Blocking FSH inhibits hepatic cholesterol biosynthesis and reduces serum cholesterol

Sex differences in proteomics of cardiovascular disease - Results from the Yale-CMD registry

Aims This study assessed sex-specific proteomic profiles by cardiovascular disease (CVD) phenotype (coronary artery disease [CAD] vs coronary microvascular dysfunction [CMD]) and describe their role in sex-specific pathways.

METHODS

In a secondary biobank analysis of the Yale-CMD registry, adults with ischemic symptoms who underwent cardiac positron emission test/computed tomography were categorized as a) controls (normal coronary flow reserve (CFR) > 2 without perfusion defect or coronary calcification), b) having CMD (CFR < 2 without defect or calcification), or c) having CAD (known CAD or new perfusion defect). Using proximity extension assays (Olink® Explore 3072), we examined 2944 proteins. Differential protein expression was assessed using linear regression models, adjusting for age, race, body mass index, diabetes, dyslipidemia, hypertension, or smoking.

RESULTS

Of 190 patients, 91 provided blood samples (mean age, 56 years; 66 %, females; 48 %, controls; 24 %, CAD; 27 %, CMD). Among controls, 15 proteins showed sex differences (5 proteins upregulated in females, 10 in males; false discovery rate [FDR < 0.05]). Upregulated in CAD patients were FSHB in females and INSL3 and EDDM3B in males (FDR < 0.05). Among CMD patients, SCGB3A1 and HGFAC were higher in females; INSL3, SPINT3, EDDM3B, and KLK3 were higher in males (FDR < 0.05). Per pathway analysis, females showed upregulation of immune pathways in CAD and lipid and glucose metabolism pathways in CMD. Males showed upregulated endothelial regulation of blood flow in CAD and increased angiogenesis in CMD.

CONCLUSIONS

Sex differences exist in the proteomic profiles of CAD and CMD patients, highlighting a need for precision medicine.

Lipid metabolism in women: A review

The menopausal transition, defined by the cessation of menstruation due to declining ovarian follicular function, results in a marked decrease in endogenous estrogen levels. This phase is associated with significant metabolic changes and a shift towards a more atherogenic lipid profile. Specifically, there are increases in total cholesterol, low-density lipoprotein cholesterol, and triglycerides and unfavorable alterations in high-density lipoprotein cholesterol and lipoprotein(a) levels. These lipid changes, which contribute to an increased risk of atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease, are influenced by diminished estrogen levels and chronological aging. However, the specific mechanisms driving this increased risk are not fully understood. A thorough understanding of these lipid profile alterations is important for developing strategies to reduce cardiovascular disease risk in women. This review provides an overview of how lipid metabolism is affected during the menopausal transition and the resulting implications for cardiovascular risk.

LXR pathway drives hormonal response intensity in polycystic ovary syndrome

Gonadotropin injections used to stimulate oocyte production during assisted reproductive technology (ART) procedures are associated with the risk of an abnormal response in predisposed patients suffering polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS). Liver X receptors (LXR) pathway has been identified as key regulators during this process. This study explores the integration of the hormonal signals, cellular networks and molecular mechanisms linking sterol signaling with inflammation and immune infiltration. Pharmacological activation of LXR in a wild-type context protects against gonadotropin hyperstimulation mirroring the effect observed in LXR-deficient mice. Ovarian stimulation leads to immune cell infiltration orchestrated by granulosa cells in absence of LXR, resulting in an altered granulosa cell response to gonadotropin and enhanced inflammation. LXR controls inflammasome activity by regulating Thioredoxin Interacting Protein (TXNIP) gene expression in mural granulosa cells, thereby modulating IL1β production. This immune cell infiltration persists throughout ovulation in PCOS patients and is observed in cumulus oocytes complexes, highlighting the pivotal role of LXR path in regulating inflammatory processes during hormonal stimulation in ART procedures.

Low-Intensity Pulsed Ultrasound Delays the Onset of Osteoporosis and Dyslipidemia in Mice With Premature Ovarian Insufficiency

OBJECTIVES

The pathogenesis of premature ovarian insufficiency (POI) not only affects the ovarian structure and function but also gives rise to complications such as osteoporosis and dyslipidemia. Although low-intensity pulsed ultrasound (LIPUS) has been proven effective in treating POI, its impact on the associated complications remains unexplored. Therefore, this study aims to investigate the effects of LIPUS irradiation on osteoporosis and dyslipidemia in a mouse model of POI.

METHODS

The post-treatment complications following LIPUS cessation were monitored in POI rats at 30 and 120 days in this trial conducted by us. The secretion of follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) was assessed using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) at different time points in POI rats. Pathological changes in the liver and femur were observed through HE staining. Blood lipid and bone metabolism indexes were measured via blood biochemical testing. Osteoporosis was evaluated using MicroCT and Masson staining techniques. The expression level of inflammatory factors in bone tissue was detected by Western blot (WB) test.

RESULTS

The serum FSH content showed a significant decrease in the LIPUS group on day 0, day 15, and day 30 (P < .05). On the 30th day following LIPUS treatment, TC, TG, and LDL-C decreased in the LIPUS group while HDL-C increased with no statistically significant differences (P > .05); the indexes of femur parameters (BS/TV, BV/TV, Tb.Th, BMD, and TMD) were increased (P > .05). On the 120th day after LIPUS treatment, TC content demonstrated a significant decrease (P < .05), and TG and LDL-C displayed a downward trend (P > .05) while HDL-C content increased (P < .05); the femur parameters were significantly reduced (P < .05). The LIPUS group exhibited an increased presence of new fibrillar fibers. Levels of IL-6 and IL-1β significantly decreased with LIPUS treatment, whereas osteocalcin (OCN) expression notably increased (P < .05).

CONCLUSIONS

The application of LIPUS demonstrates potential in mitigating complications associated with POI in rats through the reduction of FSH secretion levels and inhibition of tissue inflammation, thereby presenting a promising avenue for women with POI to explore more efficacious treatment alternatives.

Tiaogan Jiejiu Tongluo formula alleviates hepatic steatosis in NAFLD mice by regulating AMPK signaling pathway

OBJECTIVES

Tiaogan Jiejiu Tongluo formula (TJTF) is a traditional Chinese medicine formula for liver disease. The purpose of this study was to explore the protective effects and mechanisms of TJTF on nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) mice.

METHODS

A NAFLD model of mice was established by a combination of a high-fat diet and CCL4 and then treated with TJTF. The damage to liver tissue was observed through histopathology, and the levels of AST, ALT, TG, TC, LDL-C, and HDL-C in the serum, as well as SOD, GSH, and MDA in the liver tissue were determined using biochemistry or ELISA kit. The expression of proteins related to the AMPK pathway was detected by western blotting.

RESULTS

Biochemical indicators and pathological examination showed that TJTF could enhance the antioxidant capacity of liver tissue and significantly reduce liver lipid deposition. In addition, TJTF significantly increased levels of LKB1 and p-AMPK, and decreased the levels of HMGCR, SREBP-1c, FAS, and ACC.

CONCLUSION

TJTF can alleviate hepatic steatosis and effectively improve NAFLD by regulating AMPK signaling pathway in NAFLD mice.

FSH exacerbates bone loss by promoting osteoclast energy metabolism through the CREB-MDH2-NAD+ axis

AIMS

Osteoclast energy metabolism is a promising target for treating diseases characterized by high osteoclast activity, such as osteoporosis. However, the regulatory factors involved in osteoclast bioenergetic processes are still in the early stages of being fully understood. This study reveals the effects of follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) on osteoclast energy metabolism.

METHODS

The Lyz2-Cre-Flox model selectively deletes FSH receptor (FSHR) from osteoclast precursor cells to generate Fshrf/f; Lyz2-Cre (Fshrf/f; Cre) mice. Bone quality was assessed using micro-computed tomography, histomorphometric analysis, and dual-fluorescence labeling. The in vitro assays measured oxygen consumption rate, extracellular acidification rate, pyruvate content, and mitochondrial membrane potential to determine metabolic flux. RNA-seq, LC-MS, dual-luciferase reporter assays, and chromatin immunoprecipitation (ChIP) assays were used to elucidate the underlying mechanisms.

RESULTS

FSHR deficiency in osteoclasts protected bone from resorption under normal and ovariectomized conditions. FSHR-deficient osteoclasts have reduced nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD+) levels, impairing osteoclast activity and energy metabolism. Mechanistically, FSH influenced NAD+ levels via the CREB/MDH2 axis. Treatment with FSH monoclonal antibodies rescued bone loss in OVX mice and reduced bone marrow NAD+ levels.

CONCLUSIONS

Targeting FSH may be a promising metabolic modulation strategy for treating osteoporosis and other diseases associated with high osteoclast activity.

FSH enhances the inflammatory response of macrophages in the knee joint possibly through the NFκB pathway

Previous studies have suggested that women with higher follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) levels have a greater incidence of osteoarthritis (OA) compared to women with lower FSH despite normal estrogen levels. Our previous studies also showed that FSH has a negative effect on cartilage in postmenopausal OA. However, no studies have investigated the effect of FSH on the synovium. Here, we showed that the FSH receptor (FSHR) is expressed on RAW264.7 cells and BMDM (Bone Marrow-Derived Macrophages), and found that FSH stimulation promotes the production and secretion of inflammatory cytokines in synovial macrophages. In RAW264.7 cells, FSH stimulation enhances phosphorylation and nuclear translocation of P65, suggesting the activation of NFκB signaling, while the knockdown of FSHR eliminates the proinflammatory effect of FSH. To further validate these results, we used an ovariectomy mouse model supplemented with FSH and estrogen, and a mouse model with FSH neutralization. We noted that FSHR was expressed on mouse synovial joint membranes. Furthermore, in ovariectomy mice supplemented with estrogen and treated with FSH, synovial macrophages were significantly increased, while the opposite was the case in the FSH neutralizing group, which suggest that FSH triggers an inflammatory response in the synovial tissue in mice. Taken together, our results indicate that FSH is an important regulator in synovial inflammation via NFκB signaling activation and, to some extent, appears to accelerate the development of osteoarthritis.

Sex Hormone: A Potential Target at Treating Female Metabolic Dysfunction-Associated Steatotic Liver Disease?

The global prevalence of metabolic dysfunction-associated steatotic liver disease (MASLD) is rising due to rapid lifestyle changes. Although females may be less prone to MASLD than males, specific studies on MASLD in females should still be conducted. Previous research has shown that sex hormone levels are strongly linked to MASLD in females. By reviewing a large number of experimental and clinical studies, we summarized the pathophysiological mechanisms of estrogen, androgen, sex hormone-binding globulin, follicle-stimulating hormone, and prolactin involved in the development of MASLD. We also analyzed the role of these hormones in female MASLD patients with polycystic ovarian syndrome or menopause, and explored the potential of targeting sex hormones for the treatment of MASLD. We hope this will provide a reference for further exploration of mechanisms and treatments for female MASLD from the perspective of sex hormones.

FSH increases lipid droplet content by regulating the expression of genes related to lipid storage in Rat Sertoli cells

Sertoli cells (SCs) are essential for appropriate spermatogenesis. From a metabolic standpoint, they catabolize glucose and provide germ cells with lactate, which is their main energy source. SCs also oxidize fatty acids (FAs), which are stored as triacylglycerides (TAGs) within lipid droplets (LDs), to fulfill their own energy requirements. On the other hand, it has been demonstrated that FSH regulates some of SCs functions, but little is known about its effect on lipid metabolism. In the present study, we aimed to analyze FSH-mediated regulation of (1) lipid storage in LDs and (2) the expression of genes involved in FAs activation and TAG synthesis and storage in SCs. SCs obtained from 20-day-old rats were cultured for different incubation periods with FSH (100 ng/ml). It was observed that FSH increased LD content and TAG levels in SCs. There were also increments in the expression of Plin1, Fabp5, Acsl1, Acsl4, Gpat3, and Dgat1, which suggests that these proteins may mediate the increase in TAGs and LDs elicited by FSH. Regarding the signaling involved in FSH actions, it was observed that dbcAMP increased LD, and H89, a PKA inhibitor, inhibited FSH stimulus. Also, dbcAMP increased Plin2, Fabp5, Acsl1, Acsl4, and Dgat1 mRNA levels, confirming a role of the cAMP/PKA pathway in the regulation of lipid storage in SCs. Altogether, these results suggest that FSH, via the cAMP/PKA pathway, regulates lipid storage in SCs ensuring the availability of substrates to satisfy their energy requirements.

Diosgenin Improves Lipid Metabolism in Diabetic Nephropathy via Regulation of miR-148b-3p/DNMT1/FOXO1 Axis

BACKGROUND

The progression of diabetic nephropathy (DN) is closely associated with lipid accumulation. Diosgenin (Dio) plays a beneficial role in the lipid metabolism associated with multiple diseases. Thus, the mechanism underlying Dio's function in DN associated with aberrant lipid accumulation warrants further investigation.

METHODS

To model DN in vitro, HK-2 cells were treated with high glucose (HG) and palmitic acid. Cell viability was evaluated using MTT assay. The triglyceride (TG) content in HK-2 cells was measured using a commercial assay kit. The formation of lipid droplets in HK-2 cells was observed using Oil Red O staining. The expression levels of mRNA and protein were detected using RT-qPCR and Western blot, respectively. The DNA methylation of FOXO1 was assessed using MSP. The interaction between DNMT1 and the FOXO1 promoter was confirmed by ChIP assay.

RESULTS

Dio treatment reduced TG levels and lipid droplet formation in HK-2 cells co-treated with HG and palmitic acid. Simultaneously, the levels of miR-148b-3p and FOXO1 were increased by Dio, while Dio decreased the expression levels of DNMT1 and SREBP-2. Meanwhile, miR-148b-3p can bind to DNMT1, which in turn inhibits the expression of FOXO1 by mediating the DNA methylation of FOXO1. In addition, FOXO1 negatively regulates the expression of SREBP-2 by interacting with the SREBP-2 promoter. MiR-148b-3p inhibition or silencing of FOXO1 abolished the inhibitory effect of Dio on TG production and lipid droplet formation. This effect was further exacerbated by the downregulation of DNMT1. FOXO1 overexpression may counteract the promotive effects of miR-148b-3p inhibitor on lipid accumulation.

CONCLUSIONS

Dio treatment reduced TG production and lipid droplet formation in HK-2 cells during the progression of DN by modulating the miR-148b-3p/DNMT1/FOXO1/SREBP-2 axis. This finding provides new evidence supporting the therapeutic potential of Dio for DN.

Research progress on FSH-FSHR signaling in the pathogenesis of non-reproductive diseases

Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH), a glycoprotein hormone synthesized and secreted by the anterior pituitary gland, plays a critical role in reproductive development and regulation by binding to FSH receptor (FSHR). Beyond reproductive tissue, FSHRs have been identified in various non-reproductive tissues, indicating broader functions. FSH levels chronically rise during menopause and remain elevated in postmenopausal life. This increase in FSH level has been indicated to be associated with heightened risk of several non-reproductive diseases, including osteoporosis, hypercholesterolemia, type 2 diabetes mellitus, obesity, cardiovascular disease, Alzheimer's disease, and certain cancers. In this review, we will examine the role of FSH-FSHR signaling in the pathogenesis of these non-reproductive diseases and explore therapeutic strategies targeting FSH-FSHR signaling pathways.

Follicle-stimulating hormone induces depression-like phenotype by affecting synaptic function

Depression is one of the most common affective disorders in people's life. Women are susceptibility to depression during puberty, peripartum and menopause transition, when they are suffering from sex hormone fluctuation. A lot of studies have demonstrated the neuroprotective effect of estrogen on depression in women, however, the effect of FSH on depression is unclear. In this study, we investigated the role of FSH on depression in mice. Our study demonstrated that FSH induced depression-like behaviors in mice in a dose-dependent manner. This induction was associated with elevated levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines, including IL-1β, IL-6, and TNF-α in both serum and hippocampal tissues. Additionally, FSH treatment resulted in impaired synaptic plasticity and a reduction in the expression of key synaptic proteins. It is noteworthy that the depression-like behaviors, inflammatory cytokines expression and synaptic plasticity impairment induced by FSH could be alleviated by knocking down the expression of FSH receptor (FSHR) in the hippocampus of the mice. Therefore, our findings reveal that FSH may play an important role in the pathogenesis of depression and targeting FSH may be a potential therapeutic strategy for depression during hormone fluctuation in women.

Distribution of Arteriosclerotic Vessels in Patients with Arteriosclerosis and the Differences of Serum Lipid Levels Classified by Different Sites

Objective

To investigate the distribution of arteriosclerotic vessels of arteriosclerosis, differential serum lipid profiles, and differences in the proportion of dyslipidaemia between patients with single-site arteriosclerosis and multi-site arteriosclerosis (significant hardening of ≥2 arteries).

Methods

The data of 6581 single-site arteriosclerosis patients and 5940 multi-site arteriosclerosis patients were extracted from the hospital medical record system. Serum total cholesterol (TC), triglycerides (TGs), high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C), low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C), apolipoprotein (Apo) A1, ApoB concentrations and C-reactive protein (CRP) between patients with single-site arteriosclerosis and multi-site arteriosclerosis were collected and analyzed.

Results

The most diseased arteries were coronary arteries (n=7099, 33.7%), limb arteries (n=6546, 31.1%), and carotid arteries (n=5279, 25.1%). TC, LDL-C, TC/HDL-C, and LDL-C/HDL-C levels were higher and CRP level was lower in multi-site arteriosclerosis patients than those in single-site arteriosclerosis patients. The TC, LDL-C levels in non-elderly (<65 years old) female patients were higher and TG/HDL-C, TC/HDL-C, LDL-C/HDL-C levels were lower than those in non-elderly male patients, while the TG, TC, LDL-C, and TG/HDL-C levels in elderly (≥65 years old) female patients were higher and LDL-C/HDL-C level was lower than those in elderly male patients. The proportion of dyslipidemia in descending order was as follows: low HDL-C (31.9%), elevated TG (16.9%), elevated TC (9.0%), and elevated LDL-C (4.2%). The levels of TC, LDL-C, TC/HDL-C, and LDL-C/HDL-C in patients with peripheral arteriosclerosis were higher than those in patients with cardio-cerebrovascular arteriosclerosis.

Conclusion

There were differences in serum lipid levels in patients with arteriosclerosis with different age, gender and distribution of arteriosclerotic vessels.

Berberine alleviates ETEC-induced intestinal inflammation and oxidative stress damage by optimizing intestinal microbial composition in a weaned piglet model

Introduction

Enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli (ETEC) is the main diarrhea-causing pathogen in children and young animals and has become a global health concern. Berberine is a type of "medicine and food homology" and has a long history of use in China, particularly in treating gastrointestinal disorders and bacterial diarrhea.

Methods

In this study, we explored the effects of berberine on growth performance, intestinal inflammation, oxidative damage, and intestinal microbiota in a weaned piglet model of ETEC infection. Twenty-four piglets were randomly divided into four groups-a control group (fed a basal diet [BD] and infused with saline), a BD+ETEC group (fed a basal diet and infused with ETEC), a LB+ETEC group (fed a basal diet with 0.05% berberine and infused with ETEC infection), and a HB+ETEC group (fed a basal diet with 0.1% berberine and infused with ETEC).

Results

Berberine significantly improved the final body weight (BW), average daily gain (ADG), and average daily feed intake (ADFI) (P<0.05) of piglets, and effectively decreased the incidence of diarrhea among the animals (P<0.05). Additionally, berberine significantly downregulated the expression levels of the genes encoding TNF-α, IL-1β, IL-6, IL-8, TLR4, MyD88, NF-κB, IKKα, and IKKβ in the small intestine of piglets (P<0.05). ETEC infection significantly upregulated the expression of genes coding for Nrf2, CAT, SOD1, GPX1, GST, NQO1, HO-1, GCLC, and GCLM in the small intestine of the animals (P<0.05). Berberine significantly upregulated 12 functional COG categories and 7 KEGG signaling pathways. A correlation analysis showed that berberine significantly increased the relative abundance of beneficial bacteria (Gemmiger, Pediococcus, Levilactobacillus, Clostridium, Lactiplantibacillus, Weissella, Enterococcus, Blautia, and Butyricicoccus) and decreased that of pathogenic bacteria (Prevotella, Streptococcus, Parabacteroides, Flavonifractor, Alloprevotella) known to be closely related to intestinal inflammation and oxidative stress in piglets. In conclusion, ETEC infection disrupted the intestinal microbiota in weaned piglets, upregulating the TLR4/MyD88/NF-κB and Nrf2 signaling pathways, and consequently leading to intestinal inflammation and oxidative stress-induced damage.

Discussion

Our data indicated that berberine can optimize intestinal microbiota balance and modulate the TLR4/MyD88/NF-κB and Nrf2 signaling pathways, thus helping to alleviate intestinal inflammation and oxidative damage caused by ETEC infection in weaned piglets.

Follicle-stimulating hormone promotes atrial fibrosis in menopausal women with atrial fibrillation

BACKGROUND

Postmenopausal women with atrial fibrillation (AF) exhibit a higher level of atrial fibrosis and a higher recurrence rate after ablation compared with men. However, the underlying mechanism remains unclear.

OBJECTIVE

The purpost of this study was to investigate the mechanism through which menopause promotes atrial fibrosis.

METHODS

In a prospective cohort of women with AF, regression analyses were conducted to assess the relationship between low-voltage area (LVA) and sex hormone levels. CREM-IbΔC-X mice, a spontaneous AF model, underwent bilateral ovariectomy (OVX). Electrocardiograms, echocardiograms, and Masson staining were performed. Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) stimulation was applied in male mice for 3 months. OVX was also applied in an angiotensin II (Ang II)-induced pressure overload mouse model, after programmed electrical stimulation and structural analyses. Bulk RNA sequencing (RNA-seq) was performed to elucidate potential mechanisms.

RESULTS

Women demonstrated a significantly higher LVA burden than men (P < .001). A positive correlation was observed between LVA burden and FSH level (P = .002). Mice in the OVX group exhibited a significantly higher incidence of AF (P = .040) and atrial fibrosis (P = .021) compared with the Sham group, which could be attenuated by adeno-associated virus encoding small interfering RNA against Fshr. In male CREM-IbΔC-X mice, FSH stimulation promoted the occurrence of AF (P = .035) and atrial fibrosis (P = .002). In Ang II-induced female mice, OVX prompted atrial fibrosis, increased AF inducibility, and shortened atrial effective refractory period, which could be attenuated with knockdown of Fshr. RNA-seq indicated mitochondrial dysfunction.

CONCLUSION

Postmenopausal women exhibited a higher LVA burden than men, which was positively correlated with FSH level. FSH promoted atrial fibrosis through oxidative stress.

The associations between dietary flavonoid intake and hyperlipidemia: data from the national health and nutrition examination survey 2007-2010 and 2017-2018

Background

Hyperlipidemia is a worldwide health problem and a significant risk factor for cardiovascular diseases; therefore, it imposes a heavy burden on society and healthcare. It has been reported that flavonoids can increase energy expenditure and fat oxidation, be anti-inflammatory, and reduce lipid factor levels, which may reduce the risk of hyperlipidemia. However, the relationship between the prevalence of hyperlipidemia and dietary flavonoid intake in the population remains unclear.

Methods

This study included 8,940 adults from the 2007-2010 and 2017-2018 National Health and Nutrition Examination Surveys (NHANES). The relationship between dietary flavonoid intake and the prevalence of hyperlipidemia was analyzed using weighted logistic regression and weighted restricted cubic spline.

Results

We found an inverse relationship between subtotal catechins intake and hyperlipidemia prevalence in the third quartile [0.74 (0.56, 0.98), p = 0.04] compared with the first quartile. The prevalence of hyperlipidemia and total flavan-3-ol intake in the third quartile were inversely correlated [0.76 (0.59, 0.98), p = 0.03]. Total anthocyanin intake was inversely related to the prevalence of hyperlipidemia in the third quartile [0.77 (0.62, 0.95), p = 0.02] and the fourth quartile [0.77 (0.60, 0.98), p = 0.04]. The prevalence of hyperlipidemia was negatively correlated with total flavonols intake in the fourth quartile [0.75 (0.60, 0.94), p = 0.02]. Using restricted cubic splines analysis, we found that subtotal catechins intake and total flavan-3-ol intake had a nonlinear relationship with the prevalence of hyperlipidemia.

Conclusion

Our study may provide preliminary research evidence for personalizing improved dietary habits to reduce the prevalence of hyperlipidemia.

Effects of follicle-stimulating hormone on energy balance and tissue metabolic health after loss of ovarian function

Loss of ovarian function imparts increased susceptibility to obesity and metabolic disease. These effects are largely attributed to decreased estradiol (E2), but the role of increased follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) in modulating energy balance has not been fully investigated. Previous work that blocked FSH binding to its receptor in mice suggested this hormone may play a part in modulating body weight and energy expenditure after ovariectomy (OVX). We used an alternate approach to isolate the individual and combined contributions of FSH and E2 in mediating energy imbalance and changes in tissue-level metabolic health. Female Wistar rats were ovariectomized and given the gonadotropin releasing hormone (GnRH) antagonist degarelix to suppress FSH production. E2 and FSH were then added back individually and in combination for a period of 3 wk. Energy balance, body mass composition, and transcriptomic profiles of individual tissues were obtained. In contrast to previous studies, suppression and replacement of FSH in our paradigm had no effect on body weight, body composition, food intake, or energy expenditure. We did, however, observe organ-specific effects of FSH that produced unique transcriptomic signatures of FSH in retroperitoneal white adipose tissue. These included reductions in biological processes related to lipogenesis and carbohydrate transport. In addition, rats administered FSH had reduced liver triglyceride concentration (P < 0.001), which correlated with FSH-induced changes at the transcriptomic level. Although not appearing to modulate energy balance after loss of ovarian function in rats, FSH may still impart tissue-specific effects in the liver and white adipose tissue that might affect the metabolic health of those organs.NEW & NOTEWORTHY We find no effect of follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) on energy balance using a novel model in which rats are ovariectomized, subjected to gonadotropin-releasing hormone antagonism, and systematically given back FSH by osmotic pump. However, tissue-specific effects of FSH on adipose tissue and liver were observed in this study. These include unique transcriptomic signatures induced by the hormone and a stark reduction in hepatic triglyceride accumulation.

Effects of the Pituitary-targeted Gland Axes on Hepatic Lipid Homeostasis in Endocrine-associated Fatty Liver Disease-A Concept Worth Revisiting

Hepatic lipid homeostasis is not only essential for maintaining normal cellular and systemic metabolic function but is also closely related to the steatosis of the liver. The controversy over the nomenclature of non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) in the past three years has once again sparked in-depth discussions on the pathogenesis of this disease and its impact on systemic metabolism. Pituitary-targeted gland axes (PTGA), an important hormone-regulating system, are indispensable in lipid homeostasis. This review focuses on the roles of thyroid hormones, adrenal hormones, sex hormones, and their receptors in hepatic lipid homeostasis, and summarizes recent research on pituitary target gland axes-related drugs regulating hepatic lipid metabolism. It also calls on researchers and clinicians to recognize the concept of endocrine-associated fatty liver disease (EAFLD) and to re-examine human lipid metabolism from the macroscopic perspective of homeostatic balance.

Lactiplantibacillus plantarum ATCC8014 Alleviates Postmenopausal Hypercholesterolemia in Mice by Remodeling Intestinal Microbiota to Increase Secondary Bile Acid Excretion

Hypercholesterolemia poses a significant cardiovascular risk, particularly in postmenopausal women. The anti-hypercholesterolemic properties of Lactiplantibacillus plantarum ATCC8014 (LP) are well recognized; however, its improving symptoms on postmenopausal hypercholesterolemia and the possible mechanisms have yet to be elucidated. Here, we utilized female ApoE-deficient (ApoE-/-) mice undergoing bilateral ovariectomy, fed a high-fat diet, and administered 109 colony-forming units (CFU) of LP for 13 consecutive weeks. LP intervention reduces total cholesterol (TC) and triglyceride (TG) accumulation in the serum and liver and accelerates their fecal excretion, which is mainly accomplished by increasing the excretion of fecal secondary bile acids (BAs), thereby facilitating cholesterol conversion. Correlation analysis revealed that lithocholic acid (LCA) is an important regulator of postmenopausal lipid abnormalities. LP can reduce LCA accumulation in the liver and serum while enhancing its fecal excretion, accomplished by elevating the relative abundances of Allobaculum and Olsenella in the ileum. Our findings demonstrate that postmenopausal lipid dysfunction is accompanied by abnormalities in BA metabolism and dysbiosis of the intestinal microbiota. LP holds therapeutic potential for postmenopausal hypercholesterolemia. Its effectiveness in ameliorating lipid dysregulation is primarily achieved through reshaping the diversity and abundance of the intestinal microbiota to correct BA abnormalities.

Maternal nutrient metabolism in the liver during pregnancy

The liver plays pivotal roles in nutrient metabolism, and correct hepatic adaptations are required in maternal nutrient metabolism during pregnancy. In this review, hepatic nutrient metabolism, including glucose metabolism, lipid and cholesterol metabolism, and protein and amino acid metabolism, is first addressed. In addition, recent progress on maternal hepatic adaptations in nutrient metabolism during pregnancy is discussed. Finally, the factors that regulate hepatic nutrient metabolism during pregnancy are highlighted, and the factors include follicle-stimulating hormone, estrogen, progesterone, insulin-like growth factor 1, prostaglandins fibroblast growth factor 21, serotonin, growth hormone, adrenocorticotropic hormone, prolactin, thyroid stimulating hormone, melatonin, adrenal hormone, leptin, glucagon-like peptide-1, insulin glucagon and thyroid hormone. Our vision is that more attention should be paid to liver nutrient metabolism during pregnancy, which will be helpful for utilizing nutrient appropriately and efficiently, and avoiding liver diseases during pregnancy.

Ginsenoside Rb1, Compound K and 20(S)-Protopanaxadiol Attenuate High-Fat Diet-Induced Hyperlipidemia in Rats via Modulation of Gut Microbiota and Bile Acid Metabolism

Hyperlipidemia, characterized by elevated serum lipid concentrations resulting from lipid metabolism dysfunction, represents a prevalent global health concern. Ginsenoside Rb1, compound K (CK), and 20(S)-protopanaxadiol (PPD), bioactive constituents derived from Panax ginseng, have shown promise in mitigating lipid metabolism disorders. However, the comparative efficacy and underlying mechanisms of these compounds in hyperlipidemia prevention remain inadequately explored. This study investigates the impact of ginsenoside Rb1, CK, and PPD supplementation on hyperlipidemia in rats induced by a high-fat diet. Our findings demonstrate that ginsenoside Rb1 significantly decreased body weight and body weight gain, ameliorated hepatic steatosis, and improved dyslipidemia in HFD-fed rats, outperforming CK and PPD. Moreover, ginsenoside Rb1, CK, and PPD distinctly modified gut microbiota composition and function. Ginsenoside Rb1 increased the relative abundance of Blautia and Eubacterium, while PPD elevated Akkermansia levels. Both CK and PPD increased Prevotella and Bacteroides, whereas Clostridium-sensu-stricto and Lactobacillus were reduced following treatment with all three compounds. Notably, only ginsenoside Rb1 enhanced lipid metabolism by modulating the PPARγ/ACC/FAS signaling pathway and promoting fatty acid β-oxidation. Additionally, all three ginsenosides markedly improved bile acid enterohepatic circulation via the FXR/CYP7A1 pathway, reducing hepatic and serum total bile acids and modulating bile acid pool composition by decreasing primary/unconjugated bile acids (CA, CDCA, and β-MCA) and increasing conjugated bile acids (TCDCA, GCDCA, GDCA, and TUDCA), correlated with gut microbiota changes. In conclusion, our results suggest that ginsenoside Rb1, CK, and PPD supplementation offer promising prebiotic interventions for managing HFD-induced hyperlipidemia in rats, with ginsenoside Rb1 demonstrating superior efficacy.

FSH Is Responsible for Androgen Deprivation Therapy-Associated Atherosclerosis in Mice by Exaggerating Endothelial Inflammation and Monocyte Adhesion

BACKGROUND

Androgen deprivation therapy (ADT) is the mainstay treatment for advanced prostate cancer. But ADTs with orchiectomy and gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) agonist are associated with increased risk of cardiovascular diseases, which appears less significant with GnRH antagonist. The difference of follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) in ADT modalities is hypothesized to be responsible for ADT-associated cardiovascular diseases.

METHODS

We administered orchiectomy, GnRH agonist, or GnRH antagonist in male ApoE-/- mice fed with Western diet and manipulated FSH levels by testosterone and FSH supplementation or FSH antibody to investigate the role of FSH elevation on atherosclerosis. By combining lipidomics, in vitro study, and intraluminal FSHR (FSH receptor) inhibition, we delineated the effects of FSH on endothelium and monocytes and the underlying mechanisms.

RESULTS

Orchiectomy and GnRH agonist, but not GnRH antagonist, induced long- or short-term FSH elevation and significantly accelerated atherogenesis. In orchiectomized and testosterone-supplemented mice, FSH exposure increased atherosclerosis. In GnRH agonist-treated mice, blocking of short FSH surge by anti-FSHβ antibody greatly alleviated endothelial inflammation and delayed atherogenesis. In GnRH antagonist-treated mice, FSH supplementation aggravated atherogenesis. Mechanistically, FSH, synergizing with TNF-α (tumor necrosis factor alpha), exacerbated endothelial inflammation by elevating VCAM-1 (vascular cell adhesion protein 1) expression through the cAMP/PKA (protein kinase A)/CREB (cAMP response element-binding protein)/c-Jun and PI3K (phosphatidylinositol 3 kinase)/AKT (protein kinase B)/GSK-3β (glycogen synthase kinase 3 beta)/GATA-6 (GATA-binding protein 6) pathways. In monocytes, FSH upregulated CD29 (cluster of differentiation 29) expression via the PI3K/AKT/GSK-3β/SP1 (specificity protein 1) pathway and promoted monocyte-endothelial adhesion both in vitro and in vivo. Importantly, FSHR knockdown by shRNA in endothelium of carotid arteries markedly reduced GnRH agonist-induced endothelial inflammation and atherosclerosis in mice.

CONCLUSIONS

FSH is responsible for ADT-associated atherosclerosis by exaggerating endothelial inflammation and promoting monocyte-endothelial adhesion.

Association between parities and duration of breastfeeding and the severity of coronary artery disease in women above 30 years old age (A pilot study)

Background

The prevalence and mortality of CVD in women increase over time. We conducted this research to evaluate the severity of coronary artery disease with the number of live births and breastfeeding duration.

Methods

Patients aged 30-50 years old with positive exercise tests or evidence of cardiac ischemia who were candidates for coronary angiography were included. All the participants had at least one child. Syntax score was used to evaluate the severity of coronary arteries.

Results

Mean number of children was 3.72±1.85, in those patients with <2 live births no one had a syntax score≥1, but in the>5 live births group most patients had a syntax score≥1. In patients with zero syntax score, it was estimated as 4.91±39.7; in patients with 1≤ syntax score, it was 4.48±7.29 (P =0.76). Among patients with > 5 birth lives, those with higher syntax scores had older ages (P=0.497). After adjusting age, the association between live births and syntax score became non-significant (P=0.850).

Conclusion

By increasing the number of live births >5, the severity of coronary artery disease, increases. However, this association was not significant after adjusting the age of patients.

Mechanisms of 3-Hydroxyl 3-Methylglutaryl CoA Reductase in Alzheimer's Disease

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is the most common neurodegenerative disease worldwide and has a high incidence in the elderly. Unfortunately, there is no effective therapy for AD owing to its complicated pathogenesis. However, the development of lipid-lowering anti-inflammatory drugs has heralded a new era in the treatment of Alzheimer's disease. Several studies in recent years have shown that lipid metabolic dysregulation and neuroinflammation are associated with the pathogenesis of AD. 3-Hydroxyl 3-methylglutaryl CoA reductase (HMGCR) is a rate-limiting enzyme in cholesterol synthesis that plays a key role in cholesterol metabolism. HMGCR inhibitors, known as statins, have changed from being solely lipid-lowering agents to neuroprotective compounds because of their effects on lipid levels and inflammation. In this review, we first summarize the main regulatory mechanism of HMGCR affecting cholesterol biosynthesis. We also discuss the pathogenesis of AD induced by HMGCR, including disordered lipid metabolism, oxidative stress, inflammation, microglial proliferation, and amyloid-β (Aβ) deposition. Subsequently, we explain the possibility of HMGCR as a potential target for AD treatment. Statins-based AD treatment is an ascent field and currently quite controversial; therefore, we also elaborate on the current application prospects and limitations of statins in AD treatment.

Effect of menstrual status on lipid profile: A cross-sectional study in a tertiary care hospital in Nepal

Background: The ovarian follicular cell's degradation and subsequent decrease in the synthesis of estrogen results in the decreased cardiovascular protection. As a result, the incidence of cardiovascular disease (CVD) increases in postmenopausal women and is characterized by change in lipid profile. This study sought to ascertain the extent of the impact that menstrual status might have on lipid profiles among premenopausal and postmenopausal women. Methods: A cross-sectional study was conducted with 260 premenopausal and postmenopausal women (1: 1) and serum lipid component concentrations (high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C), low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C), triglycerides (TGs), and total cholesterol (TC)) were measured. A comparison between two groups was made between premenopausal and postmenopausal women, and regression was carried out to estimate the effect of menstrual status on lipid components. Results: Compared with premenopausal women, the concentrations of the lipid components (HDL-C, LDL-C, TG, and TC) were found to be significantly higher in postmenopausal women. Using the linear regression, menstruation status was able to predict 11.7%-13.3% of the lipid components (TG and TC) when age and weight were adjusted. Conclusion: The difference in lipid components between premenopausal women and postmenopausal women exists, with menstrual status explaining 11.7%-13.3% variance for the observed lipid level. The factors influencing the lipid profile beside the menstrual status should also be explored. External intervention such as estrogen replacement therapy is also recommended in case of deviation of lipid profile from the suggested normal clinical range.

Combined Multiplexed Phage Display, High-Throughput Sequencing, and Functional Assays as a Platform for Identifying Modulatory VHHs Targeting the FSHR

Developing modulatory antibodies against G protein-coupled receptors is challenging. In this study, we targeted the follicle-stimulating hormone receptor (FSHR), a significant regulator of reproduction, with variable domains of heavy chain-only antibodies (VHHs). We built two immune VHH libraries and submitted them to multiplexed phage display approaches. We used next-generation sequencing to identify 34 clusters of specifically enriched sequences that were functionally assessed in a primary screen based on a cAMP response element (CRE)-dependent reporter gene assay. In this assay, 23 VHHs displayed negative or positive modulation of FSH-induced responses, suggesting a high success rate of the multiplexed strategy. We then focused on the largest cluster identified (i.e., PRC1) that displayed positive modulation of FSH action. We demonstrated that PRC1 specifically binds to the human FSHR and human FSHR/FSH complex while potentiating FSH-induced cAMP production and Gs recruitment. We conclude that the improved selection strategy reported here is effective for rapidly identifying functionally active VHHs and could be adapted to target other challenging membrane receptors. This study also led to the identification of PRC1, the first potential positive modulator VHH reported for the human FSHR.

Follicle-stimulating hormone orchestrates glucose-stimulated insulin secretion of pancreatic islets

Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) is involved in mammalian reproduction via binding to FSH receptor (FSHR). However, several studies have found that FSH and FSHR play important roles in extragonadal tissue. Here, we identified the expression of FSHR in human and mouse pancreatic islet β-cells. Blocking FSH signaling by Fshr knock-out led to impaired glucose tolerance owing to decreased insulin secretion, while high FSH levels caused insufficient insulin secretion as well. In vitro, we found that FSH orchestrated glucose-stimulated insulin secretion (GSIS) in a bell curve manner. Mechanistically, FSH primarily activates Gαs via FSHR, promoting the cAMP/protein kinase A (PKA) and calcium pathways to stimulate GSIS, whereas high FSH levels could activate Gαi to inhibit the cAMP/PKA pathway and the amplified effect on GSIS. Our results reveal the role of FSH in regulating pancreatic islet insulin secretion and provide avenues for future clinical investigation and therapeutic strategies for postmenopausal diabetes.

Long-term and sequential treatment for osteoporosis

Osteoporosis is a skeletal disorder that causes impairment of bone structure and strength, leading to a progressively increased risk of fragility fractures. The global prevalence of osteoporosis is increasing in the ageing population. Owing to the chronic character of osteoporosis, years or even decades of preventive measures or therapy are required. The long-term use of bone-specific pharmacological treatment options, including antiresorptive and/or osteoanabolic approaches, has raised concerns around adverse effects or potential rebound phenomena after treatment discontinuation. Imaging options, risk scores and the assessment of bone turnover during initiation and monitoring of such therapies could help to inform individualized treatment strategies. Combination therapies are currently used less often than 'sequential' treatments. However, all patients with osteoporosis, including those with secondary and rare causes of osteoporosis, as well as specific patient populations (for example, young adults, men and pregnant women) require new approaches for long-term therapy and disease monitoring. New pathophysiological aspects of bone metabolism might therefore help to inform and revolutionize the diagnosis and treatment of osteoporosis.

Association between follicle-stimulating hormone and nonalcoholic fatty liver disease in postmenopausal women with type 2 diabetes mellitus

BACKGROUND AND AIM

Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) was negatively associated with nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) in women older than 55 years old. People with obesity and diabetes had higher prevalence of NAFLD. Thus, we aimed to explore the association between FSH and NAFLD in postmenopausal women with type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM).

METHODS

A total of 583 postmenopausal women with T2DM with an average age of 60.22 ± 6.49 were recruited in this cross-sectional study through January 2017 to May 2021. Anthropological data, biochemical indexes, and abdominal ultrasound results were retrospectively collected. Abdominal ultrasound was used to diagnose NAFLD. FSH was measured by enzymatic immunochemiluminescence and divided into tertiles for further analysis. The logistic regression was used to assess the association of FSH with prevalent NAFLD. Likelihood ratio tests were used to assess the interactions between groups.

RESULTS

A total of 332 (56.94%) postmenopausal women had NAFLD. Compared with postmenopausal women in the lowest tertile of FSH, postmenopausal women in the highest tertile of FSH had lower prevalence of NAFLD (p < .01). After adjusting for age, diabetes duration, metabolism-related indicators, and other sex-related hormones, FSH was inversely associated with NAFLD (odds ratio: 0.411, 95% confidence intervals: 0.260-0.651, p < .001). In subgroup analysis, there were no significant interactions of FSH with strata of metabolic factors on the association of NAFLD.

CONCLUSION

FSH was negatively and independently associated with NAFLD in postmenopausal women with type 2 diabetes mellitus. It might be a potential index for screening and identifying individuals with high risk of NAFLD in postmenopausal women.

C/EBPβ/AEP Signaling Drives Alzheimer's Disease Pathogenesis

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is the most common type of dementia. Almost two-thirds of patients with AD are female. The reason for the higher susceptibility to AD onset in women is unclear. However, hormone changes during the menopausal transition are known to be associated with AD. Most recently, we reported that follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) promotes AD pathology and enhances cognitive dysfunctions via activating the CCAAT-enhancer-binding protein (C/EBPβ)/asparagine endopeptidase (AEP) pathway. This review summarizes our current understanding of the crucial role of the C/EBPβ/AEP pathway in driving AD pathogenesis by cleaving multiple critical AD players, including APP and Tau, explaining the roles and the mechanisms of FSH in increasing the susceptibility to AD in postmenopausal females. The FSH-C/EBPβ/AEP pathway may serve as a novel therapeutic target for the treatment of AD.

Lactic acid bacteria-derived exopolysaccharide: Formation, immunomodulatory ability, health effects, and structure-function relationship

Exopolysaccharides (EPSs) synthesized by lactic acid bacteria (LAB) have implications for host health and act as food ingredients. Due to the variability of LAB-EPS (lactic acid bacteria-derived exopolysaccharide) gene clusters, especially the glycosyltransferase genes that determine monosaccharide composition, the structure of EPS is very rich. EPSs are synthesized by LAB through the extracellular synthesis pathway and the Wzx/Wzy-dependent pathway. LAB-EPS has a strong immunomodulatory ability. The EPSs produced by different genera of LAB, especially Lactobacillus, Leuconostoc, and Streptococcus, have different immunomodulatory abilities because of their specific structures. LAB-EPS possesses other health effects, including antitumor, antioxidant, intestinal barrier repair, antimicrobial, antiviral, and cholesterol-lowering activities. The bioactivities of LAB-EPS are tightly related to their structures such us monosaccharide composition, glycosidic bonds, and molecular weight (MW). For the excellent physicochemical property, LAB-EPS acts as product improvers in dairy, bakery food, and meat in terms of stability, emulsification, thickening, and gelling. We systematically summarize the detailed process of EPS from synthesis to application, with emphasis on physiological mechanisms of EPS, and specific structure-function relationship, which provides theoretical support for the potential commercial value in the pharmaceutical, chemical, food, and cosmetic industries.

Extra-Gonadal and Non-Canonical Effects of FSH in Males

Recombinant follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) is commonly used for the treatment of female infertility and is increasingly being used in males as well, as recommended by notable guidelines. FSH is composed of an α subunit, shared with other hormones, and a β subunit, which confers specificity of biological action by interacting with its surface receptor (FSHR), predominantly located in granulosa and Sertoli cells. However, FSHRs also exist in extra-gonadal tissues, indicating potential effects beyond male fertility. Emerging evidence suggests that FSH may have extra-gonadal effects, including on bone metabolism, where it appears to stimulate bone resorption by binding to specific receptors on osteoclasts. Additionally, higher FSH levels have been associated with worse metabolic and cardiovascular outcomes, suggesting a possible impact on the cardiovascular system. FSH has also been implicated in immune response modulation, as FSHRs are expressed on immune cells and may influence inflammatory response. Furthermore, there is growing interest in the role of FSH in prostate cancer progression. This paper aims to provide a comprehensive analysis of the literature on the extra-gonadal effects of FSH in men, with a focus on the often-conflicting results reported in this field. Despite the contradictory findings, the potential for future development in this area is substantial, and further research is needed to elucidate the mechanisms underlying these effects and their clinical implications.

Artesunate targets cellular metabolism to regulate the Th17/Treg cell balance

INTRODUCTION

Metabolic reprogramming is one of the important mechanisms of cell differentiation, and different cells have different preferences for energy sources. During the differentiation of naive CD4 + T cells into Th17 and Treg cells, these cells show specific energy metabolism characteristics. Th17 cells depend on enhanced glycolysis, fatty acid synthesis, and glutaminolysis. In contrast, Treg cells are dependent on oxidative phosphorylation, fatty acid oxidation, and amino acid depletion. As a potent antimalarial drug, artesunate has been shown to modulate the Th17/Treg imbalance and regulate cell metabolism.

METHODOLOGY

Relevant literatures on ART, cellular metabolism, glycolysis, lipid metabolism, amino acid metabolism, CD4 + T cells, Th17 cells, and Treg cells published from January 1, 2010 to now were searched in PubMed database.

CONCLUSION

In this review, we will highlight recent advances in which artesunate can restore the Th17/Treg imbalance in disease states by altering T-cell metabolism to influence differentiation and lineage selection. Data from the current study show that few studies have focused on the effect of ART on cellular metabolism. ART can affect the metabolic characteristics of T cells (glycolysis, lipid metabolism, and amino acid metabolism) and interfere with their differentiation lineage, thereby regulating the balance of Th17/Treg and alleviating the symptoms of the disease.

The effect of age and FSH stimulation on the ovarian follicular response, nuclear maturation, and gene expression of cumulus-oocyte complexes in prepubertal gilts

This study investigated the effects of age and FSH treatment on the ovarian response, follicular fluid (FF) biochemical composition, nuclear maturation, and molecular profile of cumulus-oocytes complexes (COCs) recovered from prepubertal gilts. Thirty-five prepubertal gilts were separated according to age [140 (n = 20) or 160 (n = 15) days], and within each age, the gilts were allotted to receive either 100 mg of FSH [treated; G140+FSH (n = 10) and G160+FSH (n = 7)] or saline solution [control; G140+control (n = 10) and G160+control (n = 8)]. Thus, four experimental groups were included in this study. In the FSH-treated gilts, the percentage of medium follicles increased (P < 0.0001) in the same proportion with which the percentage of small follicles decreased (P < 0.0001). In addition, the glucose concentration in the FF obtained from medium follicles increased (P < 0.05), while that of triglycerides decreased (P < 0.05) in the FSH-treated gilts. The FSH stimulation also improved (P < 0.05) the number of grade I COCs obtained from medium follicles and the meiotic maturation and BCB + rates. FSH treatment only upregulated (P < 0.05) HMGCR expression in immature COCs from prepubertal gilts. The metaphase II and BCB + rates, FF glucose and plasma IGF-1 levels were greater (P < 0.05) in prepubertal gilts at 160 than at 140 days of age. Age had no effect (P > 0.05) on the transcript abundance of the target genes in immature COCs. Hence, oocytes obtained from 140-day-old prepubertal gilts appeared less meiotically competent than those of 160-day-old prepubertal gilts. Our study suggests a possible strategy of using FSH treatment to improve oocyte quantity, quality, and nuclear maturation in 140 and 160-day-old prepubertal gilts.

Atypical pituitary hormone-target tissue axis

A long-held belief is that pituitary hormones bind to their cognate receptors in classical target glands to actuate their manifold functions. However, a number of studies have shown that multiple types of pituitary hormone receptors are widely expressed in non-classical target organs. Each pituitary gland-derived hormone exhibits a wide range of nonconventional biological effects in these non-classical target organs. Herein, the extra biological functions of pituitary hormones, thyroid-stimulating hormone, follicle-stimulating hormone, luteinizing hormone, adrenocorticotrophic hormone, and prolactin when they act on non-classical organs were summarized, defined by the novel concept of an "atypical pituitary hormone-target tissue axis." This novel proposal explains the pathomechanisms of abnormal glucose and lipid metabolism, obesity, hypertension, fatty liver, and atherosclerosis while offering a more comprehensive and systematic insights into the coordinated regulation of environmental factors, genetic factors, and neuroendocrine hormones on human biological functions. The continued exploration of the physiology of the "atypical pituitary hormone-target tissue axis" could enable the identification of novel therapeutic targets for metabolic diseases.

Intra-pituitary follicle-stimulating hormone signaling regulates hepatic lipid metabolism in mice

Inter-organ communication is a major hallmark of health and is often orchestrated by hormones released by the anterior pituitary gland. Pituitary gonadotropes secrete follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH) to regulate gonadal function and control fertility. Whether FSH and LH also act on organs other than the gonads is debated. Here, we find that gonadotrope depletion in adult female mice triggers profound hypogonadism, obesity, glucose intolerance, fatty liver, and bone loss. The absence of sex steroids precipitates these phenotypes, with the notable exception of fatty liver, which results from ovary-independent actions of FSH. We uncover paracrine FSH action on pituitary corticotropes as a mechanism to restrain the production of corticosterone and prevent hepatic steatosis. Our data demonstrate that functional communication of two distinct hormone-secreting cell populations in the pituitary regulates hepatic lipid metabolism.

Integrative Proteomics and Phosphoproteomics Analysis of the Rat Adenohypophysis after GnRH Treatment

The regulation of mammalian reproductive activity is tightly dependent on the HPG axis crosstalk, in which several reproductive hormones play important roles. Among them, the physiological functions of gonadotropins are gradually being uncovered. However, the mechanisms by which GnRH regulates FSH synthesis and secretion still need to be more extensively and deeply explored. With the gradual completion of the human genome project, proteomes have become extremely important in the fields of human disease and biological process research. To explore the changes of protein and protein phosphorylation modifications in the adenohypophysis after GnRH stimulation, proteomics and phosphoproteomics analyses of rat adenohypophysis after GnRH treatment were performed by using TMT markers, HPLC classification, LC/MS, and bioinformatics analysis in this study. A total of 6762 proteins and 15,379 phosphorylation sites contained quantitative information. Twenty-eight upregulated proteins and fifty-three downregulated proteins were obtained in the rat adenohypophysis after GnRH treatment. The 323 upregulated phosphorylation sites and 677 downregulated phosphorylation sites found in the phosphoproteomics implied that a large number of phosphorylation modifications were regulated by GnRH and were involved in FSH synthesis and secretion. These data constitute a protein-protein phosphorylation map in the regulatory mechanism of "GnRH-FSH," which provides a basis for future studies on the complex molecular mechanisms of FSH synthesis and secretion. The results will be helpful for understanding the role of GnRH in the development and reproduction regulated by the pituitary proteome in mammals.

Advancing targeted protein degradation for metabolic diseases therapy

The development and application of traditional drugs represented by small molecule chemical drugs and biological agents, especially inhibitors, have become the mainstream drug development. In recent years, targeted protein degradation (TPD) technology has become one of the most promising methods to remove specific disease-related proteins using cell self-destruction mechanisms. Many different TPD strategies are emerging based on the ubiquitin-proteasome system (UPS) and the autophagy-lysosomal pathway (ALP), including but not limited to proteolysis-targeting chimeras (PROTAC), molecular glues (MG), lysosome targeting chimeras (LYTAC), chaperone-mediated autophagy (CMA)-targeting chimeras, autophagy-targeting chimera (AUTAC), autophagosome-tethering compound (ATTEC), and autophagy-targeting chimera (AUTOTAC). The advent of targeted degradation technology can change most protein targets in human cells from undruggable to druggable, greatly expanding the therapeutic prospect of refractory diseases such as metabolic syndrome. Here, we summarize the latest progress of major TPD technologies, especially in metabolic syndrome and look forward to providing new insights for drug discovery.

Follicle-Stimulating Hormone Provokes Macrophages to Secrete IL-1β Contributing to Atherosclerosis Progression

Abnormally high follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) has been reported to associate with cardiovascular diseases in prostate cancer patients with specific androgen deprivation therapy and in menopausal women. All of the cardiovascular diseases were involved in atherosclerosis. However, the pathogenic mechanism of FSH-associated atherosclerosis remains uncertain. Apolipoprotein E-deficient mice were chosen to develop atherosclerosis, of which the plaques were analyzed with administration of short- and long-term FSH imitating androgen deprivation therapy-induced and menopausal FSH elevation. The study showed that short- and long-term exposure of FSH significantly accelerated atherosclerosis progression in apolipoprotein E-deficient mice, manifested as strikingly increased plaques in the aorta and its roots, increased macrophage content, reduced fibrin, and an enlarged necrotic core, suggesting a decrease in plaque stability. Furthermore, expression profiles from the Gene Expression Omnibus GSE21545 dataset revealed that macrophage inflammation was tightly associated with FSH-induced atherosclerotic progression. The human monocyte cell line THP-1 was induced by PMA and worked as a macrophage model to detect inflammatory factors and cellular functions. FSH remarkably promoted the expression of IL-1β in macrophages and strikingly increased the chemotactic migratory capacity of macrophages toward MCP-1, but the promigratory capacity of FSH was attenuated in foam cells. Overall, we revealed that FSH significantly promoted the inflammatory response and migration of macrophages, thereby provoking atherosclerosis development.

Ovarian tissue transplantation ameliorates osteoporosis and dyslipidaemia in ovariectomised mice

BACKGROUND

Ovarian insufficiency frequently renders postmenopausal women susceptible to osteoporosis and dyslipidaemia. Postmenopausal transplant women are at a higher risk developing osteoporosis and dyslipidaemia due to the concomitant application of glucocorticoids and immunosuppressants after solid organ transplantation. Thus, this study aimed to explore the feasibility of ovarian tissue transplantation (OTT) as an alternative to Hormone replacement therapy (HRT) for postmenopausal women with solid organ transplant needs.

RESULTS

Sixty mice were randomly divided into four groups: sham operation, ovariectomised (OVX group), ovariectomy plus oestrogen (E₂ group), and ovariectomy plus OTT (OTT group). The inhibin levels in the OTT group were increased and the follicle stimulating hormone and luteinizing hormone were suppressed to normal levels, which could not be achieved in the E₂ group. The femoral bone mineral density in the OTT group was significantly increased than the E₂ group (P < 0.05), and the probability of fracture was reduced by 1.4-2.6 times. Additionally, the high-density lipoprotein cholesterol levels were higher in the OTT group than in the E₂ group and the triglyceride levels were lower in the OTT group than in the E₂ group (P < 0.05).

CONCLUSION

OTT not only achieves certain endocrine effects by participating in the regulation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-ovarian feedback control loop, but also ameliorates osteoporosis and dyslipidaemia, which may be an alternative to traditional HRT for postmenopausal women with solid organ transplant needs.

Follicle-Stimulating Hormone Promotes the Development of Endometrial Cancer In Vitro and In Vivo

Endocrine disruptors as risk factors for endometrial cancer (EC) are positively correlated with serum follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) levels. Additionally, increased FSH is associated with EC. However, its exact mechanism is not yet clear. Therefore, this study investigated how FSH affects the occurrence of EC. Using immunohistochemistry (IHC), immunofluorescence (IF), and Western blot (WB), we found that FSH receptor (FSHR) was expressed in both EC tissues and cell lines. To explore the effect of FSH on EC in vitro, Ishikawa (ISK) cells were cultured in different doses of FSH, and it was found that FSH could promote the proliferation and migration of ISK cells. Furthermore, the detection of key molecules of migration and apoptosis by WB showed that FSH promoted cell migration and inhibited apoptosis. Additionally, FSH decreased AMPK activation. To clarify the effect of FSH on EC in vivo, we subcutaneously planted ISK cells into ovariectomized mice and then gave two of the groups oestradiol (E2). In comparison with the OE (ovariectomy plus E2) and sham groups, the growth rates and weights of the tumors in the OE plus FSH group were significantly higher. The findings above suggest that FSH promotes the proliferation and metastasis of EC, providing a new strategy for the treatment of EC.

Compound of Cynanchum wilfordii and Humulus lupulus L. Ameliorates Menopausal Symptoms in Ovariectomized Mice

Cynanchum wilfordii and Humulus lupulus L. have been used for their various pharmacological properties in South Korea as a traditional medicine or health functional food, respectively, and their intake may relieve menopausal symptoms. The purpose of current study was to determine the effect of compound of Cynanchum wilfordii and Humulus lupulus L. (CWHL) in menopausal symptoms of ovariectomized (OVX) mice. OVX mice received CWHL or caudatin (an active ingredient of CWHL) once daily for 7 weeks. Values for hypothalamic serotonin (5-HT), dopamine, norepinephrine, estrogen receptor (ER)-β, 5-HT1A, and 5-HT2A were significantly enhanced, while value for hypothalamic monoamine oxidase A was reduced in CWHL and caudatin groups compared with the OVX group. CWHL and caudatin significantly reduced tail skin temperature and rectal temperature of OVX mice through partial recovering of the levels of serum estrogen, nitric oxide, follicle-stimulating hormone, luteinizing hormone, and receptor-activator of the NF-κB ligand (RANKL). Moreover, CWHL and caudatin improved bone mineral density via decreasing levels of serum RANKL, tartrate-resistant acid phosphatase, and collagen type 1 cross-linked N-telopeptide and improving levels of serum alkaline phosphatase, osteoprotegerin, and osteocalcin compared with the OVX group without adverse effects such as dyslipidemia. CWHL increased uterine ER-β levels but did not change uterus and vaginal weights. Taken together, the results indicate that CWHL may relieve menopausal symptoms by controlling depression-, hot flashes-, and osteoporosis-associated biomarkers. Therefore, we propose that CWHL might be a safe and potential candidate for management of menopause as a health functional food.

Deep multilayer brain omics identifies the potential involvement of menopause molecular networks in Gliomas' disease progression

The risk of high-grade gliomas is lower in young females, however, its incidence enhances after menopause, suggesting potential protective roles of female sex hormones. Hormone oscillations after menopause have received attention as a possible risk factor. Little is known about risk factors for adult gliomas. We examined the association of the aging brain after menopause, determining the risk of gliomas with proteomics and the MALDI-MSI experiment. Menopause caused low neurotransmitter levels such as GABA and ACH, high inflammatory factor levels like il-1β, and increased lipid metabolism-related levels like triglycerides in the brain. Upregulated and downregulated proteins after menopause were correlated with differentially expressed glioma genes, such as ACTA2, CAMK2D, FNBPIL, ARL1, HEBP1, CAST, CLIC1, LPCAT4, MAST3, and DOCK9. Furthermore, differential gene expression analysis of monocytes showed that the downregulated gene LPCAT4 could be used as a marker to prevent menopausal gliomas in women. Our findings regarding the association of menopause with the risk of gliomas are consistent with several extensive cohort studies. In view of the available evidence, postmenopausal status is likely to represent a significant risk factor for gliomas.

Hormone supply to the pituitary gland: A comprehensive investigation of female‑related tumors (Review)

The hypothalamus acts on the pituitary gland after signal integration, thus regulating various physiological functions of the body. The pituitary gland includes the adenohypophysis and neurohypophysis, which differ in structure and function. The hypothalamus-hypophysis axis controls the secretion of adenohypophyseal hormones through the pituitary portal vein system. Thyroid-stimulating hormone, adrenocorticotropic hormone, gonadotropin, growth hormone (GH), and prolactin (PRL) are secreted by the adenohypophysis and regulate the functions of the body in physiological and pathological conditions. The aim of this review was to summarize the functions of female-associated hormones (GH, PRL, luteinizing hormone, and follicle-stimulating hormone) in tumors. Their pathophysiology was described and the mechanisms underlying female hormone-related diseases were investigated.

Association of follicle stimulating hormone and serum lipid profiles in postmenopausal women

The aim of the study was to observe the association between follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) levels and serum lipid profiles in postmenopausal women. A total of 411 healthy postmenopausal women with a mean age of 55 years (range 45-65 years) were enrolled in this study. Data on age, time of last menstrual period, past medical history, use of medications, and smoking status were collected, and body weight, height, and blood pressure were measured. Blood samples were collected to measure the serum concentrations of FSH, luteinizing hormone (LH), estradiol (E2), glucose, total cholesterol (TC), triglyceride (TG), high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C), and low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C) using routine methods. FSH levels were negatively associated with LDL-C, even after adjustment for age, LH, E2, BMI, systolic blood pressure (SBP), and diastolic blood pressure (DBP) (OR = 0.185, 95% CI = 0.051-0.669). Although FSH may also be negatively associated with dyslipidemia (P = .06 for trend) and hypercholesterolemia (P = .079 for trend), but no statistical significance was found after adjusting for confounding factors, particularly BMI. All relevant data are within the paper and its Supporting Information files. The results indicated that lower FSH levels might increase the odds of dyslipidemia, especially the risk of LDL-C elevation, which is an important factor that increases the risk of CVD in postmenopausal women.

METTL3 suppresses anlotinib sensitivity by regulating m6A modification of FGFR3 in oral squamous cell carcinoma

Background

N6-methyladenosine (m⁶A) is an abundant nucleotide modification in mRNA, but there were few studies on its role in cancer drug sensitivity and resistance. Anlotinib has been proved to have effective antitumor effects in oral squamous cell carcinoma (OSCC) in our previous study. Here, we sought to investigate the treatment target of anlotinib and the function and mechanisms of m⁶A modification in regulating anlotinib effect in OSCC.

Methods

Anlotinib treatment in a dose-dependent manner, western blotting, qRT-PCR and cell lost-of-function assays were used to study the treatment target of anlotinib in OSCC. RNA m⁶A dot blot assays, the m⁶A MeRIP-seq and MeRIP-qPCR, RNA and protein stability assays were used to explore the m⁶A modification of the treatment target of anlotinib. Cell lost-of-function assays after METTL3 depletion were conducted to investigate the effect of m⁶A modification level on the therapeutic effect of anlotinib in OSCC. Patient-derived tumor xenograft (PDX) models and immunohistochemistry staining were performed to study the relationship of METTL3 and antitumor sensitivity of anlotinib in vivo.

Results

Anlotinib targeted FGFR3 in the treatment of OSCC and inhibited tumor cell proliferation and promoted apoptosis by inactivating the FGFR3/AKT/mTOR signaling pathway. METTL3 was identified to target and modify FGFR3 m⁶A methylation and then decrease the stability of mRNA. METTL3 expression level was related to the anlotinib sensitivity in OSCC cells in vitro and METTL3 knockdown promoted anlotinib sensitivity of OSCC cells by inhibiting the FGFR3 expression. PDX models samples furthermore showed that METTL3 and FGFR3 levels were tightly correlated with the anlotinib efficacy in OSCC.

Conclusions

In summary, our work revealed that FGFR3 was served as the treatment target of anlotinib and METTL3-mediated FGFR3 m⁶A modification played a critical function in the anlotinib sensitivity in OSCC.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12935-022-02715-7.

Endothelial cell protein C receptor regulates neutrophil extracellular trap-mediated rheumatoid arthritis disease progression

Endothelial cell protein C receptor (EPCR) is a 46 kDa transmembrane protein receptor, expressed in most immune cells (T cells, monocytes, dendritic cells, polymorphonuclear neutrophils [PMN]). EPCR reportedly plays a vital role in rheumatoid arthritis (RA). Our results confirmed that EPCR expression exists in the PMN of RA patients, and animal experiments demonstrated that down-regulation of EPCR expression affects disease progression in collagen-induced arthritis (CIA) mice. PMN is the immune cell type that first enters the site of inflammation in the early stages of inflammation. In the early stage of RA, PMN cells migrate into the joint cavity and function in the process of RA synovial inflammation, aggravating the bone destruction found in RA and mediating the progression of RA disease progression. We verified the differences in EPCR expression in PMN cells between RA and osteoarthritis (OA) patients by Western blot and then confirmed this difference in animals. We found that CIA mice treated with PMN-neutralizing antibody intervention had reduced disease performance. On this basis, EPCR was knocked down at the same time. The therapeutic effect of PMN-neutralizing antibody treatment was subsequently diminished. To explore the relationship between EPCR and PMN in RA, we used immunofluorescence to detect the expression of PMN-neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs) in RA patients and used EPCR neutralizing antibodies as an intervention. The results showed that the formation of PMN-NETs in RA patients increased. Finally, through in vitro intervention experiments involving EPCR and PMN transcriptome analysis of the peripheral blood of RA patients, we concluded that EPCR may regulate the formation of PMN-NETs in RA patients through the activated protein C (APC)-EPCR signaling pathway, thereby affecting the progression of disease in RA patients.