES TO VIRAL INFECTION AND THERAPY: LESSONS FOR EXPLORATION DURING Mycobacterium tuberculosis INFECTION

The gut microbiota has emerged as a critical player in host health. Bacteroides fragilis is a prominent member of the gut microbiota within the phyla Bacteroidetes. This commensal bacterium produces unique capsular polysaccharides processed by antigen-presenting cells and activates CD4⁺ T cells to secrete inflammatory cytokines. Indeed, due to their immunomodulatory functions, B. fragilis and its capsular polysaccharide-A (PSA) are arguably the most explored single commensal microbiota/symbiotic factor. B. fragilis/PSA has been shown to protect against colitis, encephalomyelitis, colorectal cancer, pulmonary inflammation, and asthma. Here, we review (1) recent data on the immunomodulatory role of B. fragilis/PSA during viral infections and therapy, (2) B. fragilis PSA's dual ability to mediate pro-and anti-inflammatory processes, and the potential for exploring this unique characteristic during intracellular bacterial infections such as with Mycobacterium tuberculosis (3) discuss the protective roles of single commensal-derived probiotic species including B. fragilis in lung inflammation and respiratory infections that may provide essential cues for possible exploration of microbiota based/augmented therapies in tuberculosis (TB). Available data on the relationship between B. fragilis/PSA, the immune system, and disease suggest clinical relevance for developing B. fragilis into a next-generation probiotic or, possibly, the engineering of PSA into a potent carbohydrate-based vaccine.

Small RNAs go global in human gut Bacteroides

The last two decades have seen numerous studies connecting physiological behaviors in Bacteroides-including polysaccharide degradation and capsule production-with elements of global regulation, but a complete model is still elusive. A new study by Adams et al. in this issue of the Journal of Bacteriology reveals another layer of regulation by describing a novel family of RNA-binding proteins (Rbps) in Bacteroides thetaiotaomicron that modify expression of genes involved in carbohydrate utilization and capsule expression, among others.

Exploring the Gut-Brain Axis for the Control of CNS Inflammatory Demyelination: Immunomodulation by Bacteroides fragilis' Polysaccharide A

The symbiotic relationship between animals and their resident microorganisms has profound effects on host immunity. The human microbiota comprises bacteria that reside in the gastrointestinal tract and are involved in a range of inflammatory and autoimmune diseases. The gut microbiota's immunomodulatory effects extend to extraintestinal tissues, including the central nervous system (CNS). Specific symbiotic antigens responsible for inducing immunoregulation have been isolated from different bacterial species. Polysaccharide A (PSA) of Bacteroides fragilis is an archetypical molecule for host-microbiota interactions. Studies have shown that PSA has beneficial effects in experimental disease models, including experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE), the most widely used animal model for multiple sclerosis (MS). Furthermore, in vitro stimulation with PSA promotes an immunomodulatory phenotype in human T cells isolated from healthy and MS donors. In this review, we discuss the current understanding of the interactions between gut microbiota and the host in the context of CNS inflammatory demyelination, the immunomodulatory roles of gut symbionts. More specifically, we also discuss the immunomodulatory effects of B. fragilis PSA in the gut-brain axis and its therapeutic potential in MS. Elucidation of the molecular mechanisms responsible for the microbiota's impact on host physiology offers tremendous promise for discovering new therapies.

Infection with Bacteroides Phage BV01 Alters the Host Transcriptome and Bile Acid Metabolism in a Common Human Gut Microbe

Gut-associated phages are hypothesized to alter the abundance and activity of their bacterial hosts, contributing to human health and disease. Although temperate phages constitute a significant fraction of the gut virome, the effects of lysogenic infection are underexplored. We report that the temperate phage, Bacteroides phage BV01, broadly alters its host's transcriptome, the prominent human gut symbiont Bacteroides vulgatus. This alteration occurs through phage-induced repression of a tryptophan-rich sensory protein (TspO) and represses bile acid deconjugation. Because microbially modified bile acids are important signals for the mammalian host, this is a mechanism by which a phage may influence mammalian phenotypes. Furthermore, BV01 and its relatives in the proposed phage family Salyersviridae are ubiquitous in human gut metagenomes, infecting a broad range of Bacteroides hosts. These results demonstrate the complexity of phage-bacteria-mammal relationships and emphasize a need to better understand the role of temperate phages in the gut microbiome.

Microbiota and Metabolites as Factors Influencing Blood Pressure Regulation

The study of microbes has rapidly expanded in recent years due to a surge in our understanding that humans host a plethora of commensal microbes, which reside in their bodies and depending upon their composition, contribute to either normal physiology or pathophysiology. This article provides a general foundation for learning about host-commensal microbial interactions as an emerging area of research. The article is divided into two sections. The first section is dedicated to introducing commensal microbiota and its known effects on the host. The second section is on metabolites, which are biochemicals that the host and the microbes use for bi-directional communication with each other. Together, the sections review what is known about how microbes interact with the host to impact cardiovascular physiology, especially blood pressure regulation. © 2021 American Physiological Society. Compr Physiol 11:1731-1757, 2021.

Identification of an N-acetylneuraminic acid-presenting bacteria isolated from a human microbiome

N-Acetylneuraminic acid is the most abundant sialic acid (SA) in humans and is expressed as the terminal sugar on intestinal mucus glycans. Several pathogenic bacteria harvest and display host SA on their own surfaces to evade Siglec-mediated host immunity. While previous studies have identified bacterial enzymes associated with SA catabolism, no reported methods permit the selective labeling, tracking, and quantitation of SA-presenting microbes within complex multi-microbial systems. We combined metabolic labeling, click chemistry, 16S rRNA gene, and whole-genome sequencing to track and identify SA-presenting microbes from a cultured human fecal microbiome. We isolated a new strain of Escherichia coli that incorporates SA onto its own surface and encodes for the nanT, neuA, and neuS genes necessary for harvesting and presenting SA. Our method is applicable to the identification of SA-presenting bacteria from human, animal, and environmental microbiomes, as well as providing an entry point for the investigation of surface-expressed SA-associated structures.

Effescts of acute diclofenac exposure on intestinal histology, antioxidant defense, and microbiota in freshwater crayfish (Procambarus clarkii)

In the present study, we exposed Procambarus clarkii to different doses (0, 1, and 10 mg/L) of diclofenac (DCF). Meanwhile, we investigated the effects of exposure to DCF on intestinal histology, antioxidant defense, and microbial communities in P. clarkii. The results showed DCF caused histological changes in the intestines. Additionally, DCF induced significant changes in the expression of antioxidant genes including Mn-sod, cat, gst, and gpx. High-throughput sequencing of 16 S rRNA gene revealed DCF changed the diversity, richness, and composition of intestinal microbial communities. The relative abundances of the predominant phyla Proteobacteria, Firmicutes, Bacteroidetes, and Actinobacteria showed significant changes at the phylum level after treatment with DCF. At the genus level, the most predominant genera with marked differences in abundance were Lucibacterium, Shewanella, Bacteroides, Anaerorhabdus, Aeromonas, Acinetobacter, Clostridium XlVb, Arcobacter, Bosea, and so on. To conclude, treatment with DCF could cause intestinal histological damage, induce significant changes of the expression of intestinal antioxidant genes, and impact the composition of intestinal microbiota in P. clarkii. This research will provide novel insights into the toxic effects of DCF on aquatic crustaceans.

Inflammatory Bowel Diseases (IBD) and the Microbiome-Searching the Crime Scene for Clues

Inflammatory bowel diseases (IBD) develop via convergence of environmental, microbial, immunological, and genetic factors. Alterations in the gut microbiota have been associated with development and progression of IBD, but it is not clear which populations of microbes are involved or how they might contribute to IBD. We review the genetic and environmental factors affecting the gut microbiota, the roles of gut microbes and their bioproducts in the development and clinical course of IBD, and strategies by which microbiome-based therapies can be used to prevent, manage, and eventually cure IBD. We discuss research findings that help bridge the gap between the basic sciences and clinical application.

Analysis of a phase-variable restriction modification system of the human gut symbiont Bacteroides fragilis

The genomes of gut Bacteroidales contain numerous invertible regions, many of which contain promoters that dictate phase-variable synthesis of surface molecules such as polysaccharides, fimbriae, and outer surface proteins. Here, we characterize a different type of phase-variable system of Bacteroides fragilis, a Type I restriction modification system (R-M). We show that reversible DNA inversions within this R-M locus leads to the generation of eight specificity proteins with distinct recognition sites. In vitro grown bacteria have a different proportion of specificity gene combinations at the expression locus than bacteria isolated from the mammalian gut. By creating mutants, each able to produce only one specificity protein from this region, we identified the R-M recognition sites of four of these S-proteins using SMRT sequencing. Transcriptome analysis revealed that the locked specificity mutants, whether grown in vitro or isolated from the mammalian gut, have distinct transcriptional profiles, likely creating different phenotypes, one of which was confirmed. Genomic analyses of diverse strains of Bacteroidetes from both host-associated and environmental sources reveal the ubiquity of phase-variable R-M systems in this phylum.

Enterotoxigenic Bacteroides fragilis induces the stemness in colorectal cancer via upregulating histone demethylase JMJD2B

The enrichment of Enterotoxigenic Bacteroides fragilis (ETBF) has been identified in CRC patients and associated with worse prognosis. Cancer stem cells (CSCs) play essential roles in CRC development. However, whether ETBF is involved in CSCs regulation is unknown. To clarify the role of ETBF in CSCs properties, we performed extreme limited dilution assays (ELDA) in nude mice injected with ETBF-treated or untreated CRC cells subcutaneously, tumor organoids culture in azoxymethane (AOM) mouse model after gavaging with or without ETBF, and cell sphere formation assay after incubating CRC cell lines with or without ETBF. The results indicated that ETBF increased the stemness of CRC cells in vivo and in vitro. Furthermore, ETBF enhanced the expression of core stemness transcription factors Nanog homeobox (NANOG) and sex determining region Y-box 2 (SOX2). Histone H3 Lysine 9 trimethylation (H3K9me3) is critical in regulating CSCs properties. As an epigenetic and transcriptional regulator, JmjC-domain containing histone demethylase 2B (JMJD2B) is essential for embryonic stem cell (ESC) transformation and H3K9me3 demethylation. Mechanistically, ETBF infection significantly upregulated JMJD2B levels in CRC cell lines and nude mice xenograft model. JMJD2B epigenetically upregulated NANOG expression via demethylating its promoter H3K9me3, to mediate ETBF-induced stemness of CRC cells. Subsequently, we found that the Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) pathway, activated by ETBF, contributed to the enhanced expression of JMJD2B via nuclear transcription factor nuclear factor of activated T cells 5 (NFAT5). Finally, in human CRC samples, the amount of ETBF positively correlated with nuclear NFAT5, JMJD2B, and NANOG expression levels. In summary, ETBF upregulated JMJD2B levels in a TLR4-NFAT5-dependent pathway, and played an important role in stemness regulation, which promoted colorectal carcinogenesis.

Microbial adaptation to the healthy and inflamed gut environments

There are 100 trillion diverse bacterial residents in the mammalian gut. Commensal bacterial species/strains cooperate and compete with each other to establish a well-balanced community, crucial for the maintenance of host health. Pathogenic bacteria hijack cooperative mechanisms or use strategies to evade competitive mechanisms to establish infection. Moreover, pathogenic bacteria cause marked environmental changes in the gut, such as the induction of inflammation, which fosters the selective growth of pathogens. In this review, we summarize the latest findings concerning the mechanisms by which commensal bacterial species/strains colonize the gut through cooperative or competitive behaviors. We also review the mechanisms by which pathogenic bacteria adapt to the inflamed gut and thrive at the expense of commensal bacteria. The understanding of bacterial adaptation to the healthy and the inflamed gut may provide new bacteria-targeted therapeutic approaches that selectively promote the expansion of beneficial commensal bacteria or limit the growth of pathogenic bacteria.

Characterization of Polysaccharide A Response Reveals Interferon Responsive Gene Signature and Immunomodulatory Marker Expression

Polysaccharide A (PSA), a capsular carbohydrate from the commensal gut bacteria Bacteroides fragilis, has been shown to possess both potent T cell-dependent pro- and anti-inflammatory properties. PSA is able to induce abscess and adhesion formation in sepsis models, but can also inhibit asthma, inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) and experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE) through MHCII-dependent activation of CD4+ T cells. Yet, despite decades of study, the ability of PSA to balance both these pro- and anti-inflammatory responses remains poorly understood. Here, we utilized an unbiased systems immunology approach consisting of RNAseq transcriptomics, high-throughput flow cytometry, and Luminex analysis to characterize the full impact of PSA-mediated stimulation of CD4+ T cells. We found that exposure to PSA resulted in the upregulation and secretion of IFNγ, TNFα, IL-6, and CXCL10, consistent with an interferon responsive gene (IRG) signature. Importantly, PSA stimulation also led to expression of immune checkpoint markers Lag3, Tim3, and, especially, PD1, which were also enriched and sustained in the gut associated lymphoid tissue of PSA-exposed mice. Taken together, PSA responding cells display an unusual mixture of pro-inflammatory cytokines and anti-inflammatory surface receptors, consistent with the ability to both cause and inhibit inflammatory disease.

Site-Specific Recombination - How Simple DNA Inversions Produce Complex Phenotypic Heterogeneity in Bacterial Populations

Many bacterial species generate phenotypically heterogeneous subpopulations as a strategy for ensuring the survival of the population as a whole - an environmental stress that eradicates one subpopulation may leave other phenotypic groups unharmed, allowing the lineage to continue. Phase variation, a process that functions as an ON/OFF switch for gene expression, is one way that bacteria achieve phenotypic heterogeneity. Phase variation occurs stochastically and reversibly, and in the presence of a selective pressure the advantageous phenotype(s) predominates in the population. Phase variation can occur through multiple genetic and epigenetic mechanisms. This review focuses on conservative site-specific recombination that generates reversible DNA inversions as a genetic mechanism mediating phase variation. Recent studies have sparked a renewed interest in phase variation mediated through DNA inversion, revealing a high level of complexity beyond simple ON/OFF switching, including unusual modes of gene regulation, and highlighting an underappreciation of the use of these mechanisms by bacteria.

Phase-variable capsular polysaccharides and lipoproteins modify bacteriophage susceptibility in Bacteroides thetaiotaomicron

A variety of cell surface structures dictate interactions between bacteria and their environment, including their viruses (bacteriophages). Members of the human gut Bacteroidetes characteristically produce several phase-variable capsular polysaccharides (CPSs), but their contributions to bacteriophage interactions are unknown. To begin to understand how CPSs have an impact on Bacteroides-phage interactions, we isolated 71 Bacteroides thetaiotaomicron-infecting bacteriophages from two locations in the United States. Using B. thetaiotaomicron strains that express defined subsets of CPSs, we show that CPSs dictate host tropism for these phages and that expression of non-permissive CPS variants is selected under phage predation, enabling survival. In the absence of CPSs, B. thetaiotaomicron escapes bacteriophage predation by altering expression of eight distinct phase-variable lipoproteins. When constitutively expressed, one of these lipoproteins promotes resistance to multiple bacteriophages. Our results reveal important roles for Bacteroides CPSs and other cell surface structures that allow these bacteria to persist under bacteriophage predation, and hold important implications for using bacteriophages therapeutically to target gut symbionts.

Roles of intestinal bacteroides in human health and diseases

Bacteroides, an abundant genus in the intestines of mammals, has been recently considered as the next generation probiotics (NGP) candidate due to its potential role in promoting host health. However, the role of Bacteroides in the development of intestinal dysfunctions such as diarrhea, inflammatory bowel disease, and colorectal cancer should not be overlooked. In the present study, we focused on nine most widely occurred and abundant Bacteroides species and discussed their roles in host immunity, glucose and lipid metabolism and the prevention or induction of diseases. Besides, we also discussed the current methods used in the safety evaluation of Bacteroides species and key opinions about the concerns of these strains for the future use.

Modular prophage interactions driven by capsule serotype select for capsule loss under phage predation

Klebsiella species are able to colonize a wide range of environments and include worrisome nosocomial pathogens. Here, we sought to determine the abundance and infectivity of prophages of Klebsiella to understand how the interactions between induced prophages and bacteria affect population dynamics and evolution. We identified many prophages in the species, placing these taxa among the top 5% of the most polylysogenic bacteria. We selected 35 representative strains of the Klebsiella pneumoniae species complex to establish a network of induced phage-bacteria interactions. This revealed that many prophages are able to enter the lytic cycle, and subsequently kill or lysogenize closely related Klebsiella strains. Although 60% of the tested strains could produce phages that infect at least one other strain, the interaction network of all pairwise cross-infections is very sparse and mostly organized in modules corresponding to the strains' capsule serotypes. Accordingly, capsule mutants remain uninfected showing that the capsule is a key factor for successful infections. Surprisingly, experiments in which bacteria are predated by their own prophages result in accelerated loss of the capsule. Our results show that phage infectiousness defines interaction modules between small subsets of phages and bacteria in function of capsule serotype. This limits the role of prophages as competitive weapons because they can infect very few strains of the species complex. This should also restrict phage-driven gene flow across the species. Finally, the accelerated loss of the capsule in bacteria being predated by their own phages, suggests that phages drive serotype switch in nature.

Capsular Polysaccharide Cross-Regulation Modulates Bacteroides thetaiotaomicron Biofilm Formation

Bacteroides thetaiotaomicron is one of the most abundant gut symbiont species, whose contribution to host health through its ability to degrade dietary polysaccharides and mature the immune system is under intense scrutiny. In contrast, adhesion and biofilm formation, which are potentially involved in gut colonization and microbiota structure and stability, have hardly been investigated in this intestinal bacterium. To uncover B. thetaiotaomicron biofilm-related functions, we performed a transposon mutagenesis in the poorly biofilm-forming reference strain VPI-5482 and showed that capsule 4, one of the eight B. thetaiotaomicron capsules, hinders biofilm formation. We then showed that the production of capsules 1, 2, 3, 5, and 6 also inhibits biofilm formation and that decreased capsulation of the population correlated with increased biofilm formation, suggesting that capsules could be masking adhesive surface structures. In contrast, we showed that capsule 8 displayed intrinsic adhesive properties. Finally, we demonstrated that BT2934, the wzx homolog of the B. thetaiotaomicron glycosylation locus, competes with capsule production and impacts its adhesion capacity. This study therefore establishes B. thetaiotaomicron capsule regulation as a major determinant of B. thetaiotaomicron biofilm formation, providing new insights into how modulation of different B. thetaiotaomicron surface structures affects in vitro biofilm formation.IMPORTANCE The human gut harbors a complex bacterial community that plays important roles in host health and disease, including nutrient acquisition, maturation of the immune system, and resistance to infections. The capacity to adhere to surfaces and form communities called biofilms is believed to be important for niche colonization and maintenance of gut bacteria. However, little is known about the adhesion capacity of most gut bacteria. In this study, we investigated biofilm formation in Bacteroides thetaiotaomicron, one of the most abundant bacteria of the normal mammalian intestine. We identified that B. thetaiotaomicron capsules, a group of eight surface-exposed polysaccharidic layers mediating important interactions with the gut environment, are also major determinants of biofilm formation that mask or unmask adhesion factors. Studying how B. thetaiotaomicron regulates its adhesion properties will allow us to better understand the physiology and specific properties of this important gut symbiont within anaerobic biofilms.

Host responses to mucosal biofilms in the lung and gut

The impact of the human microbiome on health and disease is of utmost importance and has been studied intensively in recent years. Microbes promote immune system development and are essential to the production and absorption of nutrients for the host but are also implicated in disease pathogenesis. Particularly, bacterial biofilms have long been recognized as contributors to chronic infections and diseases in humans. However, our understanding of how the host responds to the presence of biofilms, specifically the immune response to biofilms, and how this contributes to disease pathogenesis is limited. This review aims to highlight what is known about biofilm formation and in vivo models available for the biofilm study. We critique the contribution of biofilms to human diseases, focusing on the lung diseases, cystic fibrosis and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, and the gut diseases, inflammatory bowel disease and colorectal cancer.

Immunomodulatory Roles of Polysaccharide Capsules in the Intestine

The interplay between the immune system and the microbiota in the human intestine dictates states of health vs. disease. Polysaccharide capsules are critical elements of bacteria that protect bacteria against environmental and host factors, including the host immune system. This review summarizes the mechanisms by which polysaccharide capsules from commensal and pathogenic bacteria in the gut microbiota modulate the innate and adaptive immune systems in the intestine. A deeper understanding of the roles of polysaccharide capsules in microbiota-immune interactions will provide a basis to harness their therapeutic potential to advance human health.

Effects of cadmium on intestinal histology and microbiota in freshwater crayfish (Procambarus clarkii)

In this study, Procambarus clarkii (P. clarkii) were exposed to different concentrations (0, 2, 5 and 10 mg/L) of cadmium (Cd). We studied the effects of Cd exposure on intestinal histology and microbiota in P. clarkii. The results demonstrated that exposure to Cd caused histological alterations in the intestines of P. clarkii. Meanwhile, high-throughput sequencing analysis revealed that Cd exposure could alter the richness, diversity, and composition of intestinal microbiota in P. clarkii. At the phylum level, the relative abundances of the prevalent phyla Firmicutes, Proteobacteria, Bacteroidetes, Fusobacteria, and Actinobacteria changed significantly after exposure to Cd. At the genus level, the most prevalent genera with significant difference in relative abundance were Bacteroides, Clostridium XlVb, Hafnia, Buttiauxella, Shewanella, Anaerorhabdus, Alistipes, Arcobacter, Azoarcus, Chryseobacterium, and so on. Furthermore, functional prediction analysis of intestinal microbial communities showed that Cd exposure could significantly alter the pathways related to metabolism, diseases, cellular processes, and so on. Taken together, exposure to Cd could induce intestinal histological damage and affect intestinal microbiota composition and functions of P. clarkii. Our study can be an important step toward a better understanding of the toxic effects of Cd on aquatic crustaceans.