Appetite responses to high-fat meals or diets of varying fatty acid composition: a comprehensive review

Postprandial Responses to Animal Products with Distinct Fatty Acid and Amino Acid Composition Are Diet-Dependent

BACKGROUND

Though evidence is limited, animal products like pork sausages and cheese may affect satiety differently due to their distinct protein, fat, and calcium content. This study therefore compared their acute effects on breakfast using appetite-related markers.

METHODS

A total of 11 women and 13 men, with a mean age of 23.0 ± 2.6 years and mean BMI of 24.5 ± 2.6 kg/m2, participated in this crossover design study. Concentrations of active ghrelin, glucagon-like peptide 1 (GLP-1), glucose-dependent insulinotropic polypeptide (GIP), cholecystokinin (CCK), insulin, glucose, leptin, and blood lipids were measured. Subjective feelings of appetite using visual analogue scales were analyzed (0-4 h) as a response to two test breakfasts meals with a similar energy and macronutrient content. Appetite feelings and energy intake from an ad libitum buffet lunch were subsequently measured. Data were analyzed using two different ANOVA methods.

RESULTS

The pork sausage breakfast was characterized by an earlier triglyceride (TG) peak than the cheese. A slower TG clearance was seen with the cheese breakfast. Ghrelin suppression was longer in the pork sausage breakfast. Active GLP-1 concentration was higher following the cheese breakfast and active GIP declined slower. The two ANOVA methods disagreed regarding the insulin effect. Subjective feelings of hunger before buffet and ad libitum energy intake were higher in males (791 ± 64 kcal) compared with females (344 ± 32 kcal), but did not differ between breakfast types.

CONCLUSIONS

Acute consumption of pork and cheese of the same energy, fat, and protein content provided detectable differences in appetite-related hormones and lipid responses. Appetite and lipid metabolism were affected by the major differentiators of the test meals, namely calcium, fatty acids and amino acids compositions.

Comparison of the effect of medium-chain fatty acids and long-chain fatty acids on postprandial appetite and lipemia: a randomised crossover trial

Background

Postprandial lipemia (PPL) has been recognised as a cardiovascular disease risk factor. Appetite and PPL can be influenced by the length of saturated fatty acids (FAs). Thus, this study aims to investigate if different FA chain lengths have different impacts on appetite and PPL in healthy volunteers.

Methods

This is a randomised crossover single-blinded intervention study of 20 healthy adults. Coconut oil and palm oil were consumed in the form of biscuits. Blood serum samples were withdrawn after an overnight fast and 1, 2, 4 and 6 hours after eating the test meals and examined for blood lipid profile (total cholesterol (TC), high-density lipoprotein (HDL) and triglycerides (TG)), while Friedewald's equation was used to calculate low-density lipoprotein (LDL). Visual analogue scales were used by participants to rate their appetites, and an ad libitum meal was weighed to determine the energy intake.

Results

The net area under the curve of TG and TC following the coconut oil were significantly lower than following the palm oil (P value ≤0.05). In the mean of the change in TC, LDL and HDL from the baseline, a significant difference was found after 6 hours of eating the biscuits (P value ≤0.05). The perceptions of hunger and fullness did not significantly differ between the two types of FAs. Also, the energy and macronutrient intakes were not significantly different after the two types of oil, neither at the ad libitum meal nor on the day following the treatments.

Conclusion

The selection of FA chain length may influence PPL, and thus cardiovascular disease risk in a way that is functionally significant. However, this study detected no influence of FA chain length on appetite up to 40 hours post-treatment.

Trial registration number

NCT05539742.

Postprandial appetite responses to a pecan enriched meal: A randomized crossover trial

Longer-term pecan consumption has shown appetite-regulating effects as a part of a free-living diet, yet the physiologic appetite responses to a single pecan-containing meal are unclear. The purpose of this study was to compare the acute physiologic, subjective, and direct appetite responses of a pecan-containing meal to an energy- and macronutrient-matched control meal. This was an acute meal challenge study utilizing a double-blinded randomized crossover design with two periods. Participants were young, healthy adults (BMI: 22.9 ± 3.3 kg/m2, age: 22 ± 3 y) who consumed a meal containing either 68 g of pecans (PEC; 795 kcal) or an energy- and macronutrient-matched control meal (CON; 794 kcal) on separate testing days. At both testing visits, five postprandial blood draws, and visual analog scale (VAS) questionnaires (in-lab) were used to determine differences in peptide YY (PYY), ghrelin, and subjective appetite over a 4-h postprandial period. Participants also completed VAS questionnaires (at-home) and food records for the rest of the day after leaving the testing visits. Thirty-one out of thirty-two randomized participants completed the study. There was a greater overall postprandial PYY response (p < 0.001), and a greater suppression of postprandial ghrelin after time point 120 min (p < 0.001), with the PEC vs. CON meal. Further, there was a greater increase in subjective fullness (p = 0.001), and suppression of at-home overall appetite (p = 0.02), from time 240-780 min post-meal with PEC vs. CON meals. There were no differences in self-reported EI between meals or any other VAS measure. In conclusion, a pecan-containing breakfast shake produced more favorable physiologic and subjective improvements in appetite compared to an energy- and macronutrient-matched control meal. This trial is registered at clinicaltrials.gov (NCT05230212).

Brain Perception of Different Oils on Appetite Regulation: An Anorectic Gene Expression Pattern in the Hypothalamus Dependent on the Vagus Nerve

(1) Background: We examined the effect of the acute administration of olive oil (EVOO), linseed oil (GLO), soybean oil (SO), and palm oil (PO) on gastric motility and appetite in rats. (2) Methods: We assessed food intake, gastric retention (GR), and gene expression in all groups. (3) Results: Both EVOO and GLO were found to enhance the rate of stomach retention, leading to a decrease in hunger. On the other hand, the reduction in food intake caused by SO was accompanied by delayed effects on stomach retention. PO caused an alteration in the mRNA expression of NPY, POMC, and CART. Although PO increased stomach retention after 180 min, it did not affect food intake. It was subsequently verified that the absence of an autonomic reaction did not nullify the influence of EVOO in reducing food consumption. Moreover, in the absence of parasympathetic responses, animals that received PO exhibited a significant decrease in food consumption, probably mediated by lower NPY expression. (4) Conclusions: This study discovered that different oils induce various effects on parameters related to food consumption. Specifically, EVOO reduces food consumption primarily through its impact on the gastrointestinal tract, making it a recommended adjunct for weight loss. Conversely, the intake of PO limits food consumption in the absence of an autonomic reaction, but it is not advised due to its contribution to the development of cardiometabolic disorders.

Graded Replacement of Carbohydrate-Rich Breakfast Products with Dairy Products: Effects on Postprandial Aminoacidemia, Glycemic Control, Bone Metabolism, and Satiety

BACKGROUND

Postprandial metabolic responses following dairy consumption have mostly been studied using stand-alone dairy products or milk-derived nutrients.

OBJECTIVE

Assessing the impact of ingesting dairy products as part of a common breakfast on postprandial aminoacidemia, glycemic control, markers of bone metabolism, and satiety.

METHODS

In this randomized, crossover study, 20 healthy young males and females consumed on 3 separate occasions an iso-energetic breakfast containing no dairy (NO-D), 1 dairy (ONE-D), or 2 dairy (TWO-D) products. Postprandial concentrations of amino acids, glucose, insulin, glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1), calcium, parathyroid hormone (PTH), and markers of bone formation (P1NP) and resorption (CTX-I) were measured before and up to 300 min after initiating the breakfast, along with VAS-scales to assess satiety.

RESULTS

Plasma essential and branched-chained amino acids availability (expressed as total area under the curve (tAUC)) increased in a dose-dependent manner (P<0.05 for all comparisons). Plasma glucose tAUCs were lower in ONE-D and TWO-D compared with NO-D (P<0.05 for both comparisons). Plasma GLP-1 tAUC increased in a dose-dependent manner (P<0.05 for all comparisons), whereas no differences were observed in plasma insulin tAUC between conditions (P>0.05 for all comparisons). Serum calcium tAUCs were higher in ONE-D and TWO-D compared with NO-D (P<0.05 for both comparisons), along with lower PTH tAUCs in ONE-D and TWO-D compared with NO-D (P=0.001 for both comparisons). In accordance, serum CTX-I concentrations were lower in the late postprandial period in ONE-D and TWO-D compared with NO-D (P<0.01 for both comparisons). No differences were observed in P1NP tAUCs between conditions (P>0.05). The tAUC for satiety was higher in TWO-D compared with NO-D and ONE-D (P<0.05 for both comparisons).

CONCLUSIONS

Iso-energetic replacement of a carbohydrate-rich breakfast component with one serving of dairy improves postprandial amino acid availability, glycemic control, and bone metabolism. Adding a second serving of dairy in lieu of carbohydrates augments postprandial amino acid and GLP-1 concentrations while further promoting satiety. This study was registered at https://doi.org/10.1186/ISRCTN13531586 with Clinical Trial Registry number ISRCTN13531586.

Dietary triacetin, but not medium chain triacylglycerides, blunts weight gain in diet-induced rat model of obesity

Consumption of a Western diet (WD) is known to increase the risk of obesity. Short or medium chain fatty acids influence energy metabolism, and triacetin, a synthetic short chain triacylglyceride, has been shown to lower body fat under normal conditions. This study aimed to investigate if triacetin as part of a WD modifies rat weight and body fat. Male rats were fed a control diet or WD for 8 weeks. At week 8, rats in the WD group were maintained on a WD diet or switched to a WD diet containing 30% energy from medium-chain triacylglyceride (WD-MCT) or triacetin (WD-T) for another 8 weeks. At week 16, rats were euthanized and liver, adipose and blood were collected. Tissue fatty acids (FAs) were quantified by gas chromatography (GC) and hepatic FAs were measured by GC-combustion-isotope ratio mass spectrometry for δ13 C-palmitic acid (PAM)-a novel marker of de novo lipogenesis (DNL). Rats fed WD-T had a body weight not statistically different to the control group, and gained less body weight than rats fed WD alone. Furthermore, WD-T fed rats had a lower fat mass, and lower total liver and plasma FAs compared to the WD group. Rats fed WD-T did not differ from WD in blood ketone or glucose levels, however, had a significantly lower hepatic δ13 C-PAM value than WD fed rats; suggestive of lower DNL. In summary, we show that triacetin has the potential to blunt weight gain and adipose tissue accumulation in a rodent model of obesity, possibly due to a decrease in DNL.

A pecan-enriched diet reduced postprandial appetite intensity and enhanced peptide YY secretion: A randomized control trial

BACKGROUND & AIMS

Tree nuts have been shown to have satiating qualities; however, little is known concerning the effect of pecans on measures of appetite. The purpose of this study was to examine the impact of a pecan-enriched diet on subjective, physiological, and direct measures of appetite in older adults.

METHODS

This was a randomized, controlled trial in which healthy older adults (50-75 y) were randomized to either consume 68 g of pecans/day (pecan; n = 21) or avoid all nuts (control; n = 23) for 4 weeks. At pre- (V1) and post-diet (V2) visits body weight (BW) and body fat percentage (BF) were assessed and actual change in these outcomes for pecan were compared to theoretical changes if pecans were consumed without compensation. Subjective appetite was measured using visual analog scale (VAS), and blood was collected to assess changes in physiological appetite before and every 30 min for 4 h following a high-fat meal. Energy intake (EI) at a buffet meal was then assessed in the laboratory ("in-lab"). VAS assessments continued hourly for the next 7 h and EI ("at-home") was self-reported.

RESULTS

BW and BF did not change for pecan or control across the intervention and theoretical change in BW (theoretical: 2.2 ± 0.1 vs. actual: 0.4 ± 0.2 kg; p < 0.0001) and BF (theoretical: 0.4 ± 0.04 vs. actual: 0.2 ± 0.2%; p < 0.0001) was significantly greater than actual change for pecan. From V1 to V2, there was an increase in fasting (pecan: 77.0 ± 4.6 to 93.5 ± 6.1 vs control: 76.0 ± 5.0 to 72.5 ± 5.0 pg/mL; p = 0.01) and postprandial peptide YY for pecan vs. control (p = 0.04); however, fasting and postprandial cholecystokinin and ghrelin did not differ (p > 0.05). There were no differences in the change in subjective appetite ratings at fasting, following the high-fat meal (in-lab), at-home, or across the full day between groups (p > 0.05 for all). However, there was a significant suppression of peak desire to eat ratings for pecan vs. control (pecan: 67.9 ± 4.6 to 57.1 ± 5.2 vs. control: 61.9 ± 4.2 to 60.6 ± 4.3 mm; p = 0.04). Combined, buffet meal, and at-home EI did not differ significantly within pecan and control; however, there was a trend (p = 0.11) for a between group difference in buffet meal EI driven by increased EI for control (+137 ± 86 kcal) vs. decreased EI for pecan (-45 ± 77 kcal).

CONCLUSION

A 4-week pecan-enriched diet led to enhanced satietogenic metrics compared to a diet void of all nuts. As weight remained stable during the intervention, adding pecans to the daily diet may be beneficial to appetite control and weight maintenance in a healthy older population.

TRIAL REGISTRATION INFORMATION

ClinicalTrials.gov: NCT04385537.

Ultraprocessed Foods and Obesity Risk: A Critical Review of Reported Mechanisms

Epidemiologic evidence supports a positive association between ultraprocessed food (UPF) consumption and body mass index. This has led to recommendations to avoid UPFs despite very limited evidence establishing causality. Many mechanisms have been proposed, and this review critically aimed to evaluate selected possibilities for specificity, clarity, and consistency related to food choice (i.e., low cost, shelf-life, food packaging, hyperpalatability, and stimulation of hunger/suppression of fullness); food composition (i.e., macronutrients, food texture, added sugar, fat and salt, energy density, low-calorie sweeteners, and additives); and digestive processes (i.e., oral processing/eating rate, gastric emptying time, gastrointestinal transit time, and microbiome). For some purported mechanisms (e.g., fiber content, texture, gastric emptying, and intestinal transit time), data directly contrasting the effects of UPF and non-UPF intake on the indices of appetite, food intake, and adiposity are available and do not support a unique contribution of UPFs. In other instances, data are not available (e.g., microbiome and food additives) or are insufficient (e.g., packaging, food cost, shelf-life, macronutrient intake, and appetite stimulation) to judge the benefits versus the risks of UPF avoidance. There are yet other evoked mechanisms in which the preponderance of evidence indicates ingredients in UPFs actually moderate body weight (e.g., low-calorie sweetener use for weight management; beverage consumption as it dilutes energy density; and higher fat content because it reduces glycemic responses). Because avoidance of UPFs holds potential adverse effects (e.g., reduced diet quality, increased risk of food poisoning, and food wastage), it is imprudent to make recommendations regarding their role in diets before causality and plausible mechanisms have been verified.

Hunger and satiety responses to diets enriched with cottonseed oil vs. olive oil

Studies suggest that the type of dietary fat consumed habitually may modulate appetite and further influence weight management. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the impact of an 8-week diet intervention enriched with either cottonseed oil (CSO; polyunsaturated fat-rich) or olive oil (OO; monounsaturated fat-rich) on appetite responses in adults with high cholesterol. This was a parallel design, randomized partial outpatient feeding trial designed to provide approximately 60% of participants daily energy needs with ∼30% of energy needs as CSO (n = 21, BMI 27.3 ± 0.92 kg/m², age 53 ± 2y) or OO (n = 21, BMI 27.6 ± 1.20 kg/m², age 54 ± 2y). A high saturated fat meal challenge was completed at pre- and post-intervention visits with 5 h postprandial blood draws and visual analog scales (VAS) for cholecystokinin (CCK), peptide YY (PYY), ghrelin, and subjective appetite, respectively. Participants also completed VAS questionnaires hourly and recorded dietary intake after leaving the lab for the remainder of the day. There was a greater increase in fasting CCK (CSO: 0.54 ± 0.03 to 0.56 ± 0.04; OO: 0.63 ± 0.07 to 0.60 ± 0.06 ng/ml p = 0.05), a greater suppression of postprandial ghrelin (p < 0.01), and a greater increase in postprandial VAS fullness (p = 0.04) in CSO compared to OO. Additionally, there was a greater decrease in self-reported energy intake in CSO compared to OO (CSO: 2464 ± 123 to 2115 ± 123; OO: 2263 ± 147 to 2,434 ± 184 kcal/d p = 0.02). Only postprandial VAS prospective consumption showed greater suppression (p = 0.03) in OO vs. CSO. Altogether, these data show that CSO has a greater effect on appetite suppression than OO diet enrichment and may be beneficial for weight maintenance, especially in a population at-risk for chronic disease. Registered at clinicaltrials.gov: NCT04397055.

Comparing acute effects of extra virgin coconut oil and extra virgin olive oil consumption on appetite and food intake in normal-weight and obese male subjects

Objectives

The aim of this study is to compare acute effects of consuming extra virgin coconut oil (EVCO) as a source of medium chain fatty acids and extra virgin olive oil (EVOO) as a source of long chain fatty acids in normal weight and obese subjects.

Design

Randomised, crossover design.

Participants

Metabolically healthy twenty male subjects (10 normal weight; 10 obese) aged 19–40 years.

Intervention

Subjects consumed breakfast meals containing skimmed milk, fat-free white cheese, bread and EVCO (25 g) or EVOO (25 g).

Outcome measures

Visual analog scale evaluations, resting metabolic rate measurements and selected blood parameters analysis (glucose, triglyceride, insulin and plasma peptide YY) were performed before and after the test breakfast meals. In addition, energy intakes were evaluated by ad libitum lunch meal at 180 min.

Results

Visual analogue scale values of hunger and desire to eat decreased significantly after EVCO consumption than EVOO consumption in normal weight subjects at 180 min. There was an increase trend in plasma PYY at 30 and 180 min after EVCO breakfast compared to EVOO breakfast. Ad libitum energy intakes after EVCO and EVOO consumption in normal weight subjects were 924 ± 302; 845 ± 158 kcal (p = 0.272), respectively whereas in obese subjects were 859 ± 238; 994 ± 265 kcal (p = 0.069) respectively.

Conclusion

The results of this study shows that consumption of EVCO compared to EVOO may have suppressive effect on hunger and desire to eat, may affect postprandial PYY levels differently and have no effect on postprandial energy expenditure.

Trial registration

Clinical Trials NCT04738929.

Stearic acid induces CCK and GLP-1 upregulation via GPR120/PLC-β, leading to reduced appetite in Hu sheep fed with rice straw

Due to the poor palatability of straw, feeding untreated rice straw reduces ruminant feed intake, thus affecting the production efficiency of animal husbandry. However, the detailed mechanism by which straw affects ruminants' feed intake is unclear. Therefore, this study aimed to elucidate the molecular mechanism by which a rice straw (RS)-based diet affects appetite regulation in Hu sheep. We found that RS promoted the secretion of cholecystokinin (CCK) and glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) and decreased feed intake. Blood metabolomics showed that RS activated the arachidonic acid metabolism, biosynthesis of unsaturated fatty acids, linoleic acid metabolism, and alpha-linolenic acid metabolism pathways, and the secretion of stearic acid (SA), their metabolic end product, increased significantly. GPR120, one of the classical receptors of long-chain fatty acids (LCFAs), can be involved in appetite regulation. However, the role of SA in satiety hormone regulation mediated by GPR120 in ruminants is unclear. In this study, in vivo experiments showed that in sheep fed with RS, SA increased significantly and activated GPR120/Ca²⁺, increasing the secretion of the satiety hormones CCK and GLP-1. In vitro mechanism studies showed that SA promotes GLP-1 and CCK secretion by activating GPR120-mediated downstream PKC and IP3R signaling pathways of PLCβ.

A systematic review and meta-analysis of dietary fat effects on reproductive performance of sows and growth performance of piglets

Effects of added fat in sow diets on the sows’ reproductive performance and offspring growth performance are influenced by multiple factors such as genetics, nutrition, parity, ambient temperatures, and farm management. Individual studies cannot cover all these factors. With the view to address this challenge, we searched all studies that were published from 1986 to 2020, and performed a systematic review and meta-analysis on the fat effect. In total, 19 papers were collected and analyzed. Fat supplementation in sow diets during late gestation and lactation decreased average daily feed intake (ADFI, P < 0.05) and tended to increase average daily energy intake (ADEI, P = 0.11). It had no impact on litter weights at birth (P = 0.40) or weaning (P = 0.46). It increased total numbers of piglets at birth (P = 0.07), but had no effect on liveborn per litter (P = 0.90) or survival rate (P = 0.48) of piglets to weaning. Fat supplementation had no significant effect on sow body weight loss (P = 0.67) or backfat thickness changes (P = 0.66), but sows fed diets with added fat had increased milk fat concentration (P = 0.03) and shorter wean to estrus intervals (WEI, P = 0.01). In specific circumstances, fat supplementation tended to improve growth performance of piglets with low litter weights at birth (P = 0.14), or when the sows lost large amounts of body weight during lactation (P = 0.11). The level of supplemented fat was 10% and higher would decrease liveborn per litter at neutral temperature (P = 0.10). The meta-analysis revealed that fat supplementation to sows diet during late gestation and lactation can be beneficial for sow reproductive performance and litter growth performance.

The Role of Bovine and Non-Bovine Milk in Cardiometabolic Health: Should We Raise the "Baa"?

Although causality is yet to be confirmed, a considerable volume of research has explored the relationships between cow milk consumption, type II diabetes, and cardiovascular disease. Contrastingly, it has not been comprehensively examined whether milk of non-bovine origin can provide cardiometabolic protection. This narrative review outlines the marked differences in macronutrient composition, particularly protein and lipid content, and discusses how whole milk product (and individual milk ingredients) from different species could impact cardiometabolic health. There is some data, although primarily from compositional analyses, animal studies, and acute clinical trials, that non-bovine milk (notably sheep and goat milk) could be a viable substitute to cow milk for the maintenance, or enhancement, of cardiometabolic health. With a high content of medium-chain triglycerides, conjugated linoleic acid, leucine, and essential minerals, sheep milk could assist in the prevention of metabolic-related disorders. Similarly, albeit with a lower content of such functional compounds relative to sheep milk, goat and buffalo milk could be plausible counterparts to cow milk. However, the evidence required to generate nutritional recommendations for ‘non-bovine milk’ is currently lacking. Longer-term randomised controlled trials must assess how the bioactive ingredients of different species’ milks collectively influence biomarkers of, and subsequently incidence of, cardiometabolic health.

MUFA in metabolic syndrome and associated risk factors: is MUFA the opposite side of the PUFA coin?

Omega-9 fatty acids represent some of the main mono-unsaturated fatty acids (MUFA) found in plant and animal sources. They can be synthesized endogenously in the human body, but they do not fully provide all the body's requirements. Consequently, they are considered as partially essential fatty acids. MUFA represent a healthier alternative to saturated animal fats and have several health benefits, including the prevention of metabolic syndrome (MetS) and its complications. This review concentrates on the major MUFA pharmacological activities in the context of MetS management, including alleviating cardiovascular disease (CVD) and dyslipidemia, central obesity, non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD), and type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM). The beneficial effects of MUFA for CVD were found to be consistent with those of polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) for the alleviation of systolic and diastolic blood pressure and high low density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDLc) and triacylglcerol (TAG) levels, albeit MUFA had a more favorable effect on decreasing night systolic blood pressure (SBP). To reduce the obesity profile, the use of MUFA was found to induce a higher oxidation rate with a higher energy expenditure, compared with PUFA. For NAFLD, PUFA was found to be a better potential drug candidate for the improvement of liver steatosis in children than MUFA. Any advantageous outcomes from using MUFA for diabetes and insulin resistance (IR) compared to using PUFA were found to be either non-significant or resulted from a small number of meta-analyses. Such an increase in the number of studies of the mechanisms of action require more clinical and epidemiological studies to confirm the beneficial outcomes, especially over a long-term treatment period.

Egg consumption and health effects: A narrative review

This study was planned and conducted to investigate the effects of egg consumption on metabolic syndrome components and potential mechanisms of action on humans. Egg, an important source of animal protein, is defined as a functional food containing various bioactive compounds that can affect the proinflammatory and anti-inflammatory pathways. As a matter of fact, the egg can show immunomodulatory, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, anticancer, or antihypertensive effects with its bioactive components. It is claimed that egg consumption may protect individuals against metabolic syndrome by increasing HDL-C levels and reducing inflammation. The increase in egg consumption creates the perception that it may lead to cardiovascular diseases due to its cholesterol content. However, there is insufficient evidence as to whether dietary cholesterol-lowers LDL-C. The possible potential mechanisms of egg impact on human health, MEDLINE, Embase, the Cochrane Central, www.ClinicalTrials.gov, PubMed, Science Direct, Google Scholar, and selected websites including) and databases were examined in this regard. With a view to delving into the rather mysterious relationship between egg cholesterol and blood cholesterol, it is necessary to understand the absorption of cholesterol from the egg and to know the functioning of the intestinal microbiota. Studies conducted to date have generally yielded inconsistent results regarding egg consumption and risks of CVD, diabetes, and metabolic syndrome.

Prevalence of malnutrition diagnosed by the Global Leadership Initiative on Malnutrition and Mini Nutritional Assessment in older adult outpatients and comparison between the Global Leadership Initiative on Malnutrition and Mini Nutritional Assessment energy-protein intake: A cross-sectional study

BACKGROUND

The Global Leadership Initiative on Malnutrition (GLIM) published malnutrition identification criteria. The Mini Nutritional Assessment (MNA) is malnutrition assessment tool commonly used in older adults. This study aimed to determine prevalence of malnutrition and the relationship between the GLIM and the MNA long form (MNA-LF) and short form (MNA-SF) and energy-protein intake.

METHODS

A total of 252 older adult outpatients (aged 68.0 years, 61% females) were included. Malnutrition was defined according to the GLIM, MNA-LF, and MNA-SF. Food intake was assessed using the 24-h dietary recall. We analyzed the cutoff value on the MNA-LF score, MNA-SF score, and energy-protein intake for GLIM criteria-defined malnutrition severity with receiver operating characteristic analysis.

RESULTS

Malnutrition was present in 32.2%, 12.7%, and 13.1% of patients according to the GLIM criteria, MNA-LF, and MNA-SF, respectively. It was determined that 92.7% and 89.0% of patients, based on GLIM criteria, had malnutrition with the MNA-LF and MNA-SF, respectively. The daily energy-protein intake was less in patients with malnutrition according to GLIM, as in the MNA-LF and MNA-SF classifications (p < .05). For the MNA-LF and MNA-SF score, the cutoff value of 11 and 9 points for severe malnutrition (area under curve [AUC] 0.92; p < .001 and 0.90; p < .001), 22 and 11 points for moderate malnutrition (AUC 0.79; p < .001 and 0.76; p < .001) were determined.

CONCLUSION

According to GLIM criteria, one-third of outpatient older adults were malnourished, whereas the prevalence was much lower applying both the MNA-LF and the MNA-SF.

Intake of Nuts or Nut Products Does Not Lead to Weight Gain, Independent of Dietary Substitution Instructions: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Randomized Trials

Several clinical interventions report that consuming nuts will not cause weight gain. However, it is unclear if the type of instructions provided for how to incorporate nuts into the diet impacts weight outcomes. We performed a systematic review and meta-analysis of published nut-feeding trials with and without dietary substitution instructions to determine if there are changes in body weight (BW) or composition. PubMed and Web of Science were searched through 31 December 2019 for clinical trials involving the daily consumption of nuts or nut-based snacks/meals by adults (≥18 y) for >3 wk that reported BW, BMI, waist circumference (WC), or total body fat percentage (BF%). Each study was categorized by whether or not it contained dietary substitution instructions. Within these 2 categories, an aggregated mean effect size and 95% CI was produced using a fixed-effects model. Quality of studies was assessed through the Cochrane risk-of-bias tool. Fifty-five studies were included in the meta-analysis. In studies without dietary substitution instructions, there was no change in BW [standardized mean difference (SMD): 0.01 kg; 95% CI: -0.07, 0.08; I2 = 0%] or BF% (SMD: -0.05%; 95% CI: -0.19, 0.09; I2 = 0%). In studies with dietary substitution instructions, there was no change in BW (SMD: -0.01 kg; 95% CI: -0.11, 0.09; I2 = 0%); however, there was a significant decrease in BF% (SMD: -0.32%; 95% CI: -0.61%, -0.03%; I2 = 35.4%; P < 0.05). There was no change in BMI or WC for either category of studies. Nut-enriched diet interventions did not result in changes in BW, BMI, or WC in studies either with or without substitution instructions. Slight decreases in BF% may occur if substitution instructions are used, but more research is needed. Limitations included varying methodologies between included studies and the frequency of unreported outcome variables in excluded studies.

Development of an optimized sample preparation method for quantification of free fatty acids in food using liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry

Accurate and precise determination of free fatty acid (FFA) contents is essential for quality control and assurance in food production. Herein, a mass spectrometric study was performed to develop a sample preparation protocol that can minimize exogenous FFA contamination during the quantification of FFA in food. The quantities of exogenous FFAs were measured using various combinations of seven pretreatment methods for a sample tube, three extraction methods, and four types of sample tubes. Methanol washing could effectively reduce exogenous palmitic acid (PA) and stearic acid (SA) by 73 and 64%, respectively, in contrast to furnace baking resulting in a decrease in the amount of PA and SA contaminants by 50 and 37%, respectively. A lower amount of FFA contaminants was extracted from glass tubes during comparative analysis of the four different sample tubes studied. A combination of a methanol-washed glass tube and chloroform extraction solvent was determined to be the optimal method for minimizing the error in FFA quantification. The optimized sample preparation protocol used for FFA quantification can lower the amount of foreign palmitic acid and stearic acid to the sub-nanomolar level in the analysis of FFAs in skimmed milk.

Polyunsaturated fatty acids as modulators of fat mass and lean mass in human body composition regulation and cardiometabolic health

It is now recognized that the amount and type of dietary fat consumed play an important role in metabolic health. In humans, high intake of polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) has been associated with reductions in cardiovascular disease risk, improvements in glucose homeostasis, and changes in body composition that involve reductions in central adiposity and, more recently, increases in lean body mass. There is also emerging evidence, which suggests that high intakes of the plant-based essential fatty acids (ePUFAs)-n-6 linoleic acid (LA) and n-3 α-linolenic acid (ALA)-have a greater impact on body composition (fat mass and lean mass) and on glucose homeostasis than the marine-derived long-chain n-3 PUFA-eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA). In addition, high intake of both ePUFAs (LA and ALA) may also have anti-inflammatory effects in humans. The purpose of this review is to highlight the emerging evidence, from both epidemiological prospective studies and clinical intervention trials, of a role for PUFA, in particular ePUFA, in the long-term regulation of body weight and body composition, and their impact on cardiometabolic health. It also discusses current notions about the mechanisms by which PUFAs modulate fat mass and lean mass through altered control of energy intake, thermogenesis, or lean-fat partitioning.

Manipulation of fatty acid composition in a high-fat meal does not result in differential alterations in appetite or food intake in normal weight females: A single-blind randomized crossover study

A behavioral concept that generates a path to obesity is eating in the absence of hunger (EAH). One strategy that may be effective in preventing EAH is the manipulation of dietary fatty acid (FA) composition. However, it remains unclear which FA has the greatest impact on both appetite and EAH. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to examine the effect of different dietary FA compositions (monounsaturated, MUFA; polyunsaturated, PUFA; saturated, SFA) on subjective ratings of appetite and subsequent ad libitum eating after a 3 h postprandial period. Sixteen apparently healthy normal weight females between ages 18-40 completed this randomized, single-blind, crossover study. Participants consumed a HF meal (65% energy from fat) rich in SFA, MUFA, and PUFA with an energy content corresponding to 35% of their measured resting metabolic rate on three separate occasions. Visual analog scales were collected while fasted and every 30 min for 3 h during a postprandial period to measure feelings of hunger, fullness, and desire to eat (DTE). Participants were provided an ad libitum buffet meal 3 h after the HF meal. There were no statistically significant differences for ratings of hunger, fullness, or DTE across conditions. Further, there was no significant difference in energy intake during the ad libitum lunch. We conclude that the manipulation of FA composition in a HF meal does not differentially affect appetite sensations or subsequent energy intake.

The Western diet: a blind spot of eating disorder research?-a narrative review and recommendations for treatment and research

Over the last 50 years, in parallel with the obesity epidemic, the prevalence of eating disorders has increased and presentations have changed. In this narrative review, we consider recent research exploring the implications of changing patterns of food consumption on metabolic and neurobiological pathways, a hitherto neglected area in eating disorder research. One of the major changes over this time has been the introduction of ultra-processed (NOVA-4) foods, which are gradually replacing unprocessed and minimally processed foods. This has resulted in the increased intake of various sugars and food additives worldwide, which has important metabolic consequences: triggering insulin and glucose response, stimulating appetite, and affecting multiple endocrine and neurobiological pathways, as well as the microbiome. A paradigm shift is needed in the conceptual framework by which the vulnerability to, and maintenance of, different eating disorders may be understood, by integrating recent knowledge of the individual metabolic responses to modern highly processed foods into existing psychological models. This could stimulate research and improve treatment outcomes.

Emulsion Droplet Crystallinity Attenuates Short-Term Satiety in Healthy Adult Males: A Randomized, Double-Blinded, Crossover, Acute Meal Study

BACKGROUND

The influence of triacylglycerol (TAG) physical properties on satiety remains poorly understood.

OBJECTIVES

The objective was to investigate if and how TAG digestion and absorption, modulated only by differences in TAG crystallinity, would differentially affect short-term satiety in healthy men.

METHODS

We tempered 500 mL 10% palm stearin oil-in-water emulsions such that the lipid droplets were either undercooled liquid (LE) or partially crystalline solid (SE). Fifteen healthy men (mean ± SD age: 27.5 ± 5.7 y; BMI: 24.1 ± 2.5 kg/m2; fasting TAG: 0.9 ± 0.3 mmol/L) consumed each beverage at two 6-h study visits separated by ≥6 d after an overnight fast, along with 1500 mg acetaminophen suspended in water. The participants characterized the emulsion sensory properties, completed satiety visual analog scale ratings, and had serial blood samples collected for 6-h analysis of plasma peptide YY (PYY), glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1), ghrelin, leptin, glucose-dependent insulinotropic polypeptide (GIP), insulin, and acetaminophen (for assessing gastric emptying). Repeated-measures ANOVAs and 2-tailed paired t tests were used to analyze the changes from baseline and incremental area under the curve (iAUC) values, respectively.

RESULTS

With consumption of LE compared with SE, there was a 358% higher fullness (P = 0.015) and a 103% lower average appetite (P = 0.041) score, along with higher iAUC values for PYY (P = 0.011) and GLP-1 (P = 0.028) (103% and 66% higher, respectively), but not for ghrelin (P = 0.39), based on change from baseline values. Acetaminophen response trended toward significance (P = 0.08) and was 15% higher with LE. SE was rated as 44% thicker (P = 0.034) and 24% creamier (P = 0.05) than LE.

CONCLUSIONS

The suppression of TAG digestion by the presence of partially crystalline lipid droplets blunted the appetite-suppressing effects of an oil-in-water emulsion.This trial was registered at clinicaltrials.gov as NCT03990246.

Free Fatty Acid-Induced Peptide YY Expression Is Dependent on TG Synthesis Rate and Xbp1 Splicing

Gut-derived satiety hormones provide negative feedback to suppress food intake and maintain metabolic function in peripheral tissues. Despite the wealth of knowledge of the systemic effects of these hormones, very little is known concerning the mechanisms by which nutrients, such as dietary fats, can promote the expression of genes involved in L-cell hormone production. We have tested the role of various dietary fats and found that after hydrolysis into free fatty acids (FFA’s), there is a differential response in the extent to which they induce PYY gene and protein production. The effect of FFA’s also seems to relate to triglyceride (TG) re-esterification rate, with MUFA re-esterifying faster with lower PYY production. We have also found that there are differences in potency of FFA’s based on their desaturation patterns in vitro. The potency effect of FFA’s is influenced by the rate of TG re-esterification, such that the longer FFA’s are in contact with L-cells, the more PYY they produce. We found that chronic consumption of high-fat diets enables the small intestine to re-esterify FFA’s into TG faster and earlier which resulted in a blunted postprandial PYY response. Lastly, we found that FFA’s induce X-box-binding protein-1 activation (Xbp1s) in L-cells and that adenoviral delivery of Xbp1s was sufficient to induce PYY gene expression. Taken together, the present work indicates that dietary fat can induce satiety, in part, prior to re-esterification. Chronic high-fat diet consumption increases the rate of re-esterification which diminishes satiety and may lead to increased food intake. Targeting intestinal TG synthesis may prove beneficial in restoring obesity-associated reductions in postprandial satiety.

Multi-generational obesogenic effects of sulfomethoxazole on Caenorhabditis elegans through epigenetic regulation

Increasing concerns are earned on the multigenerational hazards of antibiotics due to the connection between their mother-children transfer via cord blood and breast milk and obesity in the children. Currently, Caenorhabditis elegans was exposed to sulfamethoxazole (SMX) over 11 generations (F0-F10). Indicators of obesogenic effects and gene expressions were measured in each generation and also in T11 to T13 that were the offspring of F10. Biochemical analysis results showed that SMX stimulated fatty acids in most generations including T13. The stimulation was resulted from the balance between enzymes for fatty acid synthesis (e.g., fatty acid synthetase) and those for its consumption (e.g., fatty acid transport protein). Gene expression analysis demonstrated that the obesogenic effects of SMX involved peroxisome proliferator activated receptors (PPARs, e.g., nhr-49) and insulin/insulin-like signaling (IIS) pathways (e.g., ins-1, daf-2 and daf-16). Further epigenetic analysis demonstrated that SMX caused 3-fold more H3K4me3 binding genes than the control in F10 and T13. In F10, the most significantly activated genes were in metabolic and biosynthetic processes of various lipids, nervous system and development. The different gene expressions in T13 from those in F10 involved development, growth, reproduction and responses to chemicals in addition to metabolic processes.

Differential Effects of Monounsaturated and Polyunsaturated Fats on Satiety and Gut Hormone Responses in Healthy Subjects

The difference between fat saturation on postprandial hormone responses and acute appetite control is not well understood. The aim of this study was to compare the postprandial ghrelin, gastric inhibitory polypeptide (GIP) and glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP1) response and subjective appetite responses after isoenergetic high-fat meals rich in either monounsaturated (MUFAs) or polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) in healthy Chinese males. A randomized, controlled, single-blinded crossover study was conducted in 13 healthy Chinese men. Two high-fat meals (64% of energy) rich in MUFAs or PUFAs were tested. Total ghrelin, GIP and active GLP1 and visual analog scale (VAS) were measured over 4 h. Ghrelin was reduced greater after MUFA compared to PUFA at the beginning of the meal (at 30 and 60 min) and was significantly negatively correlated with subjective VAS for preoccupation for both MUFA and PUFA meals. No significant difference for ghrelin 240 min incremental area under the curve (iAUCs) were found. MUFA induced higher GIP response than PUFA. GIP was associated with all the VAS measurements except preoccupation for MUFA meal. No difference was found for GLP1 between two meals, nor was GLP1 associated with VAS. In conclusion, the results demonstrate that ghrelin, GIP and VAS respond differently to MUFA and PUFA meals. Ghrelin and GIP, but not GLP1, were associated with acute appetite control, especially after MUFA meal.

Dietary fatty acid content influences the expression of genes involved in the lipid turnover and inflammation in mouse colon and spleen

BACKGROUND

Dietary interventions can improve gastrointestinal (GI) symptoms. We determined the effects of fatty acids (FAs) supplementation with medium- and long-chain saturated FAs on mouse GI motility and correlated them with the expression of genes for free FA receptors (FFAR)1-4, FA binding protein 4 (FABP4) and inflammation.

METHODS

Forty-eight BalbC were assigned to: standard diet (STD), diet rich in medium-chain saturated FAs (COCO) and long-chain saturated FAs (HF) (7% by weight). Body weight (BW) and food intake (FI) were monitored for 8-weeks. GI motility was determined by fecal pellet output (FPO) and colon bead expulsion tests. FABP4 inhibitor, BMS309403 (1mg/kg, ip) was injected to half of each group 2 days/week. mRNA expression of FABP4, (FFAR)1-4, and pro-inflammatory cytokines were measured in colonic and splenic tissues using real-time PCR.

RESULTS

COCO and HF decreased FI. COCO accelerated overall GI transit (p<0.05). COCO increased the mRNA expression of FFAR2 (p<0.001) and TNFα (p<0.01); HF increased the expression of FABP4 and FFAR4 (p<0.05), and FFAR2 (p<0.001) in the colon, and decreased FFAR1 and FFAR4 (p<0.001), TNFα (p<0.01) and IL-1β (p<0.05) in splenic tissues. BMS309403 decreased the FI and delayed colonic transit in STD+BMS and COCO+BMS vs. STD (p<0.05). HF+BMS increased colonic expression of FFAR3 (p<0.01), TNFα (p<0.01), IL-6 (p<0.01), and reduced FFAR4 (p<0.05); COCO+BMS decreased TNFα (p<0.01).

CONCLUSION

Diversification in the dietary lipid content affected GI motility in mice and the expression of FFARs and pro-inflammatory cytokines in vivo.

Using the Avocado to Test the Satiety Effects of a Fat-Fiber Combination in Place of Carbohydrate Energy in a Breakfast Meal in Overweight and Obese Men and Women: A Randomized Clinical Trial

This study aimed to investigate the satiety effects of isocalorically replacing carbohydrate energy in a meal with avocado-derived fats and fibers. In a randomized 3-arm, 6-h, crossover clinical trial, thirty-one overweight/obese adults consumed a low-fat control meal (CON, 76% carbohydrate, 14% fat as energy, 5 g fiber, ~640 kcal) or high-fat meals similar in total fat and energy, but increasing avocado-derived fat and fiber content from half (HA, 68 g; 51% carbohydrate, 40% fat as energy, 8.6 g fiber) or whole avocado (WA, 136 g; 50% carbohydrate, 43% fat as energy, 13.1 g fiber) on three separate occasions. Visual analog scales (VAS) assessed subjective satiety over 6 h. Hormones associated with satiety/appetite were measured in blood collected immediately after VAS. Stepwise multiple regression analysis was used to assess the relationship of VAS with hormones in WA and CON. Hunger suppression was enhanced after the WA compared to CON meal (p < 0.01). Subjects indicated feeling more satisfied after both HA and WA than CON (p < 0.05). Fullness was greater after CON and WA vs. HA (p < 0.005). PYY and GLP-1 were significantly elevated after WA vs. CON (p < 0.05), while insulin was significantly higher after CON vs. WA (p < 0.0001). Ghrelin was suppressed more by CON than WA (p < 0.05). Regression analysis indicated PYY was associated with subjective satiety after WA, whereas increased insulin predicted changes in subjective satiety after CON. Replacing carbohydrates in a high-carbohydrate meal with avocado-derived fat-fiber combination increased feelings of satiety mediated primarily by PYY vs. insulin. These findings may have important implications for addressing appetite management and metabolic concerns.

Postprandial gut hormone responses to Hass avocado meals and their association with visual analog scores in overweight adults: A randomized 3 × 3 crossover trial

OBJECTIVE

To evaluate changes in postingestive gut hormone concentrations from the consumption of Hass avocado by addition or inclusion to lunch test meals, and to examine their association with measures of appetite sensation.

METHODS

A randomized 3 × 3 crossover study was conducted with 26 healthy overweight adults. Participants consumed one of three test meals: avocado-free control (C); isoenergic avocado inclusive (AI); and, energy increased avocado added (AA) one week apart. Ghrelin, peptide YY_3-36 (PYY_3-36), gastric inhibitory peptide (GIP) and glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) concentrations were measured at specific times before and following the test meals. Appetite sensations (Hunger, Fullness, Satisfied, Desire, How Much) were self-assessed using a visual analog scale (VAS) tool at matching time points and a Composite VAS score was computed. Mixed models and repeated measures analysis were used to compare differences among the test meals for VAS measurements and gut hormones, and their associations were evaluated using regression analysis.

RESULTS

A decrease in the 3-hour GLP-1 area under the curve (AUC) was observed in the AA meal compared to the C meal (P = 0.03). Negative associations were found for PYY_3-36 and GIP for Hunger, Desire and How Much, and positive associations for Fullness, Satisfied and the Composite VAS score (all P < 0.001). For GLP-1, a negative association for Hunger and a positive association for Satisfied and the Composite VAS score (all P < 0.05) were noted.

CONCLUSIONS

Postprandial responses to PYY_3-36, GIP and GLP-1 concentrations were associated with VAS measures and the Composite VAS score following consumption of test meals in overweight adults.

The Acute Effect of Oleic- or Linoleic Acid-Containing Meals on Appetite and Metabolic Markers; A Pilot Study in Overweight or Obese Individuals

Despite the abundance of plant-derived fats in our diet, their effects on appetite, and metabolic markers, remain unclear. This single-blinded 3-way cross-over pilot study aimed to investigate the ability of the two most abundant dietary plant-derived fats, oleic (OA) and linoleic (LA) acids, to modulate postprandial appetite and levels of circulating appetite and metabolic regulators in overweight/obese individuals. Meals were a high-carbohydrate control, a high-OA or a high-LA meal, and provided 30% of participants' estimated energy requirements. Meals were consumed after an overnight fast, with blood samples collected over 3¼ h. Appetite parameters were assessed via a validated visual analogue scale questionnaire. Hormones and other circulating factors were quantified using multiplex immunoassays. Eight participants (age 45.8 ± 3.6 (years), body mass index 32.0 ± 1.3 (kg/m²)) completed the study. All meals significantly increased fullness and reduced desire to eat. The control and high-OA meals significantly decreased prospective food intake. The high-LA meal increased ghrelin levels (p < 0.05), a hormone which encourages food intake. This was coupled with a significant acute increase in resistin levels, which impairs insulin signaling. Taken together, this study indicates that in overweight/obese individuals, high-LA meals may promote excess energy intake and alter glucose handling, though a larger cohort may be required to strengthen results.

Comparison of the Effects of Goat Dairy and Cow Dairy Based Breakfasts on Satiety, Appetite Hormones, and Metabolic Profile

The satiating effects of cow dairy have been thoroughly investigated; however, the effects of goat dairy on appetite have not been reported so far. Our study investigates the satiating effect of two breakfasts based on goat or cow dairy and their association with appetite related hormones and metabolic profile. Healthy adults consumed two breakfasts based on goat (G-Breakfast) or cow (C-Breakfast) dairy products. Blood samples were taken and VAS tests were performed at different time points. Blood metabolites were measured and Combined Satiety Index (CSI) and areas under the curves (AUC) were calculated. Desire to eat rating was significantly lower (breakfast &amp; time interaction p < 0.01) and hunger rating tended to be lower (breakfast &amp; time interaction p = 0.06) after the G-breakfast. None of the blood parameters studied were different between breakfasts; however, AUC_GLP-1 was inversely associated with the AUC_hunger and AUC_{desire-to-eat} after the G-Breakfast, whereas triglyceride levels were directly associated with AUC_CSI after the C-Breakfast. Our results suggest a slightly higher satiating effect of goat dairy when compared to cow dairy products, and pointed to a potential association of GLP-1 and triglyceride levels with the mechanisms by which dairy products might affect satiety after the G-Breakfast and C-Breakfast, respectively.

Host-Microbiota Mutualism in Metabolic Diseases

The intestinal microbiota is a plastic ecosystem that is shaped by environmental and genetic factors, interacting with virtually all tissues of the host. Many signals result from the interplay between the microbiota with its mammalian symbiont that can lead to altered metabolism. Disruptions in the microbial composition are associated with a number of comorbidities linked to the metabolic syndrome. Promoting the niche expansion of beneficial bacteria through diet and supplements can improve metabolic disorders. Reintroducing bacteria through probiotic treatment or fecal transplant is a strategy under active investigation for multiple pathological conditions. Here, we review the recent knowledge of microbiota's contribution to host pathology, the modulation of the microbiota by dietary habits, and the potential therapeutic benefits of reshaping the gut bacterial landscape in context of metabolic disorders such as obesity.