Complement in ANCA-associated vasculitis: mechanisms and implications for management

Diagnosis and latest treatment strategies of ANCA‑associated glomerulonephritis (Review)

Antineutrophil cytoplasmic antibody (ANCA)-associated vasculitis (AAV) is a spectrum of conditions characterized by inflammation of the small- and medium-sized vasculature. Glomerulonephritis associated with AAV (AAV-GN) exerts a profound effect on patient survival and long-term prognosis, with renal impairment resulting in end-stage renal disease in ~20% of cases within a 5-year period. Therefore, the early detection of renal involvement is of pivotal significance. The present review aimed to summarize the diagnostic utility of serological and urinary assays, coupled with renal biopsy, in the context of AAV-GN, thus promoting the early diagnosis of the disease. Furthermore, standardized protocols for glucocorticoid and immunosuppressive therapy have been established in the last decade, with the development of subsequent targeted treatment regimens. The current review also summarized the current research developments associated with AAV-GN, thus providing more references for clinical practice and benefiting a greater number of patients.

Drug-induced liver injury related to avacopan therapy

OBJECTIVES

The efficacy of avacopan as remission induction therapy for Anti-Neutrophil Cytoplasmic Autoantibody (ANCA)-associated vasculitis (AAV) is well-established. However, concerns regarding liver injury post-avacopan treatment remain, especially in Japan. Therefore, this study aimed to investigate drug-induced liver injury (DILI) associated with avacopan treatment.

METHODS

This study included 22 patients with AAV who were treated with avacopan at multiple centres in Japan between September 2021 and March 2024. DILI was assessed by the Japanese version of a revised electronic causality assessment method (RECAM-J 2023).

RESULTS

Among the 22 patients treated with avacopan, DILI was observed in nine cases (40.9%): six with microscopic polyangiitis and three with granulomatosis with polyangiitis. Severe DILI with elevated total bilirubin (T-Bil) was observed in four of the nine patients (44.4%), a few weeks after the initiation of avacopan therapy. Eight of the nine patients (88.9%) with DILI improved after discontinuation of avacopan and other medications, and one patient developed vanishing bile duct syndrome (VBDS) leading to death. Avacopan-induced DILI was classified into three patterns: 1, short-term injury without T-Bil elevation; 2, transient cholestatic liver injury with T-Bil elevation; 3, decompensated liver injury with marked T-Bil elevation (VBDS). The risk factors for severe DILI with T-Bil elevation in Japanese patients included older age, lower body mass index and early onset DILI following the initiation of avacopan treatment.

CONCLUSION

Avacopan-induced DILI is relatively common in Japan and could be lethal. Frequent laboratory follow-ups should be considered, especially for elderly and low-body-weight patients.

Chronic kidney disease enhances alternative pathway activity: a new paradigm

Reduced kidney function is associated with increased risk of cardiovascular disease in addition to kidney disease progression. Kidney disease is considered an inflammatory state, based on elevated levels of C-reactive protein and inflammatory cytokines. A key mediator of cardiovascular and kidney disease progression in the setting of reduced kidney function is systemic and vascular inflammation. However, the exact pathways that link chronic kidney disease (CKD) with inflammation remain incompletely understood. For decades it has been known that factor D, the main activator of the alternative complement pathway, is increased in the plasma of patients with reduced kidney function. Recent biomarker evidence suggests alternative pathway activation in this setting. CKD, therefore, seems to alter the balance of alternative pathway proteins, promoting inflammation and potentially exacerbating complement-mediated diseases and CKD-associated complications. In this manuscript, we review the impact of reduced kidney function on biomarkers of the alternative complement pathway and the implications of alternative pathway activation on cardiovascular disease and kidney disease progression. Importantly, we highlight the need for ongoing research efforts that may lead to opportunities to target the alternative pathway of complement withx the goal of improving kidney and cardiovascular outcomes in persons with reduced kidney function.

The entrenchment of NLRP3 inflammasomes in autoimmune disease-related inflammation

Autoinflammation and autoimmunity are almost "opposite" phenomena characterized by chronic activation of the immune system, 'innate' in the first and 'adaptive' in the second, leading to inflammation of several tissues with specific protean effectors of tissue damage. The mechanism of involvement of multiprotein complexes called 'inflammasomes' within autoimmune pictures, differently from autoinflammatory conditions, is yet undeciphered. In this review we provide a comprehensive overview on NLRP3 inflammasome contribution into the pathogenesis of some autoimmune diseases. In response to autoantibodies against nucleic acids or tissue-specific antigens the NLRP3 inflammasome is activated within dendritic cells and macrophages of patients with systemic lupus erythematosus. Crucial is NLRP3 inflammasome to amplify tissue inflammation with interleukin-1 overexpression and matrix metalloproteinase production at the joint level in rheumatoid arthritis. A deregulated NLRP3 inflammasome activation occurs in the serous acini of salivary and lacrimal glands prone to Sjogren's syndrome, but also in the inflammatory process involving endothelial cells, leucocyte recruitment, and platelet plugging of vasculitides. Furthermore, organ-specific autoimmune diseases such as thyroiditis and hepatitis may display hyperactive NLRP3 inflammasomes at the level of resident immune cells within thyroid or liver, respectively. Therefore, it is not unexpected that preclinical studies have shown how specific inflammasome inhibitors may significantly overthrow the severity of different autoimmune diseases and slow down their trend towards an ominous progression. Specific markers of inflammasome activation could also reveal subclinical inflammatory components escaping conventional diagnostic approaches or improve monitoring of autoimmune diseases and personalizing their treatment.

Association of C4d with disease activity in anti-neutrophil cytoplasmic antibody-associated vasculitis: evidence for classical/lectin complement pathway activation

BACKGROUND

We aimed to investigate the involvement of the classical/lectin complement pathway in anti-neutrophil cytoplasmic antibody (ANCA)-associated vasculitis (AAV) by exploring the complement activation fragment C4d in association to AAV activity.

METHODS

Forty patients with active AAV and twenty population-based controls were included. The study included 27 (67.5%) patients with a diagnosis of GPA and 13 (32.5%) with MPA. Twenty-four patients (60%) were anti-proteinase 3 (PR3)-ANCA positive and 16 (40%) anti-myeloperoxidase (MPO)-ANCA positive. Thirty-three (82.5%) patients had kidney involvement. A follow-up sample obtained after induction therapy (median 6 months) was available for 24 of the patients, of whom 20 were in remission. Plasma C4d was analysed by ELISA detecting an epitope that arises upon complement-mediated cleavage. Plasma complement factor 4 (C4) and the soluble terminal complement complex (sTCC) were analysed by ELISA. The C4d/C4 ratio was calculated. HLA-DRB1-typing and immunohistochemistry for C4d in kidney biopsies were performed.

RESULTS

Patients with active AAV had higher C4d, sTCC levels and C4d/C4 ratio than controls (p < 0.001, p = 0.004, p < 0.001). C4d, sTCC levels and C4d/C4 ratio all decreased from active disease to remission (p = 0.010, p = 0.009, p = 0.011). C4d levels in AAV patients in remission remained higher than population-based controls (p = 0.026). Active anti-PR3-ANCA patients had higher C4d levels and C4d/C4 ratio than anti-MPO-ANCA patients (p = 0.001, p = 0.007). Patients with active AAV and kidney involvement had lower C4d levels than patients without (p = 0.04). C4d levels and C4d/C4 ratio correlated positively with the percentage of normal glomeruli in kidney biopsies. The immunohistochemistry was negative for C4d in kidney biopsies.

CONCLUSIONS

The specific C4d assay revealed activity in the classical/lectin complement pathway in AAV, which reflected general disease activity, but was not associated specifically with kidney involvement. C4d levels differed depending on anti-PR3/MPO-ANCA subtypes suggesting differences in complement activation and underlying pathogenetic mechanisms. The findings imply that the classical/lectin complement pathway may play a more significant role in AAV pathogenesis than previously reported and that plasma C4d levels and C4d/C4 ratio may be biomarker candidates for disease activity and treatment outcome monitoring.

Safety and Efficacy of Avacopan in Patients with Complement 3 Glomerulopathy: Randomized, Double-Blind Clinical Trial

Background

Complement 3 (C3) glomerulopathy is a rare autoimmune disorder characterized by activation of the alternative complement pathway with isolated or dominant complement 3 deposition in glomeruli. Patients with C3 glomerulopathy may develop progressive deterioration in kidney function and kidney failure.

Methods

We studied the safety and efficacy of avacopan 30 mg twice daily in patients with C3 glomerulopathy (N=57) with elevated (>244 ng/ml) and normal (≤244 ng/ml) levels of membrane attack complex or terminal complement complex (C5b-9) in a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, phase 2 trial, with kidney biopsies performed prerandomization and at 26 and 52 weeks. The primary outcome was the percent change from baseline to week 26 in C3 Glomerulopathy Histological Index for disease activity.

Results

The study was conducted in patients with C3 glomerulopathy, including C3 GN and dense deposit disease. The median study duration was 60.0 weeks (interquartile range, 59.9–61.0). There were no significant differences in the primary outcome between the avacopan and the placebo group—least squares mean treatment difference (95% confidence interval)= −0.0 (−1.9 to 1.8). The secondary measures of efficacy including C3 Glomerulopathy Histological Index for disease chronicity, urine protein:creatinine ratio, and eGFR were not different between treatment groups. The overall incidence and type of adverse events for both treatment groups were comparable. No deaths were reported during the study, and no new safety signals were detected.

Conclusions

The primary end point for the study was not met; other clinical effects of avacopan to improve certain key kidney function parameters and slow disease progression were variable and require further evaluation.

Factor B as a therapeutic target for the treatment of complement-mediated diseases

The complement system, consisting of three initiating pathways-classical, lectin and alternative, is an important part of innate immunity. Dysregulation of the complement system is implicated in the pathogenesis of several autoimmune and inflammatory diseases. Therapeutic inhibition of the complement system has been recognized as a viable approach to drug development and has been successful with the approval of a small number of complement inhibitors for diseases such as paroxysmal nocturnal hemoglobinuria, atypical hemolytic uremic syndrome, neuromyelitis optica, myasthenia gravis and geographic atrophy. More recently, therapies selectively targeting the alternative pathway (AP), which drives the amplification of the complement responses, are being evaluated for these complement-mediated diseases. Complement Factor B, a serine protease, is a unique component of the AP that is essential for the catalytic activity of AP C3 convertase and AP C5 convertase. Inhibition of Factor B blocks the activity of the alternative pathway and the amplification loop, and subsequent generation of the membrane attack complex downstream; however, it has no effect on the initial activation mediated by the classical and lectin complement pathways. Therefore, Factor B is an attractive target for diseases in which the AP is overactivated. In this review, we provide an overview of Factor B and its critical role in the AP, discuss the benefit-risk of Factor B inhibition as a targeted therapeutic strategy, and describe the various Factor B inhibitors that are approved and/or in clinical development.

Complement as a major mediator of ANCA vasculitis and a target for precision therapy

INTRODUCTION

Complement was long thought not to be involved in ANCA vasculitis pathogenesis until studies in murine models demonstrated its central role. The current theory is ANCA-activated neutrophils degranulate and release factors that activate complement, which, in turn, recruits more neutrophils and causes an inflammatory amplification loop that results in the vascular inflammation characteristic of disease. Targeting this amplification loop through complement inhibition has proven to be effective in ANCA vasculitis treatment.

AREAS COVERED

A PubMed search was conducted using key terms 'ANCA vasculitis' AND 'complement system.' We review the findings from experimental mouse models, in vitro studies, and human ANCA vasculitis that support a role for complement activation in disease pathogenesis. We also summarize results from pivotal clinical studies demonstrating the safety and efficacy of complement inhibition in ANCA vasculitis treatment.

EXPERT OPINION

While complement activation is undoubtedly involved in ANCA vasculitis pathogenesis, less clear is whether measuring complement activation markers can reliably assess disease activity, predict those who will benefit from complement-targeting therapy, or identify patients in stable remission and able to stop therapy. Better understanding the clinical implications of complement activation will shed more light on the utility of complement inhibition and facilitate precision medicine in ANCA vasculitis.

Recommendations for the diagnosis and treatment of anti-neutrophil cytoplasmic autoantibody associated vasculitis

Anti-neutrophil cytoplasmic autoantibody (ANCA)-associated vasculitis is characterised by small vessel necrotising inflammatory vasculitis. Prior to immunosupressant therapy availability it usually led to a fatal outcome. Current treatment has changed ANCA-associated vasculitis into a condition with a significant response rate, although with a not negligible relapse occurrence and cumulative organ lesions, mostly due to drug-related toxicities. The use of glucocorticoids, cyclophosphamide and other immunosupressants (such as azathioprine, mychophenolate and methotrexate) was optimised in a series of clinical trials that established the treatment of reference. In recent years, a better knowledge of B lymphocyte function and the role of complement inhibition has transformed the course of this disease while minimising treatment-related adverse effects. This multidisciplinary document of recommendations is based on the consensus of three scientific societies (Internal Medicine, Nephrology and Rheumatology) and on the best available evidence on diagnosis, treatment and follow-up of patients with ANCA-associated vasculitis, including some special situations. The aim of this document is to provide updated information and well-grounded clinical recommendations to practising physicians as to how to improve the diagnosis and treatment outcome of our patients.

Complement Immune System in Pulmonary Hypertension-Cooperating Roles of Circadian Rhythmicity in Complement-Mediated Vascular Pathology

Originally discovered in the 1890s, the complement system has traditionally been viewed as a "compliment" to the body's innate and adaptive immune response. However, emerging data have shown that the complement system is a much more complex mechanism within the body involved in regulating inflammation, gene transcription, attraction of macrophages, and many more processes. Sustained complement activation contributes to autoimmunity and chronic inflammation. Pulmonary hypertension is a disease with a poor prognosis and an average life expectancy of 2-3 years that leads to vascular remodeling of the pulmonary arteries; the pulmonary arteries are essential to host homeostasis, as they divert deoxygenated blood from the right ventricle of the heart to the lungs for gas exchange. This review focuses on direct links between the complement system's involvement in pulmonary hypertension, along with autoimmune conditions, and the reliance on the complement system for vascular remodeling processes of the pulmonary artery. Furthermore, circadian rhythmicity is highlighted as the disrupted homeostatic mechanism in the inflammatory consequences in the vascular remodeling within the pulmonary arteries, which could potentially open new therapeutic cues. The current treatment options for pulmonary hypertension are discussed with clinical trials using complement inhibitors and potential therapeutic targets that impact immune cell functions and complement activation, which could alleviate symptoms and block the progression of the disease. Further research on complement's involvement in interstitial lung diseases and pulmonary hypertension could prove beneficial for our understanding of these various diseases and potential treatment options to prevent vascular remodeling of the pulmonary arteries.

Autoimmune diseases and atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease

Autoimmune diseases are associated with a dramatically increased risk of atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease and its clinical manifestations. The increased risk is consistent with the notion that atherogenesis is modulated by both protective and disease-promoting immune mechanisms. Notably, traditional cardiovascular risk factors such as dyslipidaemia and hypertension alone do not explain the increased risk of cardiovascular disease associated with autoimmune diseases. Several mechanisms have been implicated in mediating the autoimmunity-associated cardiovascular risk, either directly or by modulating the effect of other risk factors in a complex interplay. Aberrant leukocyte function and pro-inflammatory cytokines are central to both disease entities, resulting in vascular dysfunction, impaired resolution of inflammation and promotion of chronic inflammation. Similarly, loss of tolerance to self-antigens and the generation of autoantibodies are key features of autoimmunity but are also implicated in the maladaptive inflammatory response during atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease. Therefore, immunomodulatory therapies are potential efficacious interventions to directly reduce the risk of cardiovascular disease, and biomarkers of autoimmune disease activity could be relevant tools to stratify patients with autoimmunity according to their cardiovascular risk. In this Review, we discuss the pathophysiological aspects of the increased cardiovascular risk associated with autoimmunity and highlight the many open questions that need to be answered to develop novel therapies that specifically address this unmet clinical need.

Anti-Neutrophil Cytoplasmic Antibody-Associated Vasculitis in China: Epidemiology, Management, Prognosis, and Outlook

Background

Increasing evidence indicates that clinicopathologic phenotypes and ANCA serotypes may differ ethnically and geographically. This review highlights the progress in the prevalence, pathogenesis, management, and outcomes of anti-neutrophil cytoplasmic antibody (ANCA)-associated vasculitis (AAV) in China.

Summary

AAV is not rare in China. Cumulative evidence has demonstrated a significant preponderance of microscopic polyangiitis (MPA) and myeloperoxidase (MPO)-ANCA AAV in China. Even in patients with granulomatosis with polyangiitis (GPA), there is a predominance of MPO-ANCA over proteinase 3 (PR3)-ANCA, presenting a unique subset. The pathogenesis of AAV is multifactorial, with the role of complement activation being highlighted during recent years. Treatment strategies for AAV in China have also been refined recently. A rapid tapering of glucocorticoids to minimize exposure has been recommended by the Chinese guidelines. Along with a better understanding of the disease, B cell-targeted therapy and complement-targeted therapy are developing. A considerable number of patients in China received rituximab treatment and achieved remission. However, infection risk and associated mortality still remain concerns. Therefore, less rituximab exposure should be considered and evaluated in Chinese AAV patients. Prognostic factors have been reviewed. Of note, along with improved outcomes, there is an increase of cardiovascular and malignant-related death, warranting specific care. Recently, a modified renal risk score model has been validated for early risk prediction in Chinese AAV patients. Moreover, emerging biomarkers for AAV, including complement components, have been identified in Chinese patients.

Key Messages

There is a preponderance of MPA and MPO-ANCA in China. Treatment strategies for Chinese AAV patients generally align with those in western countries, and to some extent, less aggressive. Prognostic factors and emerging biomarkers for AAV in China have been identified. Further challenges include optimizing interventions, minimizing treatment-related comorbidities, improving disease monitoring, and enhancing life qualities of AAV patients.

The role of complement in kidney disease: conclusions from a Kidney Disease: Improving Global Outcomes (KDIGO) Controversies Conference

Uncontrolled complement activation can cause or contribute to glomerular injury in multiple kidney diseases. Although complement activation plays a causal role in atypical hemolytic uremic syndrome and C3 glomerulopathy, over the past decade, a rapidly accumulating body of evidence has shown a role for complement activation in multiple other kidney diseases, including diabetic nephropathy and several glomerulonephritides. The number of available complement inhibitor therapies has also increased during the same period. In 2022, Kidney Diseases: Improving Global Outcomes (KDIGO) convened a Controversies Conference, "The Role of Complement in Kidney Disease," to address the expanding role of complement dysregulation in the pathophysiology, diagnosis, and management of various glomerular diseases, diabetic nephropathy, and other forms of hemolytic uremic syndrome. Conference participants reviewed the evidence for complement playing a primary causal or secondary role in progression for several disease states and considered how evidence of complement involvement might inform management. Participating patients with various complement-mediated diseases and caregivers described concerns related to life planning, implications surrounding genetic testing, and the need for inclusive implementation of effective novel therapies into clinical practice. The value of biomarkers in monitoring disease course and the role of the glomerular microenvironment in complement response were examined, and key gaps in knowledge and research priorities were identified.

FTY720 ameliorates experimental MPO-ANCA-associated vasculitis by regulating fatty acid oxidation via the neutrophil PPARα-CPT1a pathway

OBJECTIVES

Increasing studies demonstrated the importance of C5a and anti-neutrophil cytoplasmic antibody (ANCA)-induced neutrophil activation in the pathogenesis of ANCA-associated vasculitis (AAV). Sphingosine-1-phosphate (S1P) acts as a downstream effector molecule of C5a and enhances neutrophil activation induced by C5a and ANCA. The current study investigated the role of a S1P receptor modulator, FTY720, in experimental autoimmune vasculitis (EAV) and explored the immunometabolism-related mechanisms of FTY720 in modulating ANCA-induced neutrophil activation.

METHODS

The effects of FTY720 in EAV were evaluated by quantifying haematuria, proteinuria, crescent formation, tubulointerstitial injury and pulmonary haemorrhage. RNA sequencing of renal cortex and gene enrichment analysis were performed. The proteins of key identified pathways were analysed in neutrophils isolated from peripheral blood of patients with active AAV and normal controls. We assessed the effects of FTY720 on ANCA-induced neutrophil respiratory burst and neutrophil extracellular traps formation (NETosis).

RESULTS

FTY720 treatment significantly attenuated renal injury and pulmonary haemorrhage in EAV. RNA sequencing analyses of renal cortex demonstrated enhanced fatty acid oxidation (FAO) and peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor (PPAR) signalling in FTY720-treated rats. Compared with normal controls, patients with active AAV showed decreased FAO in neutrophils. FTY720-treated differentiated HL-60 cells showed increased expression of carnitine palmitoyltransferase 1a (CPT1a) and PPARα. Blocking or knockdown of CPT1a or PPARα in isolated human neutrophils and HL-60 cells reversed the inhibitory effects of FTY720 on ANCA-induced neutrophil respiratory burst and NETosis.

CONCLUSION

FTY720 attenuated renal injury in EAV through upregulating FAO via the PPARα-CPT1a pathway in neutrophils, offering potential immunometabolic targets in AAV treatment.

Early transition to avacopan from glucocorticoids applied during induction therapy for microscopic polyangiitis with rapidly progressive glomerulonephritis

Antineutrophil cytoplasmic antibody-associated vasculitis (AAV) is a systemic autoimmune disease characterized by necrotizing inflammation of small blood vessels. Glucocorticoids (GC) in combination with rituximab or cyclophosphamide can reduce AAV-related mortality and rescue renal function. However, several side effects associated with these agents, including GC toxicity, are concerning. Avacopan, an inhibitor of the C5a receptor, is now available for AAV treatment and is expected to mitigate GC toxicity. We present a case of myeloperoxidase-antineutrophil cytoplasmic antibody (MPO-ANCA)-positive microscopic polyangiitis (MPA) with rapidly progressive glomerulonephritis treated with an early switch from GC to avacopan in combination with rituximab during induction therapy. Over a 6-month treatment period, clinical remission was achieved and maintained without infection or elevated liver enzyme levels. Efficacy and safety data regarding avacopan for AAV induction therapy remain limited. Therefore, more case reports are required to clarify the role of avacopan in AAV induction and maintenance therapy. Since the MPO-ANCA titer remained elevated despite the clinical remission of AAV in this case, the ANCA titer may not necessarily be a reliable biomarker for predicting AAV relapse when avacopan is applied as an induction therapy for AAV.

[The complement cascade in renal pathology]

The complement cascade comprises a variety of soluble and cell surface proteins and is an important component of the innate immune system. When the cascade is triggered by any of the three activation pathways, the complement system rapidly produces large amounts of protein fragments that are potent mediators of inflammatory, vasoactive, and metabolic responses. All activation pathways lead to the terminal complement cascade with the formation of the membrane attack complex, which lyses cells by forming membrane pores. Although the complement system is essential for pathogen defense and homeostasis, excessive or uncontrolled activation can lead to tissue damage. Recent research shows that the complement system is activated in almost all kidney diseases, even those not traditionally considered immune-mediated. In directly complement-mediated kidney diseases, complement factors or regulators are defective, afunctional or inactivated by antibodies. In many other renal diseases, the complement system is activated secondarily as a result of renal damage and is therefore involved in the pathogenesis of the disease, but is not the trigger. The detection of complement deposits is also used to diagnose kidney disease. This review describes the structure of the complement system and the effects of its dysregulation as a cause and modulator of renal disease.

Endothelial dysfunction and complement activation are independently associated with disease duration in patients with systemic vasculitis

OBJECTIVES

Systemic vasculitis is a heterogenous group of autoimmune diseases characterized by enhanced cardiovascular mortality. Endothelial dysfunction is associated with accelerated vascular damage, representing a core pathophysiologic mechanism contributing to excess CV risk. Recent studies have also shown that complement activation holds significant role in the pathogenesis of Anti-Neutrophilic Cytoplasmic Autoantibody (ANCA) -associated vasculitis (AAV). Given the potential crosstalk between the endothelium and complement, we aimed to assess, for the first time simultaneously, easily accessible biomarkers of endothelial dysfunction and complement activation in SV.

METHODS

We measured circulating endothelial microvesicles (EMVs) and soluble complement components representative of alternative, classical and terminal activation (C5b-9, C1q, Bb fragments, respectively) in a meticulously selected group of patients with systemic vasculitis, but without cardiovascular disease. Individuals free from systemic diseases, who were matched with patients for cardiovascular risk factors(hypertension, diabetes, smoking, dyslipidemia), comprised the control group.

RESULTS

We studied 60 individuals (30 in each group). Patients with systemic vasculitis had elevated EMVs, higher levels of C5b-9 [536.4(463.4) vs 1200.94457.3), p = 0.003] and C1q [136.2(146.5 vs 204.2(232.9), p = 0.0129], compared to controls [232.0 (243.5) vs 139.3(52.1), p < 0.001]. In multivariate analysis both EMVs and C5b-9 were independently associated with disease duration (p = 0.005 and p = 0.004 respectively), yet not with disease activity.

CONCLUSION

Patients with systemic vasculitis exhibit impaired endothelial function and complement activation, both assessed by easily accessible biomarkers, even in the absence of cardiovascular disease manifestations. EMVs and soluble complement components such as C5b-9 and C1q could be used as early biomarkers of endothelial dysfunction and complement activation, respectively, in clinical practice during the course of SV, yet their predictive value in terms of future cardiovascular disease warrants further verification in appropriately designed studies.

Thrombosis in vasculitis: An updated review of etiology, pathophysiology, and treatment

Introduction

Thromboembolic disease is a complication of many vasculitides. A common observation is that thromboembolic events coincide with the period of vasculitic disease, but the mechanism by which this occurs remains unclear. Inflammatory thrombosis is now recognized as a symptom of arteritis rheumatic, and vasculitides such as Behçet's syndrome (BS), and anti-neutrophil cytoplasmic antibodies (ANCA)-associated vasculitis (AAV) or giant cell arteritis (GCA). This systematic review aimed to explain recent findings related to etiology, pathophysiology, and treatment methods for BS, AAV, and medium/large-vessel vasculitis.

Methods

A comprehensive literature search on English sources from PubMed, Scopus, MEDLINE, Science Direct, ProQuest, AIM, CINAHIL, and ELDIS databases was used to find the relevant articles and reports. The relevant papers (having full text) were obtained until June 2023. Two independent reviewers screened the titles and abstracts of the obtained articles, and a third arbitrator resolved disputes between the reviewers.

Results and conclusion

It is becoming increasingly clear that certain systemic inflammatory diseases, like vasculitis, are linked to a higher risk of both venous and arterial thrombosis. An increased incidence of thromboembolic disease in AAV has been noted, particularly during times of active disease. Growing evidence supports the use of immunosuppression in the management of venous thrombosis in vasculitis. These patients also have a higher risk of developing ischemic disease.

Lymphatic vessels in patients with crescentic glomerulonephritis: association with renal pathology and prognosis

BACKGROUND

Various immune cells, including T cells, B cells, macrophages, and neutrophils contribute to the development of crescentic glomerulonephritis. Previous animal studies have suggested that lymphangiogenesis is involved in the migration of inflammatory cells and the activation of adaptive immunity. However, the extent of the association between lymphatic vessels and crescentic glomerulonephritis severity and prognosis remains unknown.

METHODS AND RESULTS

In this study, we assessed lymphatic vessel density in 71 patients with crescentic glomerulonephritis who underwent renal biopsies between June 2017 and June 2022. By immunohistochemistry and immunofluorescence, we identified increased lymphatic vessel density in the kidneys of patients with crescentic glomerulonephritis compared to controls. Lymphatic vessels were categorized as total, periglomerular, and interstitial. Spearman's rank correlation analysis showed a positive correlation between total and periglomerular lymphatic vessel density and glomerular crescent proportion. High lymphatic vessel density (total and periglomerular) correlated with declining kidney function, increased proteinuria, and severe glomerular and interstitial pathology. Interstitial lymphatic vessel density had minimal relationship with renal lesions. After a median duration of 13 months of follow-up, higher total and periglomerular lymphatic vessel density was associated with poorer prognosis. Transcriptomic analysis revealed increased immune cell activation and migration in crescentic glomerulonephritis patients compared to healthy controls. Periglomerular lymphatic vessels might play a significant role in immune cell infiltration and renal injury.

CONCLUSION

Elevated lymphatic vessel density in patients with crescentic glomerulonephritis is associated with poor prognosis and may serve as a predictive factor for adverse outcomes in these patients.

Proteinase‑3‑antineutrophil cytoplasmic antibody‑associated vasculitis secondary to subacute infective endocarditis: A case report

A 58-year-old male patient was admitted to Peking University First Hospital (Beijing, China) due to recurrent hematuria, proteinuria and kidney dysfunction. The patient was positive for proteinase-3 (PR3)-antineutrophil cytoplasmic antibody (ANCA). Pathology of the kidney showed focal proliferative necrotizing glomerulonephritis with crescent formation and immune complex-mediated glomerulonephritis. The patient was diagnosed with PR3-ANCA-associated vasculitis (AAV), received intensive immunosuppressive therapy and experienced two relapses within 1 year. After admission, aortic valve vegetation was observed via echocardiography. The patient subsequently received antibiotic treatment and valve replacement, and achieved complete remission of kidney and cardiac function. The present case emphasized the importance of identifying secondary reasons for ANCA formation, especially infective endocarditis in patients with PR3-AAV.

Balancing efficacy and safety of complement inhibitors

Complement inhibitors have been approved for several immune-mediated diseases and they are considered the next paradigm-shifting approach in the treatment of glomerulonephritis. The hierarchical organization of the complement system offers numerous molecular targets for therapeutic intervention. However, complement is an integral element of host defense and therefore complement inhibition can be associated with serious infectious complications. Here we give a closer look to the hierarchical complement system and how interfering with proximal versus distal or selective versus unselective molecular targets could determine efficacy and safety. Furthermore, we propose to consider the type of disease, immunological activity, and patient immunocompetence when stratifying patients, e.g., proximal/unselective targets for highly active and potentially fatal diseases while distal and selective targets may suit more chronic disease conditions with low or moderate disease activity requiring persistent complement blockade in patients with concomitant immunodeficiency. Certainly, there exists substantial promise for anti-complement therapeutics. However, balancing efficacy and safety will be key to establish powerful treatment effects with minimal adverse events, especially when complement blockade is continued over longer periods of time in chronic disorders.

Risk factors for severe COVID-19 infection and the impact of COVID-19 infection on disease progression among patients with AAV

To identify risk factors for COVID-19 infection and investigate the impact of COVID-19 infection on chronic kidney disease (CKD) progression and vasculitis flare in patients with antineutrophil cytoplasmic antibody (ANCA)-associated vasculitis (AAV). This cohort study retrospectively analyzed the prevalence and severity of COVID-19 infection in 276 patients with AAV who were followed up. Logistic regression was employed to estimate the risk of COVID-19 infection as well as CKD progression and vasculitis flare upon COVID-19 infection. During the 6-month observation period, 213 (77.2%) of 276 patients were diagnosed with COVID-19 infection. Of these 213 patients, 49 (23.0%) had a COVID-19-related inpatient admission, including 17 patients who died of COVID-19 infection. AAV patients with severe COVID-19 infection were more likely to be male (OR 1.921 [95% CI 1.020-3.619], P = 0.043), suffered from worse kidney function (serum creatinine [Scr], OR 1.901 [95% CI 1.345-2.687], P < 0.001), had higher C-reactive protein (CRP) (OR 1.054 [95% CI 1.010-1.101], P = 0.017) and less likely to have evidence of initial vaccination (OR 0.469 [95% CI 0.231-0.951], P = 0.036), and Scr and COVID-19 vaccination were proven to be significantly associated with severe COVID-19 infection even after multivariable adjustment. Severe COVID-19 infection was significantly associated with subsequent CKD progression (OR 7.929 [95% CI 2.030-30.961], P = 0.003) and vasculitis flare (OR 11.842 [95% CI 1.048-133.835], P = 0.046) among patients with AAV. AAV patients who were male, and with worse kidney function were more susceptible to severe COVID-19 infection, which subsequently increased the risk of CKD progression and vasculitis flare.

Low platelet count at diagnosis of anti-neutrophil cytoplasmic antibody-associated vasculitis is correlated with the severity of disease and renal prognosis

Antineutrophil cytoplasmic antibody-associated vasculitis (AAV) is an autoimmune disease that involves inflammation of blood vessels. There is increasing evidence that platelets play a crucial role not only in hemostasis but also in inflammation and innate immunity. In this study, we explored the relationship between platelet count, clinical characteristics, and the prognosis of patients with AAV. We divided 187 patients into two groups based on their platelet count. Clinicopathological data and prognostic information were retrospectively gathered from medical records. Univariate and multivariate regression analyses were used to identify risk factors for prognosis, including end-stage renal disease (ESRD) and mortality. The cutoff point for platelet count was set at 264.5 × 109/L, as determined by the receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve for predicting progression to ESRD in patients with AAV. We observed patients with low platelet count (platelets < 264.5 × 109/L) had lower leukocytes, hemoglobin, complement, acute reactants, and worse renal function (P for eGFR < 0.001). They were also more likely to progress to ESRD or death compared to the high platelet count group (platelets > 264.5 × 109/L) (P < 0.0001, P = 0.0338, respectively). Low platelet count was potentially an independent predictor of poor renal prognosis in the multivariate regression analysis [HR 1.670 (95% CI 1.019-2.515), P = 0.014]. Lower platelet count at diagnosis is associated with more severe clinical characteristics and impaired renal function. Therefore, platelet count may be an accessible prognostic indicator for renal outcomes in patients with AAV.

High Level of Serum Complement C3 Expression is Associated with Postoperative Vasculopathy Progression in Moyamoya Disease

Background

The immune system plays an important role in the onset and development of moyamoya disease (MMD), but the specific mechanisms remain unclear. This study aimed to explore the relationship between the expression of complements and immunoglobulin in serum and progression of MMD.

Methods

A total of 84 patients with MMD and 70 healthy individuals were enrolled. Serum immunoglobulin and complement C3 and C4 expression were compared between healthy individuals and MMD patients. Follow-up was performed at least 6 months post-operation. Univariate and multivariate analysis after adjusting different covariates were performed to explore predictive factors associated with vasculopathy progression. A nomogram basing on the results of multivariate analysis was established to predict vasculopathy progression.

Results

Compared to healthy individuals, MMD patients had significantly lower expression of serum complements C3 (P = 0.003*). Among MMD patients, C3 was significantly lower in those with late-stage disease (P = 0.001*). Of 84 patients, 27/84 (32.1%) patients presented with vasculopathy progression within a median follow-up time of 13.0 months. Age (P=0.006*), diastolic blood pressure (P=0.004*) and serum complement C3 expression (P=0.015*) were associated with vasculopathy progression after adjusting different covariables.

Conclusion

Complement C3 is downregulated in moyamoya disease and decreases even further in late-Suzuki stage disease. Age, diastolic blood pressure and serum complement C3 expression are associated with vasculopathy progression, suggesting that the complement might be involved in the development of moyamoya disease.

IgG hexamers initiate acute lung injury

Antibodies can initiate lung injury in a variety of disease states such as autoimmunity, transfusion reactions, or after organ transplantation, but the key factors determining in vivo pathogenicity of injury-inducing antibodies are unclear. A previously overlooked step in complement activation by IgG antibodies has been elucidated involving interactions between IgG Fc domains that enable assembly of IgG hexamers, which can optimally activate the complement cascade. Here, we tested the in vivo relevance of IgG hexamers in a complement-dependent alloantibody model of acute lung injury. We used three approaches to block alloantibody hexamerization (antibody carbamylation, the K439E Fc mutation, or treatment with domain B from Staphylococcal protein A), all of which reduced acute lung injury. Conversely, Fc mutations promoting spontaneous hexamerization made a harmful alloantibody into a more potent inducer of acute lung injury and rendered an innocuous alloantibody pathogenic. Treatment with a recombinant Fc hexamer 'decoy' therapeutic protected mice from lung injury, including in a model with transgenic human FCGR2A expression that exacerbated pathology. These results indicate a direct in vivo role of IgG hexamerization in initiating acute lung injury and the potential for therapeutics that inhibit or mimic hexamerization to treat antibody-mediated diseases.

ANCA-Negative Pauci-Immune Glomerulonephritis: A Review

Background

Pauci-immune glomerulonephritis (PIGN) is typically secondary to antineutrophil cytoplasmic antibodies (ANCA) small-vessel vasculitis. However, some cases lack detectable circulating ANCA and are called ANCA-negative PIGN (seronegative PIGN). The reported incidence of this varies greatly. Its relationship to ANCA-associated vasculitis (AAV) is unclear.

Summary

This review explores the pathophysiology of seronegative PIGN and summarizes findings from 12 studies focusing on this disease. The role of neutrophils appears to be central, with activation through cellular and humoral mechanisms. Most studies have noted less extrarenal involvement and more chronic changes in the kidney biopsy in seronegative PIGN compared to ANCA-positive cases. Studies have mostly reported using corticosteroids with cyclophosphamide for induction therapy and azathioprine for maintenance. The renal survival was noted to be lower compared to ANCA-positive PIGN.

Key Messages

Whether ANCA-negative PIGN represents a distinct disease or is part of the AAV spectrum remains unclear. Prospective large-scale studies are needed to understand this disease for optimal diagnosis and management.

Management of antineutrophil cytoplasmic antibody-associated vasculitis with glomerulonephritis as proposed by the ACR 2021, EULAR 2022 and KDIGO 2021 guidelines/recommendations

Updated guidelines on the management of antineutrophil cytoplasmic antibody (ANCA)-associated vasculitis (AAV) were released in 2021 by the American College of Rheumatology jointly with the Vasculitis Foundation and, subsequently, in 2022 by the European Alliance of Associations for Rheumatology. In addition, in 2021, the Kidney Disease: Improving Global Outcomes had released updated recommendations on the treatment of AAV with glomerulonephritis (AAV-GN). Kidney involvement is particularly relevant in microscopic polyangiitis and granulomatosis with polyangiitis, but is less frequent in eosinophilic granulomatosis with polyangiitis. The management of AAV-GN has been a focus for drug development and change over the past 10 years. Avoidance of progression to end-stage kidney disease (ESKD) or kidney failure is one of the main unmet needs in the management of AAV, with ESKD having a major impact on morbidity, health costs and mortality risk. Relevant changes in AAV-GN management are related to remission-induction treatment of patients with severe kidney disease, the use of glucocorticoids and avacopan, and remission-maintenance treatment. All the documents provide guidance in accordance with the evidence-based standard of care available at the time of their release. With our work we aim to (i) show the progress made and identify the differences between guidelines and recommendations, (ii) discuss the supporting rationale for those, and (iii) identify gaps in knowledge that could benefit from additional research and should be revised in subsequent updates.

Unleashing the power of complement activation: unraveling renal damage in human anti-glomerular basement membrane disease

Anti-glomerular basement membrane (GBM) disease is a rare but life-threatening autoimmune disorder characterized by rapidly progressive glomerulonephritis with or without pulmonary hemorrhage. Renal biopsies of anti-GBM patients predominantly show linear deposition of IgG and complement component 3 (C3), indicating a close association between antigen-antibody reactions and subsequent complement activation in the pathogenesis of the disease. All three major pathways of complement activation, including the classical, lectin, and alternative pathways, are involved in human anti-GBM disease. Several complement factors, such as C3, C5b-9, and factor B, show a positive correlation with the severity of the renal injury and act as risk factors for renal outcomes. Furthermore, compared to patients with single positivity for anti-GBM antibodies, individuals who are double-seropositive for anti-neutrophil cytoplasmic antibody (ANCA) and anti-GBM antibodies exhibit a unique clinical phenotype that lies between ANCA-associated vasculitis (AAV) and anti-GBM disease. Complement activation may serve as a potential "bridge" for triggering both AAV and anti-GBM conditions. The aim of this article is to provide a comprehensive review of the latest clinical evidence regarding the role of complement activation in anti-GBM disease. Furthermore, potential therapeutic strategies targeting complement components and associated precautions are discussed, to establish a theoretical basis for complement-targeted therapies.

[Pharmacological and clinical profiles of avacopan (TAVNEOS® capsule), a selective C5a receptor antagonist]

Avacopan (TAVNEOS® capsules) is an orally available selective C5a receptor (C5aR) antagonist. It has been approved in Japan since 2021 for the treatment of microscopic polyangiitis (MPA) and granulomatosis with polyangiitis (GPA), the two major subtypes of anti-neutrophil cytoplasmic antibody (ANCA)-associated vasculitis (AAV). The current standard therapy combining glucocorticoids (GC) and immunosuppressants has greatly improved the prognosis of AAV, however, issues such as side effects associated with GC use remain to be resolved. Avacopan suppresses priming of neutrophils induced by the complement component C5a, a process deeply involved in the pathogenesis of AAV. In pre-clinical studies, avacopan inhibited chemotaxis and priming of neutrophils induced by C5a-C5aR signaling. It also significantly suppressed nephritis and renal damage in an ANCA-induced glomerulonephritis mouse model. In the global phase 3 study "ADVOCATE", avacopan achieved both primary endpoints being 1) non-inferior to prednisone in inducing remission at week 26 and 2) superior in sustained remission at week 52 for MPA and GPA patients. Additionally, with avacopan, GC toxicity score was significantly lower and fewer adverse events possibly related to GC were observed. Furthermore, avacopan increased estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR) more than prednisone indicating improved renal function. Thus, the novel mechanism of avacopan targeting the complement system is a promising new therapeutic option for AAV with fewer GC-related side effects and better improvement of renal function.

[Complement in vasculitis associated with anti-neutrophil cytoplasm antibodies with renal involvement: pathogenic, prognostic and therapeutic implications]

Antineutrophil cytoplasmic antibody-associated vasculitides are primary vasculitides that affect small vessels in various organs, including the kidney. Renal involvement is characterized by the presence of glomerulonephritis with crescents and necrosis in light microscopy and a pauci-immune pattern in immunofluorescence. The participation of complement in the pathogenesis of these entities has been valued in recent years, initially in animal models and later in studies in humans, by demonstrating the presence of fragments of the alternative complement pathway, in plasma and urine, together with complement deposits in glomeruli and small vessels of patients affected by antineutrophil cytoplasmic antibody vasculitis. The presence of complement in these entities confers a worse general and renal prognosis.

Case report: A pediatric case of MPO-ANCA-associated granulomatosis with polyangiitis superimposed on post-streptococcal acute glomerulonephritis

An eight-year-old girl was admitted with vomiting, gross hematuria, and progressive renal dysfunction. A renal biopsy revealed endocapillary proliferative glomerulopathy and crescent formation. Immunofluorescence staining revealed diffuse granular deposits of IgG and C3. Post-streptococcal acute glomerulonephritis (PSAGN) was suspected, based on the elevated anti-streptolysin O levels, decreased serum C3 concentrations, and histologic findings. The myeloperoxidase anti-neutrophil cytoplasmic antibody (MPO-ANCA) test was positive, and the young patient gradually developed palisaded neutrophilic and granulomatous dermatitis (PNGD), orbital and paranasal sinus granulomatous neoplasms, along with intermittent nose, head, and orbital pain. Finally, she was diagnosed with the rare MPO-ANCA-associated granulomatosis with polyangiitis (GPA) superimposed on PSAGN. The patient was treated with aggressive renal replacement therapy, methylprednisolone pulse therapy, and intravenous pulse cyclophosphamide; her renal function normalized, and her pain symptoms improved.

Prognostic value of complement serum C3 level and glomerular C3 deposits in anti-glomerular basement membrane disease

Background and objectives

Activation of the complement system is involved in the pathogenesis of anti-glomerular basement membrane (anti-GBM) disease. Glomerular deposits of complement 3 (C3) are often detected on kidney biopsies. The primary objective of this study was to analyze the prognostic value of the serum C3 level and the presence of C3 glomerular deposits in patients with anti-GBM disease.

Methods

We conducted a retrospective cohort study of 150 single-positive patients with anti-GBM disease diagnosed between 1997 and 2017. Patients were categorized according to the serum C3 level (forming a low C3 (C3<1.23 g/L) and a high C3 (C3≥1.23 g/L) groups) and positivity for C3 glomerular staining (forming the C3+ and C3- groups). The main outcomes were kidney survival and patient survival.

Results

Of the 150 patients included, 89 (65%) were men. The median [interquartile range (IQR)] age was 45 [26-64]. At diagnosis, kidney involvement was characterized by a median [IQR] peak serum creatinine (SCr) level of 578 [298-977] µmol/L, and 106 (71%) patients required dialysis. Patients in the low C3 group (72 patients) had more severe kidney disease at presentation, as characterized by higher prevalences of oligoanuria, peak SCr ≥500 µmol/L (69%, vs. 53% in the high C3 group; p=0.03), nephrotic syndrome (42%, vs. 24%, respectively; p=0.02) and fibrous forms on the kidney biopsy (21%, vs. 8%, respectively; p=0.04). Similarly, we observed a negative association between the presence of C3 glomerular deposits (in 52 (41%) patients) and the prevalence of cellular forms (83%, vs. 58% in the C3- group; p=0.003) and acute tubulo-interstitial lesions (60%, vs. 36% in the C3- group; p=0.007). When considering patients not on dialysis at diagnosis, the kidney survival rate at 12 months was poorer in the C3+ group (50% [25-76], vs. 91% [78-100] in the C3- group; p=0.01), with a hazard ratio [95% confidence interval] of 5.71 [1.13-28.85] (p=0.04, after adjusting for SCr).

Conclusion

In patients with anti-GBM disease, a low serum C3 level and the presence of C3 glomerular deposits were associated with more severe disease and histological kidney involvement at diagnosis. In patients not on dialysis at diagnosis, the presence of C3 deposits was associated with worse kidney survival.

The role of anti-HMGB1 antibody and anti-moesin antibody in ANCA-associated vasculitis

OBJECTIVE

The study aims to evaluate the role of anti-high mobility group box 1 (HMGB1) antibody and anti-moesin antibody in the diagnosis of antineutrophil cytoplasmic antibody (ANCA)-associated vasculitis (AAV) and its possible relationship with the different clinical manifestations.

METHODS

The study involved 60 AAV patients, 58 patients with autoimmune disease other than AAV and 50 healthy subjects. The serum levels of anti-HMGB1 and anti-moesin antibodies were determined by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), and the second determination was made 3 months after treatment of AAV patients.

RESULTS

Serum levels of anti-HMGB1 and anti-moesin antibodies in AAV group were significantly higher than those in non-AAV group and HC group. The area under the curve (AUC) of anti-HMGB1 and anti-moesin in diagnosing AAV were 0.977 and 0.670, respectively. Anti-HMGB1 levels were significantly elevated in AAV patients with pulmonary involvement, while the concentrations of anti-moesin were significantly increased in patients with renal damage. Anti-moesin were positively correlated with BVAS (r=0.261, P=0.044), creatinine (r=0.296, P=0.024) and negatively correlated with complement C3 (r=-0.363, P=0.013). Besides, anti-moesin levels of active AAV patients were significantly higher than those in inactive patients. The concentrations of serum anti-HMGB1 could be significantly decreased after induction remission treatment (P<0.05).

CONCLUSION

Anti-HMGB1 and anti-moesin antibodies play important roles in the diagnosis and prognosis of AAV, which may act as potential disease markers for AAV.

Coexistence of cryoglobulinemia and ANCA-associated vasculitis in a chronic brucellosis patient -a case report and literature review

BACKGROUND

The renal involvement of brucellosis is not common. Here we reported a rare case of chronic brucellosis accompanied by nephritic syndrome, acute kidney injury, the coexistence of cryoglobulinemia and antineutrophil cytoplasmic autoantibodies (ANCA) associated vasculitis (AAV) superimposed on iliac aortic stent implantation. The diagnosis and treatment of the case are instructive.

CASE PRESENTATION

A 49-year-old man with hypertension and iliac aortic stent implantation was admitted for unexplained renal failure with signs of nephritic syndrome, congestive heart failure, moderate anemia and livedoid change in the left sole with pain. His past history included chronic brucellosis and he just underwent the recurrence and completed the 6 weeks of antibiotics treatment. He demonstrated positive cytoplasmic/proteinase 3 ANCA, mixed type cryoglobulinemia and decreased C3. The kidney biopsy revealed endocapillary proliferative glomerulonephritis with a small amount of crescent formation. Immunofluorescence staining revealed only C3-positive staining. In accordance with clinical and laboratory findings, post-infective acute glomerulonephritis superimposed with AAV was diagnosed. The patient was treated with corticosteroids and antibiotics and sustained alleviation of renal function and brucellosis was achieved during the course of a 3-month follow-up.

CONCLUSIONS

Here we describe the diagnostic and treatment challenge in a patient with chronic brucellosis related glomerulonephritis accompanied by the coexistence of AAV and cryoglobulinemia. Renal biopsy confirmed the diagnosis of postinfectious acute glomerulonephritis overlapping with ANCA related crescentic glomerulonephritis, which was not ever reported in the literature. The patient showed a good response to steroid treatment which indicated the immunity-induced kidney injury. Meanwhile, it is essential to recognize and actively treat the coexisting brucellosis even when there are no clinical signs of the active stage of infection. This is the critical point for a salutary patient outcome for brucellosis associated renal complications.

Pathogenesis of anti-neutrophil cytoplasmic antibody-associated vasculitis

Anti-neutrophil cytoplasmic antibody (ANCA)-associated vasculitis (AAV) encompasses a group of potentially life-threatening disorders characterized by necrotizing small vessel vasculitis with positive serum ANCA. To date, the pathogenesis of AAV has not been fully elucidated, but remarkable progress has been achieved in the past few decades. In this review, we summarize the mechanism of AAV. The pathogenesis of AAV involves various factors. ANCA, neutrophils, and the complement system play key roles in disease initiation and progression, forming a feedback amplification loop leading to vasculitic injury. Neutrophils activated by ANCA undergo respiratory burst and degranulation, as well as releasing neutrophils extracellular traps (NETs), thus causing damage to vascular endothelial cells. Activated neutrophils could further activate the alternative complement pathway, leading to the generation of complement 5a (C5a), which amplifies the inflammatory response by priming neutrophils for ANCA-mediated overactivation. Neutrophils stimulated with C5a and ANCA could also activate the coagulation system, generate thrombin, and subsequently cause platelet activation. These events in turn augment complement alternative pathway activation. Moreover, disturbed B-cell and T-cell immune homeostasis is also involved in disease development. In-depth investigation in pathogenesis of AAV might help to offer more effective targeted therapies.

Mechanism of activation and biased signaling in complement receptor C5aR1

The complement system plays an important role in the innate immune response to invading pathogens. The complement fragment C5a is one of its important effector components and exerts diverse physiological functions through activation of the C5a receptor 1 (C5aR1) and associated downstream G protein and β-arrestin signaling pathways. Dysfunction of the C5a-C5aR1 axis is linked to numerous inflammatory and immune-mediated diseases, but the structural basis for activation and biased signaling of C5aR1 remains elusive. Here, we present cryo-electron microscopy structures of the activated wild-type C5aR1-G_i protein complex bound to each of the following: C5a, the hexapeptidic agonist C5a^pep, and the G protein-biased agonist BM213. The structures reveal the landscape of the C5a-C5aR1 interaction as well as a common motif for the recognition of diverse orthosteric ligands. Moreover, combined with mutagenesis studies and cell-based pharmacological assays, we deciphered a framework for biased signaling using different peptide analogs and provided insight into the activation mechanism of C5aR1 by solving the structure of C5aR1^I116A mutant-G_i signaling activation complex induced by C089, which exerts antagonism on wild-type C5aR1. In addition, unusual conformational changes in the intracellular end of transmembrane domain 7 and helix 8 upon agonist binding suggest a differential signal transduction process. Collectively, our study provides mechanistic understanding into the ligand recognition, biased signaling modulation, activation, and G_i protein coupling of C5aR1, which may facilitate the future design of therapeutic agents.

Identification of new immune subtypes of renal injury associated with anti-neutrophil cytoplasmic antibody-associated vasculitis based on integrated bioinformatics analysis

Background: Anti-neutrophil cytoplasmic antibody (ANCA)-associated vasculitis (AAV) is a systemic autoimmune disease that may lead to end-stage renal disease. However, few specifific biomarkers are available for AAV-related renal injury. The aim of this study was to identify important biomarkers and explore new immune subtypes of AAV-related renal injury. Methods: In this study, messenger RNA expression profiles for antibody-associated vasculitis and AAV-associated kidney injury were downloaded from the Gene Expression Omnibus database. Weighted gene co-expression network analysis (WGCNA) was performed to identify the most relevant module genes to AAV. Key module genes from WGCNA were then intersected with AAV- and nephropathy-related genes from the Genecards database to identify key genes for AAV-associated kidney injury. Subsequently, the expression of key genes was validated in independent datasets and the correlation of genes with clinical traits of kidney injury was verified by the Nephroseq database. Finally, non-negative matrix factorization (NMF) clustering was performed to identify the immune subtypes associated with the key genes. Results: Eight co-key genes (AGTR2, ANPTL2, BDKRB1, CSF2, FGA, IL1RAPL2, PCDH11Y, and PGR) were identifified, and validated the expression levels independent datasets. Receiver operating characteristic curve analysis revealed that these eight genes have major diagnostic value as potential biomarkers of AAV-related renal injury. Through our comprehensive gene enrichment analyses, we found that they are associated with immune-related pathways. NMF clustering of key genes identified two and three immune-related molecular subtypes in the glomerular and tubular data, respectively. A correlation analysis with prognostic data from the Nephroseq database indicated that the expression of co-key genes was positively co-related with the glomerular filtration rate. Discussion: Altogether, we identifified 8 valuable biomarkers that firmly correlate with the diagnosis and prognosis of AAV-related renal injury. These markers may help identify new immune subtypes for AAV-related renal injury.

Role of complement activation in anti-neutrophil cytoplasmic antibody-associated glomerulonephritis

Anti-neutrophil cytoplasmic antibody (ANCA)-associated vasculitis (AAV) is an autoimmune disease characterized by necrotizing inflammation of small or medium vessels, causing ANCA associated glomerulonephritis (AAGN). AAGN is defined as pauci-immune glomerulonephritis with no or little immune deposition; hence, activation of the complement system in AAV was overlooked until recently. However, many studies in mice and humans have revealed a crucial role for complement system activation in the development of AAGN. Circulating and urinary detection of various complement components associated with AP activation, which have been broadly correlated with the clinical activity of AAGN, has been reported and may be useful for predicting renal outcome at the time of diagnosis and setting up personalized treatments. Moreover, recent investigations have suggested the possible contribution of the complement classical or lectin pathway activation in the development of AAGN. Thus, as therapeutic options targeting complement components are making rapid strides, the primary complement pathway involved in AAGN disease progression remains to be elucidated: this will directly impact the development of novel therapeutic strategies with high specificity and reduced side effects. This review summarizes and discusses the most recent evidence on the crucial roles of the complement system in the development of AAGN and possible therapeutic strategies that target complement components for disease management.

Implication of platelets and complement C3 as link between innate immunity and tubulointerstitial injury in renal vasculitis with MPO-ANCA seropositivity

Introduction

Antineutrophil cytoplasmic antibody (ANCA)-associated vasculitis (AAV) is a potentially life-threatening systemic small-vessel vasculitis that is characterized by pauci-immune glomerulonephritis, depicting in turn a major denominator of AAV mortality. It is well established that AAV patients feature an increased risk of developing thrombotic events, and platelets are activated in AAV patients being triggered by the alternative complement pathway. Platelets guard vessels integrity and initiate thrombus formation in response to endothelial damage, further constituting a triangular interconnection with the activation of neutrophils and the complement system. We here aimed to systematically assess the relevance of platelet counts and systemic complement system activation regarding distinct histopathological lesions in ANCA-associated renal vasculitis.

Methods

A cohort of 53 biopsy-proven cases of ANCA-associated renal vasculitis were retrospectively enrolled in a single-center observational study. Univariate and multivariate regression analysis was performed to identify parameters associated with platelet counts in ANCA-associated renal vasculitis compared to disease controls. Finally, the relevance of platelets for disease course and recovery was assessed by survival analysis.

Results

Lower platelet counts correlated with markers of kidney injury including eGFR loss (p=0.0004) and lower complement C3 levels (p=0.0037). Multivariate and subgroup analysis revealed that this association was only present in the subgroup with MPO-ANCA seropositivity (eGFR loss: p=0.0009, lower C3: p=0.0032). While lower platelet counts correlated with kidney injury in the PR3-ANCA subgroup (eGFR loss: p=0.0272), we did not observe an independent association with complement C3 levels (p=0.4497). Independent of any glomerular lesion, lower platelet counts correlated with interstitial fibrosis (p=0.0313), tubular atrophy (p=0.0073), and tubulitis in areas of interstitial fibrosis and tubular atrophy (p=0.0033). Finally, we observed significant differences with increased requirement of kidney replacement therapy (KRT) or death in the subgroup below median platelet counts (HR: 4.1, 95% CI: 1.6-10, p=0.0047), associated with a lower probability of discharge and prolonged hospitalization in this subgroup (HR: 0.5, 95% CI: 0.3-0.9, p=0.0113).

Conclusion

Based on our observation that an association between platelets and complement system activation is only observed in the MPO-ANCA subgroup, this could implicate that platelets and complement C3 link innate immunity to tubulointerstitial injury in the presence of MPO-ANCA autoantibodies.

A glance into the future of anti-neutrophil cytoplasmic antibody-associated vasculitis

In the past decade, unprecedented progress has been made in understanding the pathogenesis, diagnosis, assessment, and treatment of anti-neutrophil cytoplasmic antibody (ANCA)-associated vasculitides (AAVs). International collaborations and input from several fields (e.g. immunology, rheumatology, and nephrology) have been critical for analyzing demographics, disease manifestations, and outcomes in clinical research studies. Such efforts opened new avenues for generating novel questions and rationale to design better clinical trials. In addition, clinical research has been a source of several biological discoveries and the starting point for knowledge seeking on the pathophysiology of AAV. Interestingly, the blending of clinical and basic research provides a platform for personalized medicine. Despite recent revisions on AAV classification, the incorporation of new findings on disease genetics and immunologic responses may soon result in changes in clinical practice. These advances will enhance the selection of more specific and targeted therapies. However, current unmet needs in the management of AAV are still sizable and heavily impact long-term survival. Especially, frequent relapses, damage accrual, and high morbidity contribute to poor outcomes. Finally, the lack of defined biomarkers for disease activity and the prognosis is a permanent challenge in AAV research. Our work provides an overview of the current state of the art in AAV literature and suggests bridges for the remaining knowledge gaps. It offers potential future directions for the clinical assessment, management, and research in the field toward a more personalized medicine approach.

Current perspectives on the diagnosis, assessment, and management of vasculitic neuropathy

INTRODUCTION

Vasculitic neuropathy can present associated with both primary and secondary systemic vasculitis as a result from underlying diseases such as rheumatic diseases and infections, Moreover, confined vasculitis in the peripheral nervous system may be present. Thus, the diagnosis and management of vasculitic neuropathy require multidisciplinary approaches.

AREAS COVERED

Current views as well as relevant clinical research on the diagnosis, assessment, and management of vasculitic neuropathy are reviewed to suggest appropriate treatment strategies. We searched PubMed and Google Scholar for reports published between July 2017 and July 2022.

EXPERT OPINION

For the treatment of vasculitic neuropathy, determining the causative primary disease is important and often requires diagnosis by tissue biopsy. Due to the scarce research on the treatment of vasculitic neuropathy, treatment is empirically based on findings from studies of systemic vasculitides involving other organs, particularly antineutrophil cytoplasmic antibody-associated vasculitis. In addition to conventional glucocorticoids and immunosuppressive agents, complement-targeted therapy, anti-B-cell therapy, and disease-specific molecular targeted therapies have recently gained relevance. Future research is needed to develop new patient-specific therapeutic options.

The role of the complement system in primary membranous nephropathy: A narrative review in the era of new therapeutic targets

Primary membranous nephropathy (MN) is an important cause of nephrotic syndrome and chronic kidney disease (CKD) in the adult population. Although the discovery of different autoantibodies against glomerular/podocytic antigens have highlighted the role of B cells in the pathogenesis of MN, suboptimal response or even resistance to B cell-directed therapies occurs, suggesting that other pathophysiological mechanisms are involved in mediating podocyte injury. The complement system plays an important role in the innate immune response to infection, and dysregulation of the complement system has been observed in various kidney diseases. There is compelling evidence of complement cascade activation in primary MN, with the mannose-binding lectin (MBL) and alternative pathways particularly implicated. With appropriate validation, assays of complements and associated activation products could hold promise as adjunctive tools for non-invasive disease monitoring and prognostication. While there is growing interest to target the complement system in MN, there is concern regarding the risk of infection due to encapsulated organisms and high treatment costs, highlighting the need for clinical trials to identify patients most likely to benefit from complement-directed therapies.

Complement Inhibition in ANCA-Associated Vasculitis

Efficacy of immunosuppressive treatment of Anti-neutrophil cytoplasmic antibody (ANCA)-associated vasculitis (AAV) is complicated by its toxicity. With the replacement of cyclophosphamide with rituximab, serious adverse events seem to be associated especially with high-dose corticosteroids. Activation of alternative complement pathway plays an important role in the pathogenesis of AAV. Avacopan (C5a receptor inhibitor) was demonstrated to have at least similar efficacy and better safety (in terms of corticosteroid-related adverse events) compared with high-dose corticosteroids in the induction treatment of AAV. Other modes of the inhibition of alternative complement pathway are currently tested in AAV or could be considered on the basis of the experience in other glomerular diseases.

Renal Expression of Annexin A1 Is Associated With the Severity of Renal Injury in Antineutrophil Cytoplasmic Autoantibody-Associated Vasculitis

Background

Increasing studies demonstrated the importance of activation of neutrophils in the pathogenesis of antineutrophil cytoplasmic autoantibody (ANCA)-associated vasculitis (AAV). Previous studies showed that annexin A1 (ANXA1) inhibited the recruitment, transendothelial migration and respiratory burst of neutrophils and induced apoptosis of neutrophils. The current study aimed to investigate the plasma and renal levels of ANXA1 as well as their association with the disease severity in AAV patients.

Methods

Thirty-one AAV patients in active stage and 35 AAV patients in remission stage were recruited. The expression of ANXA1 in renal specimens was assessed by immunohistochemistry. The co-localization of ANXA1 with renal intrinsic and infiltrating cells was detected by double immunofluorescence. The plasma levels of ANXA1 were determined by ELISA. The association of plasma and renal levels of ANXA1 with clinicopathological parameters was further analyzed.

Results

Plasma levels of ANXA1 were significantly higher in active AAV patients than those in AAV patients in remission as well as healthy controls. The renal expression of ANXA1 was significantly higher in active AAV patients than in healthy controls and disease controls. Double immunofluorescence assay showed that ANXA1 was expressed in glomerular endothelial cells, mesangial cells, podocytes, proximal tubular epithelial cells, neutrophils, monocytes/macrophages and T cells in AAV patients. The mean optical density of ANXA1 in glomeruli was correlated with serum creatinine levels (r = −0.491, P = 0.005) and eGFR (r = 0.492, P = 0.005) at renal biopsy and the proportion of crescents (r = −0.423, P = 0.018) in renal specimens of AAV patients. The expression of ANXA1 in glomeruli of AAV patients achieving complete renal recovery was significantly higher than those achieving partial renal recovery.

Conclusion

In AAV patients, the renal expression of ANXA1 was associated with the severity of renal injury.

The Rational Use of Complement Inhibitors in Kidney Diseases

The development of complement inhibitors represented one of the major breakthroughs in clinical nephrology in the last decade. Complement inhibition has dramatically transformed the outcome of one of the most severe kidney diseases, the atypical hemolytic uremic syndrome (aHUS), a prototypic complement-mediated disorder. The availability of complement inhibitors has also opened new promising perspectives for the management of several other kidney diseases in which complement activation is involved to a variable extent. With the rapidly growing number of complement inhibitors tested in a rapidly increasing number of indications, a rational use of this innovative and expensive new therapeutic class has become crucial. The present review aims to summarize what we know, and what we still ignore, regarding complement activation and therapeutic inhibition in kidney diseases. It also provides some clues and elements of thoughts for a rational approach of complement modulation in kidney diseases.

Circulating immune-complexes and complement activation through the classical pathway in myeloperoxidase-ANCA-associated glomerulonephritis

Background

Anti-neutrophil cytoplasmic antibody (ANCA)-associated glomerulonephritis (AAGN) is the fulminant glomerular diseases with poor renal prognosis. Activation of the complement system has recently been reported in the pathogenesis of AAGN, but it remains to be clarified as to which complement pathway is mainly involved.

Methods

20 patients with myeloperoxidase (MPO)-AAGN were retrospectively evaluated. Using serum samples, circulating immune-complexes (CICs) were assessed by the monoclonal rheumatoid factor assay, and C5a and C5b-9 were assessed by ELISA. Complement activation through the classical pathway was further evaluated by the WIESLAB® Complement System Classical Pathway kit. The affinities of ANCAs were evaluated by a competitive inhibition method using ELISA, and were classified into the high, and low-affinity group. Deposition of complement components, such as C3, C5, C4d, C5b-9, factor Bb, mannan-binding lectin serine peptidase (MASP)-1, MASP-2, and mannose/mannan-binding lectin (MBL), in frozen renal sections were analyzed by immunofluorescence staining.

Results

CICs were found to be positive in 65% of the patients. All CIC-positive patients belonged to the high-affinity group. Furthermore, serum C5a and C5b-9 were significantly increased in MPO-AAGN patients, and these levels positively correlated with CIC levels. A significant negative correlation was also found between levels of WIESLAB® classical pathway kit and CICs. By immunofluorescence staining, glomerular deposition of C4d, C5, and C5b-9 were observed in similar distributions in MPO-AAGN patients, whereas the deposition of MASP-1, MASP-2, MBL, and factor Bb were minimal.

Conclusions

These results suggest the involvement of immune-complex induced complement activation through the classical pathway in the pathogenesis of MPO-AAGN.

ANCA Associated Vasculitis Subtypes: Recent Insights and Future Perspectives

The ANCA associated vasculitides (AAVs) affect a range of internal organs including ear nose and throat, respiratory tract, kidneys, skin and nervous system. They include granulomatosis with polyangiitis (GPA), eosinophilic granulomatosis with polyangiitis (EGPA) and microscopic polyangiitis (MPA). The AAVs are treated with high dose glucocorticoids, immunosuppressants, and targeted biological medications. Since the 1990s classification criteria for the AAVs have been based on clinical features, laboratory tests and basic imaging; an initiative to update the classification criteria incorporating newer tests, for example, anti-neutrophil cytoplasmic antibodies (ANCA) and novel imaging techniques will be published this year. There is also evidence for classification of patients based on ANCA subtype; those with anti-proteinase 3 antibodies (PR3) or anti-myeloperoxidase antibodies (MPO) have differences in response to treatment and clinical outcomes. An update is described within this review. The pathogenesis of AAV involves necrotizing inflammation of small to medium blood vessels involving multiple immunological pathways. We present an update on emerging evidence related to auto-antibodies, complement and lymphocyte pathways. This review describes emerging treatment regimens, including evidence for plasma exchange in severe disease and the inhibitor of the complement C5a receptor (C5aR) inhibitor, Avacopan. Lastly, patient reported outcomes are key secondary outcomes in randomised controlled trials and increasingly clinical practice, we report development in disease specific and glucocorticoid-specific PROs.