Whipworm and roundworm infections

Systems biology of Haemonchus contortus - Advancing biotechnology for parasitic nematode control

Parasitic nematodes represent a substantial global burden, impacting animal health, agriculture and economies worldwide. Of these worms, Haemonchus contortus - a blood-feeding nematode of ruminants - is a major pathogen and a model for molecular and applied parasitology research. This review synthesises some key advances in understanding the molecular biology, genetic diversity and host-parasite interactions of H. contortus, highlighting its value for comparative studies with the free-living nematode Caenorhabditis elegans. Key themes include recent developments in genomic, transcriptomic and proteomic technologies and resources, which are illuminating critical molecular pathways, including the ubiquitination pathway, protease/protease inhibitor systems and the secretome of H. contortus. Some of these insights are providing a foundation for identifying essential genes and exploring their potential as targets for novel anthelmintics or vaccines, particularly in the face of widespread anthelmintic resistance. Advanced bioinformatic tools, such as machine learning (ML) algorithms and artificial intelligence (AI)-driven protein structure prediction, are enhancing annotation capabilities, facilitating and accelerating analyses of gene functions, and biological pathways and processes. This review also discusses the integration of these tools with cutting-edge single-cell sequencing and spatial transcriptomics to dissect host-parasite interactions at the cellular level. The discussion emphasises the importance of curated databases, improved culture systems and functional genomics platforms to translate molecular discoveries into practical outcomes, such as novel interventions. New research findings and resources not only advance research on H. contortus and related nematodes but may also pave the way for innovative solutions to the global challenges with anthelmintic resistance.

Antimicrobial peptides in nematode secretions - Unveiling biotechnological opportunities for therapeutics and beyond

Gastrointestinal (GI) parasitic nematodes threaten food security and affect human health and animal welfare globally. Current anthelmintics for use in humans and livestock are challenged by continuous re-infections and the emergence and spread of multidrug resistance, underscoring an urgent need to identify novel control targets for therapeutic exploitation. Recent evidence has highlighted the occurrence of complex interplay between GI parasitic nematodes of humans and livestock and the resident host gut microbiota. Antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) found within nematode biofluids have emerged as potential effectors of these interactions. This review delves into the occurrence, structure, and function of nematode AMPs, highlighting their potential as targets for drug discovery and development. We argue that an integrated approach combining advanced analytical techniques, scalable production methods, and innovative experimental models is needed to unlock the full potential of nematode AMPs and pave the way for the discovery and development of sustainable parasite control strategies.

Early evidence for pig domestication (8,000 cal. BP) in the Lower Yangtze, South China

The domestication of pigs (Sus scrofa) has had profound socioeconomic and ecological consequences. Although pigs are believed to have been independently domesticated in South China, the timing and initial mechanisms of this process remain debated. This study presents a microfossil analysis of pig dental calculus from two early Neolithic sites in the Lower Yangtze River region: Jingtoushan (8,300 to 7,800 cal. BP) and Kuahuqiao (8,200 to 7,000 cal. BP). Analyses of starch, phytolith, and parasite remains indicate that pigs consumed human-associated foods and waste, including cooked starchy plants and human whipworm (Trichuris trichiura) eggs, likely derived from food preparation and fecally contaminated materials. Identified plant taxa include acorns (Fagaceae), rice (Oryza sp.), underground storage organs such as yam (Dioscorea sp.), and wild grasses (Triticeae and Panicoideae), all present in the local botanical assemblages. Coefficients of variation in dental metrics further indicate the coexistence of both domestic and wild populations. Together, these lines of evidence point to multiple modes of human-pig interaction, including early domestic pigs under human management, pigs scavenging near settlements, and free-ranging individuals foraging beyond human influence. Pig domestication in the Lower Yangtze had begun by 8,000 y ago, likely following both commensal and prey pathways, in parallel with the development of rice cultivation and sedentary lifeways. This study also demonstrates the value of dental calculus analysis for revealing early human-animal relationships before the appearance of clear morphological markers of domestication in the archaeological record.

Prevalence and intensity of intestinal and soil-transmitted helminths infection among children in internally displaced camps in Mogadishu Somalia

Intestinal and soil-transmitted helminth (STH) infections are significant public health concerns in Somalia and are driven by poor sanitation, contaminated water, and inadequate hygiene practices. This study was undertaken to assess the prevalence and intensity of intestinal and soil-transmitted helminth infections among school-aged children in the Deyniile and Kahda internally displaced persons camps. A well-structured questionnaire was used to collect sociodemographic, behavioral and environmental data from the respondents, while fresh stool samples were collected to detect helminths via the cellophane-based Kato-Katz technique. Bivariate and multivariate logistic regression analyses were used to measure the strength of the associations. The overall prevalence of intestinal and soil-transmitted helminth infection was 72.5% (232/320). A mixed effects logistic regression analysis revealed that fathers with secondary school education (P = 0.039; AOR = 0.148; 95% CI 0.024-0.904) and children living in Kahda (P = 0.033; AOR = 0.519; 95% CI 0.283-0.950) had a significantly lower risk of helminths infection. The prevalence of helminths in both vamps was high. Dirty fingernails (P = 0.462; AOR = 0.72; 95% CI 0.30-1.73), eating unwashed fruits (P = 0.654; AOR = 0.86; 95% CI 0.45-1.66) and walking barefoot (P = 0.803; AOR = 1.13; 95% CI 0.43-2.96) were all not associated with increased risk of infection, including sanitary condition at home (P = 0.054; AOR = 2.99; 95% CI 0.98-9.17).

NOD1 signaling regulates early tissue inflammation during helminth infection

The role of innate receptors in initiating the early inflammatory response to helminth larval stages in affected tissues during their life cycle within the host remains poorly understood. Given its pivotal role in detecting microbial elements and eliciting immune responses, exploring the NOD1 receptor could offer crucial insights into immune responses to parasitic infections. By using the larval ascariasis model, the acute model for early Ascaris sp. infection in humans, we report that NOD1 signaling markedly regulates pulmonary tissue inflammation during Ascaris larval migration. Here we show that Ascaris-infected NOD1-deficient mice exhibited a pronounced decrease in macrophage and eosinophil recruitment to the lungs. This diminished cellular recruitment to the lung correlated with impaired production of a mixed cytokine profile including IFN-γ, IL-1β, IL-5, IL-10, IL-17 and IL-33. The attenuated inflammatory response observed in the absence of NOD1 signaling during infection was associated with a notable amelioration in lung dysfunction compared to WT-infected mice. Systemically, NOD1 signaling was also associated with Ascaris-specific IgG2b antibody responses. In summary, our findings highlight a pathogenic role for NOD1 signaling in Ascaris-induced tissue inflammation, underlying hematopoietic cell recruitment and regulating downstream inflammatory cascades associated with the host's innate immune responses in the tissue triggered by helminth larval migration.

Unmasking an Incidental Trichuris trichiura Infection in a Patient With Acute Hepatobiliary and Gastrointestinal Illness

Background

Trichuris trichiura is a common intestinal parasite, but its systemic impact remains unclear. While severe infections may cause gastrointestinal complications, hepatobiliary involvement is rare. This case describes an incidental T. trichiura infection identified during colonoscopy in a patient hospitalized with acute pancreatitis and suspected gastric outlet obstruction. The study underscores the importance of differentiating incidental parasitic infections from true pathology to prevent misdiagnosis and unnecessary treatment.

Case Presentation

A 52-year-old female presented with persistent nausea, vomiting, postprandial discomfort, and weight loss for 2 weeks. Imaging revealed hepatomegaly and gastric distension, raising concerns for gastric outlet obstruction or severe gastritis. Laboratory findings showed elevated liver enzymes (ALT: 101 IU/L, Alk-P: 189 IU/L, r-GT: 288 U/L). A viral etiology was suspected but not confirmed. The patient received supportive intravenous therapy, and her symptoms resolved. Colonoscopy revealed a partially clamped T. trichiura adult worm in the transverse colon. Given her clinical improvement without anthelmintic treatment, the infection was deemed incidental and not causative.

Conclusion

This case highlights the need to critically evaluate incidental parasitic infections before attributing them to clinical symptoms. Routine screening is valuable but should be accompanied by a thorough assessment of parasite burden, patient history, and clinical presentation to guide appropriate management and prevent unnecessary interventions.

Functional Nanofibres of Tb(III)-Coupled Metal-Organic Gel: Detection To Decontamination of Thiabendazole In Environmental Samples

Pollutant residues such as pharmaceuticals or pesticides in water bodies pose significant environmental and health risks, necessitating the development of advanced sensing and removal techniques to ensure safe and sustainable water resources. Tb-based luminescent sensors offer high sensitivity for pollutant residue analysis, but their application is often limited to detection. Developing Tb-derived metal-organic gel (ANS-4G-Tb) as soft supramolecular material is proposed to enhance trace contamination removal, integrating both sensing and sequestration capabilities. For the development of the self-assembled supramolecular material, ANS-4, a low molecular-mass organic gelator (LMOG) with a molecular weight of just about 215 g/mole, was selected, owing to its efficient single-step synthesis, and it was comprehensively characterized using single crystal XRD, and other routine spectroscopic techniques. Then, its nanosized ANS-4G-Tb metallogel was characterized using a comprehensive suite of analytical techniques to assess its structural, chemical, morphological, and optical characteristics. Upon interaction with parasiticide and fungicide thiabendazole (TBZ), a phase transformation from gel to sol is observed, enabling naked-eye detection and simultaneous turn-on photo-luminescence sensing (5D4→7F5 transition). Based on novel research, our study navigates through the photo-luminescence of lanthanide supramolecular complexes, transitioning from fundamental investigations to potential methodologies concerning analyte responsiveness and removal applications.

The proteome of human adult whipworm Trichuris trichiura: A source of potential immunomodulatory molecules

Soil-transmitted helminths (STHs), including Trichuris trichiura, pose a major global health challenge, particularly in children, causing significant morbidity. However, T. trichiura's ability to modulate host immune responses offers a unique opportunity to discover biomolecules with therapeutic potential for inflammatory, allergic, and autoimmune disorders. This study conducted a proteomic analysis of adult male and female T. trichiura using liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS), identifying 810 parasite proteins. Of these, 177 were exclusive to females, 277 to males, and 356 shared. Gene ontology analysis showed similar cellular component profiles in males and females, mostly involving intracellular structures. However, female-exclusive proteins exhibited more diverse components. Molecular function analysis highlighted hydrolytic and catalytic activities, suggesting enzymatic strategies for nutrition and immune modulation. Notably, immunomodulatory proteins were identified in both sexes, showing therapeutic potential, including a Kunitz protease inhibitor and glutamate dehydrogenase. To evaluate immunomodulatory properties, one identified protein (rc4299) was tested on cultures of peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) from allergic individuals. The recombinantly produced rc4299 increased IL-10 secretion, indicating potential for treating autoimmune and allergic diseases. This study uncovers the T. trichiura proteome and highlights promising therapeutic targets, emphasizing the parasite's complex interactions with the host immune system.

An optimised faecal microRNA sequencing pipeline reveals fibrosis in Trichuris muris infection

The intestine is a site of diverse functions including digestion, nutrient absorption, immune surveillance, and microbial symbiosis. Intestinal microRNAs (miRNAs) are detectable in faeces and regulate barrier integrity, host-microbe interactions and the immune response, potentially offering valuable non-invasive tools to study intestinal health. However, current experimental methods are suboptimal and heterogeneity in study design limits the utility of faecal miRNA data. Here, we develop an optimised protocol for faecal miRNA detection and report a reproducible murine faecal miRNA profile in healthy mice. We use this pipeline to study faecal miRNAs during infection with the gastrointestinal helminth, Trichuris muris, revealing roles for miRNAs in fibrosis and wound healing. Intestinal fibrosis was confirmed in vivo using Hyperion® imaging mass cytometry, demonstrating the efficacy of this approach. Further applications of this optimised pipeline to study host-microbe interactions and intestinal disease will enable the generation of hypotheses and therapeutic strategies in diverse contexts.

Chronic diarrhea unveiled by colonoscopy

A 62-year-old woman from Bogotá, Colombia, had chronic diarrhea for 4 years. The diarrhea was lienteric, occurring day and night, with mucus but no blood. She had no significant weight loss, abdominal pain, or other systemic symptoms, and no notable medical history. Initial stool tests showed leukocytes and blood but no parasites. Routine lab tests were normal. Due to the chronic symptoms and nocturnal diarrhea, a colonoscopy was performed. It revealed numerous mobile, white worms in the right colon, identified as Trichuris trichiura, causing friable mucosa. She was diagnosed with trichuriasis, or human whipworm infection.

Experimental trichuriasis: Changes in the immune response and bacterial translocation during acute phase development illustrated with 3D model animation

Trichuriasis, a well-known type of soil-transmitted helminthiasis, is a neglected gastrointestinal nematode disease predominantly affecting children in tropical regions and is caused by Trichuris trichiura. The potential zoonotic transmission of this disease is indicated by its presence in nonhuman primates. Chronic infection leads to mucosal damage, bacterial translocation, and intense inflammatory infiltration; however, the progression of these processes remains poorly understood. This study tracks the acute phase of experimental trichuriasis, providing detailed insights into nematode tissue migration stages, inflammatory infiltration, cytokine production, and 2D/3D imaging of the bacterial translocation process. We showed a mixed immune response (Th1, Th2, and Th17) initiated by larval-induced lesions in the intestine tissue and modulated by L4 larvae and adult worms in the cecum, with systemic changes observed in the mesenteric lymph nodes, peritoneal macrophages, and spleen. Despite the disruption of the intestinal mucosa within the first 10 days post-infection (d.p.i.), bacterial invasion becomes evident only after the development of the nematode into the L3 larval stage (17 d.p.i.), intensifying with lesions caused by the L4 larvae (22 d.p.i.) and adult worms (35 d.p.i.). Our multidimensional approach, which incorporates microscopy tools, micro-CT, physiological evaluations, tissue/organ assessments, and immunological parameters, demonstrates the ability of larvae to breach the intestinal mucosa, further indicating the timing of extensive bacterial infiltration. Additionally, a 3D animation illustrates how adult worm attachment mechanisms may facilitate bacterial translocation. This study provides significant insights into the immunological and pathological mechanisms of trichuriasis progression, highlighting the complex interplay among host immune responses, the gut microbiome, and parasite survival strategies, all of which are crucial aspects for future therapeutic development.

Ascaris lumbricoides a rare cause gastric perforation: a case report and brief literature review

Ascaris lumbricoides (AL), a prevalent nematode causing ascariasis, infects millions worldwide, with a higher risk in preschool and school-aged children. Though infections are usually mild, rare and life-threatening complications like gastrointestinal perforation exist. This article documents a case involving a 61-year-old deaf-mute man who presented with a month-long history of epigastric pain accompanied by nausea, anorexia, and constipation. The pain exacerbated, eventually extended to encompass the entire abdomen 4 h prior to being diagnosed with hollow viscus perforation. During the surgical procedure, three live ascarids were discovered within the abdominal cavity, and the jejunum was found to be filled with a large number of ascarids, accompanied by a perforation in the gastric antrum. Subsequently, the ascarids were extracted, and the perforated area was repaired. Postoperatively, the patient underwent anti-infection therapy, acid suppression, gastric mucosa protection, and nutritional support. On postoperative day (POD) 1, a single dose of 400 mg albendazole was administered. Fecal samples on POD 3, 5, and 6 tested positive for AL eggs. The patient recovered smoothly with no evidence of peptic ulcer disease on one-month follow-up endoscopy. Additionally, fecal tests conducted over three consecutive days did not detect any AL eggs. This case highlights the crucial importance of recognizing ascariasis-associated complications and underscores the paramount role of timely surgical intervention in such cases. Meanwhile, this article combines cases of gastrointestinal perforation caused by AL documented in the literature since 1903, elaborates on the epidemiological characteristics, pathogenesis, diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of ascariasis, and analyzes the reasons for the occurrence of such complications.

Pathogen Detection and Resistome Analysis in Healthy Shelter Dogs Using Whole Metagenome Sequencing

According to the Humane Society, 25 to 40 percent of pet dogs in the United States are adopted from animal shelters. Shelter dogs can harbor bacterial, viral, fungal, and protozoal pathogens, posing risks to canine and human health. These bacterial pathogens may also carry antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs), serving as a reservoir for antimicrobial resistance (AMR) transmission. This study aimed to utilize whole metagenome sequencing (WMS) to screen for microbial pathogens and assess the resistome in healthy shelter dogs. Fecal samples from 58 healthy shelter dogs across 10 shelters in Kentucky, Tennessee, and Virginia were analyzed using WMS. Genomic DNA was extracted, and bioinformatics analyses were performed to identify pathogens and ARGs. The WMS detected 53 potentially zoonotic or known pathogens including thirty-eight bacterial species, two protozoa, five yeast species, one nematode, four molds, and three viruses. A total of 4560 ARGs signatures representing 182 unique genes across 14 antibiotic classes were detected. Tetracycline resistance genes were most abundant (49%), while β-lactam resistance genes showed the highest diversity with 75 unique ARGs. ARGs were predominantly detected in commensal bacteria; however, nearly half (18/38, 47.4%) of known bacterial pathogens detected in this study carried ARGs for resistance to one or more antibiotic classes. This study provides evidence that healthy shelter dogs carry a diverse range of zoonotic and antibiotic-resistant pathogens, posing a transmission risk through fecal shedding. These findings highlight the value of WMS for pathogen detection and AMR surveillance, informing therapeutic and prophylactic strategies to mitigate the transmission of pathogens among shelter dog populations and the risk associated with zoonoses.

Prevalence, intensity and risk factors of soil-transmitted helminthiasis after five effective rounds of preventive chemotherapy across three implementation units in Ondo State, Nigeria

BACKGROUND

Routine epidemiological data are essential for monitoring the effectiveness of preventive chemotherapy (PC), optimizing resource allocation, and addressing the evolving needs in the elimination of soil-transmitted helminthiasis (STH). This study assesses the prevalence, intensity, and associated risk factors of STH following five rounds of albendazole-based PC in three implementation units (IUs) in Ondo State, Nigeria.

METHODOLOGY

Fresh stool samples were collected from 2,093 children aged 5-14 years across 45 systematically selected schools in three IUs: Ese-Odo, Irele, and Ile-Oluji. The samples were analyzed using the Kato-Katz technique. Additionally, standardized questionnaires were administered to gather data on demographics and access to water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH) resources. Data analysis was conducted using R software version 4.3.2, with a 95% confidence interval.

PRINCIPAL FINDINGS/CONCLUSIONS

The parasitological data indicated a significant decline in the aggregated prevalence of STH across the three IUs. In Ese-Odo, the prevalence decreased to 25.8% (95% CI: 23.0-29.0) from 39% at baseline (d = -34%, p = 0.00). In Irele, prevalence dropped to 9.7% (95% CI: 7.6-12.0) from 51.3% at baseline (d = -81%, p = 0.00), and in Ile-Oluji, prevalence was reduced to 6.4% (95% CI: 4.6-8.7) from 23% at baseline (d = -72.2%, p = 0.00). The most prevalent STH species was Ascaris lumbricoides, with infection rates of 25.5%, 9.4%, and 6.4% in Ese-Odo, Irele, and Ile-Oluji, respectively, followed by Trichuris trichiura in Ese-Odo (2.7%) and Irele (0.4%), while hookworm infections were detected only in Irele (0.7%). The majority of infections were of low intensity in Ese-Odo (91.0%), Irele (96.8%), and Ile-Oluji (100%). Access to improved sanitation (17.7%, 54.9%, and 58.2%), improved water sources (24.5%, 66.1%, and 69.8%), and handwashing facilities (9.0%, 39.6%, and 25.4%) was suboptimal and significantly varied across Ese-Odo, Irele, and Ile-Oluji, respectively (p < 0.05). Open defecation rates were high in Ese-Odo (54.2%), Irele (36.3%), and Ile-Oluji (34.3%). In Ese-Odo, significant risk factors for STH infection included the use of hand-pump boreholes (AOR: 2.44, 95% CI: 1.23-4.88, p = 0.01), unprotected dug wells (AOR: 3.25, 95% CI: 0.96-11.36, p = 0.06), ventilated improved pit latrines (AOR: 3.95, 95% CI: 1.13-16.1, p = 0.04), pit latrines without a slab (AOR: 2.19, 95% CI: 1.27-3.8, p = 0.01), and failure to use soap after defecation, both when soap was available (AOR: 12.09, 95% CI: 1.86-112.97, p = 0.01) and when soap was unavailable (AOR: 8.19, 95% CI: 1.73-76.65, p = 0.04). In Irele, access to protected dug wells was marginally significant (AOR: 1.79, 95% CI: 0.96-3.21, p = 0.06), while in Ile-Oluji, access to river water emerged as a significant risk factor (AOR: 7.97, 95% CI: 1.81-58.58, p = 0.02). The use of rainwater was found to be protective across all three IUs. These findings demonstrate significant progress in reducing STH prevalence across the three IUs following PC interventions. However, the data underscores the need for enhanced efforts to improve access to and use of WASH facilities to achieve STH elimination.

Helminth extracellular vesicles co-opt host monocytes to drive T cell anergy

Parasitic helminths secrete extracellular vesicles (EVs) into their host tissues to modulate immune responses, but the underlying mechanisms are poorly understood. We demonstrate that Ascaris EVs are efficiently internalised by monocytes in human peripheral blood mononuclear cells and increase the percentage of classical monocytes. Furthermore, EV treatment of monocytes induced a novel anti-inflammatory phenotype characterised by CD14+, CD16-, CC chemokine receptor 2 (CCR2-) and programmed death-ligand 1 (PD-L1)+ cells. In addition, Ascaris EVs induced T cell anergy in a monocyte-dependent mechanism. Targeting professional phagocytes to induce both direct and indirect pathways of immune modulation presents a highly novel and efficient mechanism of EV-mediated host-parasite communication. Intra-peritoneal administration of EVs induced protection against gut inflammation in the dextran sodium sulphate model of colitis in mice. Ascaris EVs were shown to affect circulating immune cells and protect against gut inflammation; this highlights their potential as a subject for further investigation in inflammatory conditions driven by dysregulated immune responses. However, their clinical translation would require further studies and careful consideration of ethical implications.

Multimodality imaging of pediatric ascariasis

Ascariasis is a prevalent intestinal helminthic infection caused by Ascaris lumbricoides, commonly known as roundworm. While the disease may remain asymptomatic when the parasites are confined to the intestinal lumen of the small bowel, symptoms and complications can arise when the helminths invade the biliary tree or pancreatic ducts. In cases of severe infection, a mass of roundworms can lead to intestinal complications, such as bowel obstruction. The morphological identification of Ascaris by multimodality imaging techniques plays a crucial role in the diagnosis, as well as in the monitoring and prevention of complications.

Hatching of whipworm eggs induced by bacterial contact is serine-protease dependent

Whipworms (Trichuris spp) are ubiquitous parasites of humans and domestic and wild mammals that cause chronic disease, considerably impacting human and animal health. Egg hatching is a critical phase in the whipworm life cycle that marks the initiation of infection, with newly hatched larvae rapidly migrating to and invading host intestinal epithelial cells. Hatching is triggered by the host microbiota; however, the physical and chemical interactions between bacteria and whipworm eggs, as well as the bacterial and larval responses that result in the disintegration of the polar plug and larval eclosion, are not completely understood. Here, we examined hatching in the murine whipworm, Trichuris muris, and investigated the role of specific bacterial and larval structures and molecules in this process. Using scanning and transmission electron microscopy, we characterised the physical interactions of both fimbriated (Escherichia coli, Salmonella typhimurium and Pseudomonas aeruginosa) and non-fimbriated (Staphylococcus aureus) bacteria with the egg polar plugs during the induction/initiation stage, and visualised the effects of structural changes in the polar plugs, leading to larval eclosion. Further, we found that protease inhibitors blocked whipworm hatching induced by both fimbriated and non-fimbriated bacteria in a dose-dependent manner, suggesting the partial involvement of bacterial enzymes in this process. In addition, we identified the minimal egg developmental timing required for whipworm hatching, and transcriptomic analysis of T. muris eggs through embryonation revealed the specific upregulation of serine proteases (S01A family) in fully embryonated eggs containing 'hatch-ready' L1 larvae. Finally, we demonstrated that inhibition of serine proteases with the serine-protease inhibitor Pefabloc ablated T. muris egg hatching induced by bacteria. Collectively, our findings unravel the temporal and physicochemical bacterial-egg interactions leading to whipworm hatching and indicate serine proteases of both bacterial and larval origin mediate these processes.

Exploring microRNA-Mediated Immune Responses to Soil-Transmitted Helminth and Herpes Simplex Virus Type 2 Co-Infections

Over the last two decades, the field of microRNA (miRNA) research has grown significantly. MiRNAs are a class of short, single-stranded, non-coding RNAs that regulate gene expression post-transcriptionally. Thereby, miRNAs regulate various essential biological processes including immunity. Dysregulated miRNAs are associated with various infectious and non-infectious diseases. Recently co-infection with soil-transmitted helminths (STHs) and herpes simplex virus type 2 (HSV-2) has become a focus of study. Both pathogens can profoundly influence host immunity, particularly in under-resourced and co-endemic regions. It is well known that STHs induce immunomodulatory responses that have bystander effects on unrelated conditions. Typically, STHs induce T-helper 2 (Th2) and immunomodulatory responses, which may dampen the proinflammatory T-helper 1 (Th1) immune responses triggered by HSV-2. However, the extent to which STH co-infection influences the host immune response to HSV-2 is not well understood. Moreover, little is known about how miRNAs shape the immune response to STH/HSV-2 co-infection. In this article, we explore the potential influence that STH co-infection may have on host immunity to HSV-2. Because STH and HSV-2 infections are widespread and disproportionately affect vulnerable and impoverished countries, it is important to consider how STHs may impact HSV-2 immunity. Specifically, we explore how miRNAs contribute to both helminth and HSV-2 infections and discuss how miRNAs may mediate STH/HSV-2 co-infections. Insight into miRNA-mediated immune responses may further improve our understanding of the potential impact of STH/HSV-2 co-infections.

Combining solubilization and controlled release strategies to prepare pH-sensitive solid dispersion loaded with albendazole: in vitro and in vivo studies

Albendazole (ABZ), classified as a class II basic drug under the Biopharmaceutics Classification System (BCS), is widely recognized for its therapeutic efficacy in treating and preventing trichuriasis. However, despite its clinical relevance, ABZ's oral administration presents challenges due to its poor solubility and pH sensitivity, which diminish its therapeutic effectiveness. Additionally, high dosing regimens of ABZ pose risks of developmental toxicity in animal models. This study developed a pH-sensitive solid dispersion of albendazole (ABZ-pHs-SD) using Glyceryl Monostearate (GM) in conjunction with Hypromellose Acetate Succinate (HPMC-AS). Characterization via Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM), Powder X-ray Diffraction (PXRD), Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC), and Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FT-IR) confirmed the high dispersion of ABZ in a crystalline state within the carrier. Furthermore, we compared the in vitro dissolution profile, pharmacokinetics, and intestinal drug concentration of ABZ-pHs-SD with commercially available formulations. Our findings demonstrated that ABZ-pHs-SD exhibited an excellent dissolution profile, significantly increasing the solubility of ABZ in water by 3.15 times. The formulation effectively prevented drug release in acidic environments while maintaining a slow release in weakly alkaline conditions. Additionally, compared to commercial formulations, ABZ-pHs-SD showed significantly lower Cmax (4.70 ± 1.16 vs. 6.83 ± 0.66 μg/mL) and higher Tmax (5.5 ± 0.93 vs. 3.75 ± 0.71 h) in vivo, achieving elevated drug concentration levels in the cecal and colonic environments (p < 0.01) without significantly decreasing bioavailability. Overall, our research findings indicate that ABZ-pHs-SD serves as a promising drug delivery strategy for the poorly soluble and pH-sensitive ABZ. Particularly, the simple preparation of solid dispersion demonstrates strong industrial feasibility.

Potential Interactions Between Soil-Transmitted Helminths and Herpes Simplex Virus Type II: Implications for Sexual and Reproductive Health in Sub-Saharan African

Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) bears a disproportionate and overlapping burden of soil-transmitted helminths (STHs) and sexually transmitted viral infections. An estimated 232 million pre-school and school-aged children in SSA are vulnerable to STH infections. Together with this, SSA has a high prevalence of herpes simplex virus type II (HSV-2), the primary cause of genital herpes. Studies have examined the immunological interactions between STHs and human immunodeficiency virus and human papillomavirus during co-infections. However, epidemiological and immunological studies on STH-HSV-2 co-infections are lacking, therefore their impact on sexual and reproductive health is not fully understood. STH-driven Th2 immune responses are known to downregulate Th1/Th17 immune responses. Therefore, during STH-HSV-2 co-infections, STH-driven immune responses may alter host immunity to HSV-2 and HSV-2 pathology. Herein, we provide an overview of the burden of STH and HSV-2 infections in SSA, and host immune responses to STH and HSV-2 infections. Further, we emphasize the relevance and urgent need for (i) focused research into the interactions between these important pathogens, and (ii) integrated approaches to improve the clinical detection and management of STH-HSV-2 co-infections in SSA.

Schistosoma mansoni and soil-transmitted helminth infections among schoolchildren living along the shore of Lake Hawassa, southern Ethiopia

BACKGROUND

Schistosoma mansoni and soil-transmitted helminth (STH) infections are major public health problems in areas with poor sanitation and limited access to water. In Ethiopia, there is limited data available for monitoring the efficacy of interventions aimed at reducing helminth infections. Therefore, we assessed the prevalence of S. mansoni and STH infections, as well as factors associated with this prevalence, among schoolchildren and compared the findings with those of earlier studies. We also evaluated the diagnostic agreement between two parasitological methods.

METHODS

A cross-sectional study involving 363 schoolchildren from three rural primary schools located along the shore of Lake Hawassa, Sidama Regional State, southern Ethiopia, was conducted in October and November 2023. The schoolchildren were selected using a systematic random sampling technique. Socio-demographic data were collected using pre-structured questionnaires. A single stool sample was collected from each study participant and processed using direct wet mount (DM) microscopy and the formol-ether concentration technique (FECT) to detect helminth ova.

RESULTS

The overall prevalence of helminths was 59.8%, with 36.6% of participating children having a single infection and 23.1% having multiple infections. Schistosoma mansoni and STHs were present in 33.9% and 38.8% of children, respectively. The STHs included Ascaris lumbricoides (28.9% of children), Trichuris trichiura (10.7%), hookworms (5.2%) and Strongyloides stercoralis (2.8%). Diagnostic agreement between the DM microscopy method and FECT was substantial [kappa (κ) = 0.710] for the detection of Hymenolepis nana and almost perfect (κ = 0.827) for the dection of A. lumbricoides, but only fair for the detection of other detected helminths. Children at Finchawa primary school had a lower prevalence of S. mansoni infection [adjusted odds ratio (AOR) 0.31; 95% confidence interval (CI) 0.13-0.76] than those at St Paul's Tullo Catholic primary school. STH infections were more common among children who sometimes (vs. always) washed their hands before meals (AOR 1.89; 95% CI 1.01-3.54) and those who regularly played with soil (AOR 2.56; 95% CI 1.47-4.46).

CONCLUSIONS

This study showed a reduction in STH infections from a high prevalence in 2015 to a moderate prevalence at the present time, despite a similar moderate prevalence of S. mansoni infection. Thus, it is crucial to intensify deworming interventions to reduce the burden of helminths in the study area. Additionally, there is a need to enhance the capacity of clinical laboratories to perform FECT in Ethiopian clinical settings where DM is often employed to diagnose helminths.

Systematic review and meta-analysis of soil-transmitted helminth infections in South America (2000-2024)

Soil-transmitted helminths (STHs) are parasitic nematodes commonly found in tropical and subtropical regions, where poor sanitation makes them a significant public health concern. This study provides a comprehensive review and meta-analysis of human STH infections across 13 South American countries from 2000 to 2023. It covers these infections' prevalence, distribution, and diagnosis, highlighting the environmental factors influencing transmission pathways. The review identified 134 studies on human STH infections, revealing Brazil as the most researched country. The meta-analysis found prevalence rates of Ascaris lumbricoides, Trichuris trichiura, hookworms, and Strongyloides stercoralis below 20 %, with notable heterogeneity across studies. Most studies used conventional microscopy for diagnosis, pointing out the need for implementing advanced diagnostic tools. Environmental and climatic factors, including temperature annual range, vegetation density, soil types, and properties were significant predictors of STH prevalence. The study calls for more research performing advanced diagnostic methods and broader geographical coverage to address existing data gaps. Furthermore, it emphasizes the need for holistic public health policies integrating biomedical and environmental approaches to ensure effective disease management.

Helminthiasis in school-age children from Gresik, East Java, Indonesia

This study aims to investigate the soil-transmitted helminth infection among school-age children in Gresik, East Java, Indonesia. An analytical observational study with a cross-sectional design was conducted from July to November 2023 in selected elementary schools in Gresik, East Java, Indonesia. Logistic regression analysis was employed to assess the impact of each risk factor on the likelihood of infection transmission. A total of 183 school-age children were screened for the occurrence of helminth eggs in their feces. Twenty-two feces samples from 183 children were positive for helminth egg, consisting of 14 children infected by Ascaris lumbricoides (6.36 %), 3 children infected by Trichuris trichiura (1.304 %), 3 children infected by Oxyuris vermicularis (1.304 %), and 3 children infected by Hookworm (1.304 %). The highest prevalence was found in 7-year-old children (31.8 %). Children who pulled off shoes while in school were more likely to be infected with an overall OR of 8.392 (95 % CI 1.63 - 43.65). Children who played in the dumpsite were more likely to be infected with an overall OR of 4.521 (95 % CI 0.578 - 31.28). Children who washed before eating were more likely to be infected with an overall OR of 3.579 (95 % CI 0.587 - 21.835). Therefore, to lessen the prevalence of STHs among school-age children in Gresik, we recommend improving hygiene conditions in schools. The government should prioritize enrolling all primary schools in hygiene classes as the school health program.

Micro RNA profiles of host extracellular vesicles are modulated by Ascaris suum infection but parasite extracellular vesicle miRNAs are systemically undetectable using in-depth miRNA sequencing

The intestinal helminth Ascaris lumbricoides infects over 800 million people. Infections are often chronic and immunity is not sterilizing due to host-immune modulation, therefore reinfection is common after antihelmintic treatment. We have previously demonstrated a role for Ascaris spp. extracellular vesicles (EVs) in host immune modulation but whether EVs are recognized by the adaptive immune system and are present systemically in the host remains unknown. Therefore, we employed a well-established trickle infection model in pigs to mimic natural Ascaris infection in humans. EVs were isolated from adult Ascaris suum followed by immunoblotting of EV and EV-depleted secretory fractions using plasma from infected and uninfected pigs. Next, EVs were isolated from pig plasma at day 56 post first infection and subjected to deep small RNAseq analysis. RNAs were aligned to A. suum and Sus scrofa miRNA complements to detect A. suum EVs and elucidate the host EV micro RNA (miRNA) response to infection, respectively. Infection generates robust antibody responses against A. suum EVs that is distinct from EV-depleted fractions. However, A. suum miRNAs were not detectable in EVs from the peripheral blood. Notably, host plasma-derived EV miRNA profiles showed significant changes between infected and uninfected pigs, indicating that Ascaris infection drives systemic changes in host EV composition.

Ascaris in infected pancreatic pancreatic necrosum: a case report of an intraoperative surprise

INTRODUCTION AND IMPORTANCE

Ascariasis lumbricoides is a common gastrointestinal tract helminthic disease in developing countries and is also a cause of hepatobiliary and pancreatic disease in endemic areas of the world. Involvement of the pancreatic duct by worms and associated pancreatitis is less common than the hepatic and biliary involvement.

CASE PRESENTATION

A 38-year-old patient was admitted with a diagnosis of alcohol-induced acute pancreatitis and managed conservatively. However, the patient's condition worsened after 2 weeks, and a CT scan revealed an acute necrotic collection with gas foci. After failed percutaneous pigtail catheter drainage, laparotomy was performed, revealing a necrotic collection in the right paracolic gutter, with the entire area frozen and a worm observed in the necrosum. The colon and small bowel were intact without perforation. The suspicion arose that the worm might have either migrated from a duodenal perforation, which had possibly sealed after the acute phase, or migrated from the major pancreatic duct. Debridement of easily accessible necrotic tissues was performed, and the patient was admitted to the intensive care unit (ICU). Unfortunately, the patient tested positive for COVID-19, and a few days later, blood was observed in the drain. Re-exploration revealed diffuse blood oozing, and the abdomen was closed with packing.

CONCLUSION

The route of ascaris migration to necrosum or its association with severe acute pancreatitis needs to be ensured in endemic areas. Cautious use of antihelminthic therapy in endemic areas could prevent fatal pancreatobiliary complications and its associated mortality.

Modeling transmission mechanism to infer treatment efficacy of different drugs and combination therapy against Trichuris trichiura

Trichuris trichiura is one of four soil-transmitted helminth species that, collectively, are responsible for a considerable public health burden. The World Health Organization recommends preventive chemotherapy as the main intervention to eliminate soil-transmitted helminthiasis as a public health problem. Clinical trials estimated the efficacy of different drugs and treatment regimen against T. trichiura and other soil-transmitted helminth species, whilst meta-analyses and modeling efforts were conducted to determine the most efficacious drugs and drug combinations. Of note, the diagnostic error was often neglected, and hence, cure rates (CRs) might be overestimated. We developed a Bayesian model, which estimates drug efficacy against T. trichiura, taking into account the transmission mechanism and the diagnostic error. The model was fitted to individual-level egg count data from an ensemble of seven trials with 29 treatments. We estimated the 'true' CRs, which were consistently lower than those reported in the literature. In our analysis, the treatment with the highest CR was combination therapy of albendazole plus pyrantel pamoate plus oxantel pamoate with a CR of 79% and an egg reduction rate (ERR) of 91%. Albendazole plus oxantel pamoate showed the highest ERR of 97% and a CR of 69%. Additionally, we estimated the intensity-dependent sensitivity of the Kato-Katz technique. For 24 eggs per gram of stool, the sensitivity was around 50% for a single Kato-Katz thick smear and increased to almost 70% for duplicate Kato-Katz thick smears. Combination therapies against soil-transmitted helminthiasis should be considered and the evaluation of infection intensity in low transmission settings via multiple Kato-Katz thick smears is recommended.

Diverse RNA viruses of parasitic nematodes can elicit antibody responses in vertebrate hosts

Parasitic nematodes have an intimate, chronic and lifelong exposure to vertebrate tissues. Here we mined 41 published parasitic nematode transcriptomes from vertebrate hosts and identified 91 RNA viruses across 13 virus orders from 24 families in ~70% (28 out of 41) of parasitic nematode species, which include only 5 previously reported viruses. We observe widespread distribution of virus-nematode associations across multiple continents, suggesting an ancestral acquisition event and host-virus co-evolution. Characterization of viruses of Brugia malayi (BMRV1) and Onchocerca volvulus (OVRV1) shows that these viruses are abundant in reproductive tissues of adult parasites. Importantly, the presence of BMRV1 RNA in B. malayi parasites mounts an RNA interference response against BMRV1 suggesting active viral replication. Finally, BMRV1 and OVRV1 were found to elicit antibody responses in serum samples from infected jirds and infected or exposed humans, indicating direct exposure to the immune system.

Effective Laboratory Diagnosis of Parasitic Infections of the Gastrointestinal Tract: Where, When, How, and What Should We Look For?

(1) Introduction: Gastrointestinal parasites (GIPs) are one of the most common causes of disease in the world. Clinical diagnosis of most parasitic diseases is difficult because they do not produce characteristic symptoms. (2) Methods: The PubMed, Science Direct, and Wiley Online Library medical databases were reviewed using the following phrases: "parasitic infections and diagnostics", "intestinal parasites", "gastrointestinal parasites", "parasitic infections and diagnostics", and their combinations. (3) Results and Conclusions: Correct diagnosis of GIP involves determining the presence of a parasite and establishing a relationship between parasite invasion and disease symptoms. The diagnostic process should consider the possibility of the coexistence of infection with several parasites at the same time. In such a situation, diagnostics should be planned with consideration of their frequency in each population and the local epidemiological situation. The importance of the proper interpretation of laboratory test results, based on good knowledge of the biology of the parasite, should be emphasized. The presence of the parasite may not be causally related to the disease symptoms. Due to wide access to laboratories, patients often decide to perform tests themselves without clinical justification. Research is carried out using various methods which are often unreliable. This review briefly covers current laboratory methods for diagnosing the most common gastrointestinal parasitic diseases in Europe. In particular, we provide useful information on the following aspects: (i) what to look for and where to look for it (suitability of feces, blood, duodenal contents, material taken from endoscopy or biopsy, tissue samples, and locations for searching for eggs, cysts, parasites, parasite genetic material, and characteristics of immune responses indicating parasitic infections); (ii) when material should be collected for diagnosis and/or to check the effectiveness of treatment; (iii) how-that is, by what methods-laboratory diagnostics should be carried out. Here, the advantages and disadvantages of direct and indirect methods of detecting parasites will be discussed. False-positive or false-negative results are a problem facing many tests. Available tests have different sensitivities and specificities. Therefore, especially in doubtful situations, tests for the presence of the pathogen should be performed using various available methods. It is important that the methods used make it possible to distinguish an active infection from a past infection. Finally, we present laboratory "case reports", in which we will discuss the diagnostic procedure that allows for the successful identification of parasites. Additionally, we briefly present the possibilities of using artificial intelligence to improve the effectiveness of diagnosing parasitic diseases.

Efficacy of albendazole against soil-transmitted helminth infections in Ethiopia: a systematic review and meta-analysis

Soil-transmitted helminths (STH) are neglected parasites more prevalent in the tropics. Periodic mass distribution of albendazole, is one key strategy to control STHI in endemic areas. However, benzimidazoles have low efficacy against STHI, and there is a lack of information on the magnitude of the problem in Ethiopia. Articles were searched from PubMed using MeSH words, Google Scholar, Web of science, EMBASE and Scopus database to retrieve the data published and available until December 30, 2022. Totally, 107 published articles were retrieved. Only studies conducted in English that reported the efficacy of albendazole against STHI in any year and studies with more than fifty positive cases were included in the present study. The efficacy of albendazole was estimated by its cure rate and egg reduction rate. Excel software was used to extract the name of the authors, the total sample size, number of cured participants, treatment assessment time, STH parasite involved, the study area, and the year of publication. The pooled efficacy of albendazole against STHs was analyzed using comprehensive meta-analysis version 2.2 software. A total of 14 studies (13 for hookworm, 12 for Ascaris lumbricoides, and 12 for Trichuris trichiura) fulfilled the inclusion criteria for the present systematic review and meta-analysis. The total positives for hookworm, A. lumbricoides, and T. trichiura were 1253 (24.9%), 1570 (29.5%), and 1647 (30.6%), respectively. The overall pooled efficacy of albendazole was 92.2% (95% CI 86.2-98.9%) against hookworm, 97.7% (95% CI 96.3-98.6%) against A. lumbricoides, and 38.6% (95% CI 31.0-46.9%) against T. trichiura. In subgroup analysis, the efficacy of albendazole against hookworm was 93.4% (95% CI 85.1-97.2%) in Oromia, 96.7% (95% CI 93.8-98.2%) in Sidama, and 77.2% (95% CI 64.4-86.4%) in Amhara region. Its heterogeneity was high (I2 = 89.418). The efficacy of albendazole against A. lumbricoides was 98.3% (95% CI 97.0-99.0%) in Oromia and 96.63% (95% CI 93.2-98.3%) in Sidama region. Its heterogeneity was moderate (I2 = 41.5%). Albendazole efficacy against T. trichiura was 39.0% (95% CI 30.4-48.5%) in Oromia and 37.8% (95% CI 21.8-56.9%) in Sidama region with high heterogeneity (I2 = 90.6%). In the present review, albendazole is effective against hookworm and A. lumbricoides but less effective against T. trichiura. Albendazole should therefore be used as a treatment option in hookworm and A. lumbricoides endemic areas. However, alternative drugs should be sought for T. trichiura.

Chitosan-ricobendazole complex: Synthesis, characterization and anthelmintic activity

Synthesis, characterization and assessment of therapeutic efficacy of chitosan-ricobendazole complex were carried out for the first time in this work. Study of physico-chemical properties revealed the optimal ratio of chitosan: ricobendazole (30:4). Quantum chemical modeling set the optimal parameters for the formation of the chitosan-ricobendazole molecular system (E = -3765.26 kcal/mol, η = 0.127 eV), which was confirmed by Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy. Scanning electron microscopy showed spherical particles of chitosan-ricobendazole complex ranging in size from 100 to 200 μm. Study of therapeutic efficiency was conducted on sheep with dicroceliosis. Notably, the therapeutic efficiency of the chitosan-ricobendazole complex (4 mg/kg of ricobendazole) reached 89 %, while the therapeutic efficiency of the commercial preparation ricazole (8 mg/kg of ricobendazole) was 92 %. Biochemical blood test indicated equivalent normalization of hematological parameters in sheep after treatment with ricazole and the chitosan-ricobendazole complex. Histological examination of infected sheep liver revealed that treatment with the chitosan-ricobendazole complex leads to a decrease in the number of helminth eggs with subsequent therapeutic effect on the severity of the disease. This proves the enhanced solubility of ricobendazole at a dosage of 4 mg/kg, active interaction of the components and relatively high bioavailability without increasing the release rate of ricobendazole.

Communities' knowledge, perceptions and preventive practices on soil-transmitted helminthes in Jimma, Oromia, Ethiopia: Formative mixed study

BACKGROUND

Soil-transmitted helminthes (STH) infections are one of the most common neglected tropical diseases. It has become one of a significant public health problem programmatically aimed for prevention and control in Ethiopia. Limited evidence is available on communities' knowledge, perceptions, and practices regarding STH particularly in rural settings of Jimma, Ethiopia.

METHODS

A community-based cross-sectional study triangulated with the qualitative method was conducted. The survey included 732 sampled rural households. Linear regression was used to assess association between predictors of knowledge and preventive practices of STH; likewise logistic regression was used to identify the predictors of hand washing practice at critical times. Kruskal-Wallis and Mann-Whitney tests were done to test differences in median risk perception score by socio-demographic factors. Qualitative data were collected through 7 key informant interviews, 6 focus group discussions and 7 expert group discussions then transcribed verbatim. Then, the data were coded, categorized and thematized using the Atlas ti.7.1.4 software package.

RESULTS

Almost all of the respondents (99.6%) had heard of STH. The prevalence of comprehensive knowledge, risk perception and preventive practices towards STH were 46.7%:(95%CI:43.2, 50.4), 55.2%: (95%CI:51.2,59) and 44.4%:(95%CI:40.8, 48.2) respectively. Likewise, the magnitude of knowledge and practice of hand washing at critical times were 42.5%: (95%CI: 38.7,45.9) and 43.9%: (95%CI: 40, 47.5) respectively. Risk perception and comprehensive knowledge towards STH varied significantly across districts and by respondents' educational status. Ownership of improved latrine was associated to comprehensive knowledge of STH. The STH preventive practice that varied across districts was predicted by the overall and knowledge specific to washing hands at critical times. The practice of washing hands at critical times was significantly associated to knowledge of hand washing, owning improved latrine, and age from 15 to 34 year compared to >45 year. Moreover, qualitative findings were supportive of the findings.

CONCLUSION

Despite reported exposures to STH communication opportunities, the study found modest levels of knowledge, perceptions, and preventive practices related to STH among rural communities where the burden of STH was the programmatic concern. These levels of knowledge, perceptions, and practices varied across the districts. Educational and latrine status predicted overall knowledge, whereas knowledge specific to hand washing and overall knowledge were predictors of STH preventive practice. Furthermore, washing hands during critical times was moderately improved among the young-aged, ownership of improved latrine and knowledgeable on hand washing. This study underscores the need for locally tailored and contextualized community behavioral change interventions needs to be strengthened toward improved STH preventive practices.

Paleoparasitological analysis of a 15th-16th c. CE latrine from the merchant quarter of Bruges, Belgium: Evidence for local and exotic parasite infections

Paleoparasitological studies have made important contributions to our understanding of the past epidemiology of parasites, infection in past populations and lifestyle in the past. In some cases, these ancient parasites can also provide evidence for long distance travel or migration of people in the past. Three sediment samples from a 15th–16th c. CE latrine from the Spanish nation house in Bruges, Belgium were analysed for preserved helminth eggs using microscopy. Bruges was a major trading centre in medieval Europe, thus it was home to a large merchant population with extensive trading networks. Paleoparasitological analysis revealed a preserved parasite egg from Schistosoma mansoni, which causes intestinal schistosomiasis. Roundworm, whipworm, liver fluke and Taenia tapeworm eggs were also found in the latrine which is consistent with parasites previously found in the local population in the medieval period. These new data provide direct evidence for the movement of S. mansoni outside of its endemic area. Today the vast majority of S. mansoni infections occur in Sub-Saharan Africa, with additional endemic areas in the Arabian peninsula and South America. The introduction of S. mansoni into South America is proposed to have occurred relatively recently in human history, as the result of forced movement of people from Africa to the Americas with the Atlantic slave trade. Thus, this infection may have occurred in a merchant who acquired the parasite during trade voyages to Africa or in an individual living in Africa who migrated to Bruges.

Humans seropositive for Trypanosoma cruzi co-infected with intestinal helminths have higher infectiousness, parasitaemia and Th2-type response in the Argentine Chaco

BACKGROUND

The Gran Chaco ecoregion is a well-known hotspot of several neglected tropical diseases (NTDs) including Chagas disease, soil-transmitted helminthiasis and multiparasitic infections. Interspecific interactions between parasite species can modify host susceptibility, pathogenesis and transmissibility through immunomodulation. Our objective was to test the association between human co-infection with intestinal parasites and host parasitaemia, infectiousness to the vector and immunological profiles in Trypanosoma cruzi-seropositive individuals residing in an endemic region of the Argentine Chaco.

METHODS

We conducted a cross-sectional serological survey for T. cruzi infection along with an intestinal parasite survey in two adjacent rural villages. Each participant was tested for T. cruzi and Strongyloides stercoralis infection by serodiagnosis, and by coprological tests for intestinal parasite detection. Trypanosoma cruzi bloodstream parasite load was determined by quantitative PCR (qPCR), host infectiousness by artificial xenodiagnosis and serum human cytokine levels by flow cytometry.

RESULTS

The seroprevalence for T. cruzi was 16.1% and for S. stercoralis 11.5% (n = 87). We found 25.3% of patients with Enterobius vermicularis. The most frequent protozoan parasites were Blastocystis spp. (39.1%), Giardia lamblia (6.9%) and Cryptosporidium spp. (3.4%). Multiparasitism occurred in 36.8% of the examined patients. Co-infection ranged from 6.9% to 8.1% for T. cruzi-seropositive humans simultaneously infected with at least one protozoan or helminth species, respectively. The relative odds of being positive by qPCR or xenodiagnosis (i.e. infectious) of 28 T. cruzi-seropositive patients was eight times higher in people co-infected with at least one helminth species than in patients with no such co-infection. Trypanosoma cruzi parasite load and host infectiousness were positively associated with helminth co-infection in a multiple regression analysis. Interferon-gamma (IFN-γ) response, measured in relation to interleukin (IL)-4 among humans infected with T. cruzi only, was 1.5-fold higher than for T. cruzi-seropositive patients co-infected with helminths. The median concentration of IL-4 was significantly higher in T. cruzi-seropositive patients with a positive qPCR test than in qPCR-negative patients.

CONCLUSIONS

Our results show a high level of multiparasitism and suggest that co-infection with intestinal helminths increased T. cruzi parasitaemia and upregulated the Th2-type response in the study patients.

Anthelmintic Activity of Ethanolic and Aqueous Extracts of Khaya grandifoliola Stem Bark against Heligmosomoides polygyrus: In Vitro and In Silico Approaches

Background

Parasitic infection remains a serious health trade for humans and livestock. The purpose of this study was to present scientific proof of the anthelmintic properties of Khaya grandifoliola, which the native population uses to cure helminthiasis.

Method

Fresh Heligmosomoides polygyrus eggs were isolated from faecal samples of experimentally infected mice. The faecal material was cultured, and L1 and L2 larval stages were recovered after 48 and 120 hours, respectively. Using the worm microtracker, the anthelminthic efficacy of the extracts against H. polygyrus was assessed. Two different extracts (aqueous and ethanol extracts) were prepared. For the ovicidal and larvicidal activities, 100 µL of various concentrations of plant extracts, levamisole and 1.5% dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO), were introduced into a 96-well microplate titer followed by the addition of 100 µL of embryonated eggs (60 eggs) for the ovicidal activity and 100 µL of L 1 or L 2 larvae (50 larvae) for the larvicidal activity. The movement of the worm was monitored for 24 hours in the worm microtracker at 27°C. The Glide module of the Schrodinger Maestro software was used to perform docking studies.

Results

For the aqueous extracts, the highest percentage of inhibition of hatching was 42.77 ± 12% at 7.5 mg/mL. The IC50 values for the ethanol (0.36 mg/mL) extract showed that the ethanol extract had a good inhibitory effect on the ability of parasites to hatch from eggs. The inhibition percentage of L1 larvae motility at 7.5 mg/mL was 98.0 ± 1.66% and 83.33 ± 1.66% for ethanol and aqueous extracts, respectively. The negative controls, distilled water and 1.5% DMSO, had no inhibitory impact on larvae. On L1-larvae, the drug of choice levamisole (positive control) had the highest percentage effect (100.0%). Six compounds had the highest docking score and their interactions with the receptor as well. Grandiamide A interacts most with tyrosine, glycine, phenylalanine, asparagine, and serine, and its benzene ring and oxygens inhibit these receptors. Carbonyl and hydroxyl (OH) groups connect grandiamide D to asparagine, isoleucine, and phenylalanine, respectively. By donating hydrogen to the receptor through OH groups, D-glucopyranose-6-phosphate also forms relatively strong hydrogen bonds with its oxygen-bound phosphorus and the receptor. 1-O-deacetylkhayanolide E interacts most with serine and glutamic acid. The carbamic acid benzyl ester of carbamic acid [(1S)-1-phenyl-2-[(4-methylphenyl) sulfinyl] ethyl] interacts most with the receptor with carbonyl groups and with asparagine and serine. With its abundant hydroxide, D-mannitol acts as a hydrogen donor and acceptor and interacts most strongly with amino acids such as glycine, asparagine, aspartic acid, alanine, and glutamic acid.

Conclusions

K. grandifoliola extracts possess anthelminthic properties. However, in vivo studies are still necessary to demonstrate the effectiveness of this plant for the treatment of helminthiasis.

Characterizing Excretory-Secretory Products Proteome Across Larval Development Stages in Ascaris suum

Introduction

Ascaris lumbricoides and Ascaris suum are parasitic nematodes that primarily infest the small intestines of humans and pigs, respectively. Ascariasis poses a significant threat to human health and swine health. Understanding Ascaris larval development is crucial for developing novel therapeutic interventions that will prevent ascariasis in both humans and pigs. This study aimed to characterize the excretory-secretory (ES) proteome of different Ascaris suum larval stages (L3-egg, L3-lung, L3-trachea) to identify potential targets for intervention to prevent Ascaris -induced global morbidity.

Methods

Stage-specific larvae were isolated, cultured in vitro and ES-product was collected. Third-stage Ascaris larvae (L3) were isolated from embryonated eggs (L3-egg), isolated from the lungs of Balb/c mice infected with Ascaris suum eggs at day 8 post infection (L3-lungs) and isolated from the trachea of Balb/c mice infected with Ascaris suum eggs at day 12 post infection (L3-trachea). ES products were obtained by culturing larvae. Proteomic analysis was conducted using liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) and bioinformatic tools including MaxQuant, Perseus, and Andromeda, following a detailed protocol available on GitHub. The analysis encompassed peptide identification, scoring, and quantification against an organism-specific database, with subsequent quality control, correlation assessment, and differential abundance determination using the Amica algorithm.

Results

A total of 58 unique proteins were identified in the ES products. Fourteen proteins were common across all stages, while others were stage-specific. Principal component analysis revealed distinct protein profiles for each stage, suggesting qualitatively different proteomes. Gene ontology analysis indicated stage-specific GO enrichment of specific protein classes, such as nuclear proteins in L3-egg ES products and metabolic enzymes in L3-lung and L3-trachea ES products.

Discussion

This study revealed stage-specific differences in the composition of Ascaris ES products. Further investigation into the functional roles of these proteins and their interactions with host cells is crucial for developing novel therapeutic and diagnostic strategies against ascariasis.

The enhancive effect of the 2014-2016 El Niño-induced drought on the control of soil-transmitted helminthiases without anthelmintics: A longitudinal study

BACKGROUND

Soil-transmitted helminthiases (STHs) are common in tropical and subtropical regions. Southern Thailand experiences an extended rainy season, leading to persistently moist soil. This condition supports the life cycle of STHs, hindering effective control due to reinfection and low drug efficacy. We implemented a novel STH control strategy during the dry season aimed at decreasing reinfection rates without enhancing sanitation or hygiene practices. However, there were unexpected, prolonged droughts linked to El Niño events from 2014 to 2016. Additionally, we assessed the effects of these drought conditions on further control measures without the use of anthelmintics.

METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS

A longitudinal study was conducted from 2012 to 2016. Stool samples collected from 299 participants were analyzed using the Kato-Katz and agar plate culture methods. Participants who tested positive for STHs received a single 400 mg dose of albendazole. The efficacy of the treatment was evaluated three weeks later. To confirm the control measures were implemented during the dry season, we monitored the number of rainy days following albendazole treatment for 52 days, of which 38 were without rain. Follow-up stool examinations were carried out in 2013 and 2016, with no additional doses of albendazole administered. Rainfall and rainy day data, which served as indicators of unexpected droughts due to El Niño, were collected from the nearest local meteorological stations. Before the drought, there was a decrease in STH prevalence in 2013-except for trichuriasis-attributable to the dry season control efforts. Despite these efforts, STH prevalence remained high. Remarkably, in 2016, following the drought period, the prevalence of trichuriasis, which had not changed previously, spontaneously declined without further albendazole treatment compared to 2013. Furthermore, the prevalence of strongyloidiasis remained unchanged likely due to its low susceptibility to drought conditions, as it can reproduce within hosts. Conversely, the prevalence of other STHs consistently declined. The drought and possible improvements in sanitation and hygiene practices contributed to this decrease by reducing rates of reinfection and new infection and by increasing the natural cure rate. Additionally, some participants infected with hookworms or Trichuris who were not cured by albendazole experienced natural remission.

CONCLUSIONS/SIGNIFICANCE

Control measures implemented during the dry season, combined with a 14-month-long drought induced by the El Niño event of 2014-2016, and some improvements in sanitation and hygiene practices, contributed to a decrease in both the prevalence and intensity of STHs, except for S. stercoralis. Over time, S. stercoralis is likely to become the predominant species among the STHs.

Human parasitic infections of the class Adenophorea: global epidemiology, pathogenesis, prevention and control

BACKGROUND

Human parasitic infections caused by Adenophorean nematodes encompass a range of diseases, including dioctophymiasis, trichuriasis, capillariasis, trichinellosis, and myositis. These infection can result in adverse impacts on human health and cause societal and economic concerns in tropical and subtropical regions.

METHODS

This review conducted searches in PubMed, Embase and Google Scholar for relevant studies that published in established databases up to April 26, 2024. Studies that focused on the common morphology, life cycle, disease distribution, clinical manifestations, and prevention and control strategies for Adenophorean parasitic diseases in humans were included.

RESULTS

Adenophorean nematodes exhibit shared morphological characteristics with a four-layered cuticle; uninucleate epidermal cells; pseudocoelom with six or more coelomocytes; generally three caudal glands; five esophageal glands; two testes in males with median-ventral supplementary glands in a single row; tail in males rarely possessing caudal alae; amphids always postlabial; presence of cephalic sensory organs; absence of phasmids; and a secretory-excretory system consisting of a single ventral gland cell, usually with a non-cuticularized terminal duct. Humans play two important roles in the life cycle of the nematode class, Adenophorea: 1) as a definitive host infected by ingesting undercooked paratenic hosts, embryonated eggs, infective larvae in fish tissue and meat contaminated with encysted or non-encysted larvae, and 2) as an accidental host infected by ingesting parasitic eggs in undercooked meat. Many organs are targeted by the Adenophorean nematode in humans such as the intestines, lungs, liver, kidneys, lymphatic circulation and blood vessels, resulting in gastrointestinal problems, excessive immunological responses, cell disruption, and even death. Most of these infections have significant incidence rates in the developing countries of Africa, Asia and Latin America; however, some parasitic diseases have restricted dissemination in outbreaks. To prevent these diseases, interventions together with education, sanitation, hygiene and animal control measures have been introduced in order to reduce and control parasite populations.

CONCLUSIONS

The common morphology, life cycle, global epidemiology and pathology of human Adenophorean nematode-borne parasitic diseases were highlighted, as well as their prevention and control. The findings of this review will contribute to improvement of monitoring and predicting human-parasitic infections, understanding the relationship between animals, humans and parasites, and preventing and controlling parasitic diseases.

Intestinal parasitic infections in children from marginalised Roma communities: prevalence and risk factors

BACKGROUND

Intestinal parasitic infections remain a significant global health issue, particularly affecting poor and marginalised populations. These infections significantly contribute to children's diseases, malnutrition, poor school performance, cognitive disorders, and future economic losses. This study aimed to explore and compare the occurrence of intestinal parasites in early childhood among the group of infants from the Slovak majority population and from marginalised Roma communities (MRCs). Furthermore, it aimed to explore the health complaints of children with and without intestinal parasitic infection in the past month and assess the effect of various risk factors on the occurrence of intestinal parasitic infection in infants from MRCs.

METHODS

We obtained cross-sectional data from mothers and stool samples of their children aged 13-21 months using the first wave of the longitudinal RomaREACH study. A total of 181 stools from infants were analysed: 105 infants from the Slovak majority population and 76 from MRCs.

RESULTS

Infants from MRCs are significantly more often infected by Ascaris lumbricoides, Trichuris trichiura and Giardia duodenalis than their better-off peers from the majority population. Infection rates are 30% in infants from MRCs vs. 0% in the majority population (p < 0.001). Single and mixed infections were observed in children from MRCs. Infants with intestinal parasitic infections suffer significantly more often from various health complaints, particularly cough, stomach ache, irritability, and diarrhoea. Within MRCs, the risk of parasitic infections in infants is significantly increased by risk factors such as the absence of flushing toilets in households (OR = 4.17, p < 0.05) and contact with un-dewormed animals (OR = 3.61, p < 0.05). Together with the absence of running water in the household, these three factors combined increase the risk more than ten times (p < 0.01).

CONCLUSION

Maintaining hygienic standards in conditions of socioeconomic deprivation in MRCs without running water and sewage in the presence of un-dewormed animals is problematic. These living conditions contribute to the higher prevalence of parasitic infections in children from MRCs, causing various health complaints and thus threatening their health and healthy development.

Exploring factors associated with Trichuris trichiura infection in school children in a high-transmission setting in Kenya

Objectives

Kenya has implemented a national school-based deworming program, which has led to substantial decline in the prevalence of soil-transmitted helminths (STHs), although some pockets of infections remain. To effectively design an STH control program that leads to significant reductions of Trichuris trichiura, there is a need to understand the drivers of persistent infection despite ongoing treatment programs.

Methods

This study was conducted between July and September 2019 at the south coast of Kenya, using a two-stage sampling design. First, a school-based cross-sectional survey was conducted in 2265 randomly selected school children from selected schools in areas known to be endemic for T. trichiura. After this, we conducted a nested case-control study wherein all children positive for T. trichiura (142) were matched to 148 negative controls based on age and village. A household survey was then conducted with all household members of cases and controls. In addition, a subsample of 116 children found to be infected with T. trichiura were followed up to assess the efficacy of albendazole at day 21 post-treatment. The predictors of presence of T. trichiura were investigated through multilevel logistic regression, considering clustering of infection.

Results

Overall, 34.4% of the children were infected with at least one STH species; T. trichiura was the most common (28.3%), 89.1% of those with T. trichiura had light-intensity infections. The prevalence of T. trichiura was significantly higher in male children and was positively associated with younger age and number of people infected with T. trichiura in a household. The parasitological cure rate and egg reduction rate of T. trichiura were 35% and 51%, respectively. Other STHs identified were hookworm (9.6%) and Ascaris lumbricoides (5.7%).

Conclusions

T. trichiura remains a significant public health challenge in the study area with albendazole treatment efficacy against the parasite, remaining lower than the World Health Organization-recommended thresholds. Because of the observed focal transmission of T. trichiura in the current area, control efforts tailored to local conditions and targeting lower implementation units should be used to achieve optimal results on transmission.

Synthesis and anthelmintic activity of novel thiosemicarbazide and 1,2,4-triazole derivatives: In vitro, in vivo, and in silico study

INTRODUCTION

Intestinal parasitic infections are neglected diseases and, due to the increasing resistance of parasites to available drugs, they pose an increasing therapeutic challenge. Therefore, there is a great need for finding new compounds with antiparasitic activity.

OBJECTIVES

In this work, new thiosemicarbazide and 1,2,4-triazole derivatives were synthesized and tested for their anthelmintic activity.

METHODS

The synthesis was carried out by classical methods of organic chemistry. Anthelmintic activity tests were carried out in vitro (Rhabditis sp., Haemonchus contortus, Strongylidae sp.) in vivo (Heligmosomoides polygyrus/bakeri), and in silico analysis was performed.

RESULTS

Quinoline-6-carboxylic acid derivative compounds were designed and synthesized. The highest activity in the screening tests in the Rhabditis model was demonstrated by compound II-1 with a methoxyphenyl substituent LC50 = 0.3 mg/mL. In the next stage of the research, compound II-1 was analyzed in the H. contortus model. The results showed that compound II-1 was active and had ovicidal (percentage of dead eggs > 45 %) and larvicidal (percentage of dead larvae > 75 %) properties. Studies in the Strongylidae sp. model confirmed the ovicidal activity of compound II-1 (percentage of dead eggs ≥ 55 %). In vivo studies conducted in the H. polygyrus/bakeri nematode model showed that the number of nematodes decreased by an average of 30 % under the influence of compound II-1. In silico studies have shown two possible modes of action of compound II-1, i.e. inhibition of tubulin polymerization and SDH. The test compound did not show any systemic toxic effects. Its influence on drug metabolism related to the activity of cytochrome CYP450 enzymes was also investigated.

CONCLUSION

The results obtained in the in vitro, in vivo, and in silico studies indicate that the test compound can be described as a HIT, which in the future may be used in the treatment of parasitic diseases in humans and animals.

Determination of the Prevalence of Ascaris lumbricoides in Children under the Age of Five Years Attending at Kongowe Health Centre, Kibaha District, Pwani Region

Background

The worldwide distribution and occurrence show that more than 1.8 billion people, accounting for 28% of the global population, are infected with A. lumbricoides infection due to poor hygiene. The World Health Organization aims to eliminate morbidity from A. lumbricoides infection in children by 2030 by at least 75%. Surveys in the Pwani Region of Tanzania have shown poor hygienic risk factors due to high population and lack of sufficient toilets/latrines, poor sewage waste disposal, and insufficient clean drinking water that encourages the reproduction, transmission, and reinfection of A. lumbricoides. No study has been conducted in Pwani Region to determine the extent of A. lumbricoides infection among the population. This research tends to explore more about the status of A. lumbricoides infection in Kibaha District in the Pwani Region, Tanzania.

Methods

A cross-sectional study was done on 400 children (170 males and 230 females) who were under the age of 5 years old at Kongowe Health Centre. Collected data for A. lumbricoides infection measured were analyzed using Microsoft Excel, while data for sociodemographic findings and risk assessment were subjected to bivariate and multivariable analysis using Statistical Package for Social Sciences version 28.0.1.0 software (SPSS Inc., USA) at the level of significance of P < 0.05.

Results

Of the 400 children who participated in the laboratory testing of A. lumbricoides infection, 194 were found positive for A. lumbricoides infection. Amongst the 194 children who were found to be positive, 4.1%, 38.7%, and 57.2% were found to be in the age group of below 1 year old, 1 to 2, and 3 to 4 years old, respectively. The tabulated responses on the social demographic responses showed that 81.8% of the responses at P = 0.041 and 80.6% at P = 0.101 knew that A. lumbricoides infection is acquired from faeces and uncooked food, respectively, as 61.8% at P = 0.132 and 63.2% at P = 0.085 respondents did not accept that soil and dirty water, respectively, were not sources of A. lumbricoides infection. At P = 0.612 and P = 0.022, 64% and 91.2% of the respondents showed the importance of using latrines/toilets and washing fruits, respectively. Further results showed that 69.8% and 37.6% of the respondents reacted with no importance of washing hands with soap after using a toilet/latrine and no need to treat or boil water before drinking, respectively.

Conclusions

A. lumbricoides infection has a high prevalence in infants of the Kibaha District of Tanzania, especially in Kongowe village. The infection is dominant in males compared to female children. The prevalence is due to risk factors such as inadequate sanitation, low level of education, knowledge, and awareness of prevention strategies.

Ascaris suum infection in juvenile pigs elicits a local Th2 response in a setting of ongoing Th1 expansion

Ascaris spp. undergo extensive migration within the body before establishing patent infections in the small intestinal tract of humans and pigs. However, whether larval migration is critical for inducing efficient type 2 responses remains poorly understood. Therefore, we investigated systemic versus local adaptive immune responses along the hepato-tracheal migration of Ascaris suum during primary, single infections in conventionally raised pigs. Neither the initial invasion of gut tissue nor migration through the liver resulted in discernable Th2 cell responses. In contrast, lung-stage larvae elicited a Th2-biased pulmonary response, which declined after the larvae had left the lungs. In the small intestine, we observed an accumulation of Th2 cells upon the arrival of fourth-stage larvae (L4) to the small intestinal lumen. In parallel, we noticed robust and increasing Th1 responses in circulation, migration-affected organs, and draining lymph nodes. Phenotypic analysis of CD4+ T cells specifically recognizing A. suum antigens in the circulation and lung tissue of infected pigs confirmed that the majority of Ascaris-specific T cells produced IL-4 (Th2) and, to a much lesser extent, IL-4/IFN-g (Th2/1 hybrids) or IFN-g alone (Th1). These data demonstrate that lung-stage but not the early liver-stage larvae lead to a locally restricted Th2 response. Significant Th2 cell accumulation in the small intestine occurs only when L4 complete the body migration. In addition, Th2 immunity seems to be hampered by the concurrent, nonspecific Th1 bias in growing pigs. Together, the late onset of Th2 immunity at the site of infection and the Th1-biased systemic immunity likely enable the establishment of intestinal infections by sufficiently large L4 stages and pre-adult worms, some of which resist expulsion mechanisms.

The global prevalence of Trichuris trichiura infection in humans (2010-2023): A systematic review and meta-analysis

This systematic review and meta-analysis study aimed to evaluate global Trichuris infection prevalence, assessing progress towards the WHO's 2030 target. We searched international databases from 2010-2023, categorizing data by regions and socio-economic variables using a random-effects model. Analyzing 757 articles covering 7154,842 individuals from 78 countries, the study found a pooled global prevalence of (6.64-7.57%), with the highest rates in the Caribbean (21.72%; 8.90-38.18%) and South-East Asia (20.95; 15.71-26.71%) regions. Southern Africa (9.58; 2.11-21.46%), Latin America (9.58; 2.11-21.46%), and Middle Africa Middle Africa (8.94; 6.31-11.98%) also exhibited high prevalence. Eastern Europe had the lowest prevalence at 0.16% (0.09-0.24). Approximately 513 (480-547) million people worldwide were estimated to harbor Trichuris. Moreover ∼1.5% of people tested worldwide (2010-2023) had a moderate to heavy intensity of infection. The study emphasizes the persistent global health threat of Trichuris infection, urging tailored strategies for effective control and prevention on a global scale.

An uninvited guest, Ascaris in the bile duct causing cholangitis successfully treated with surgery

Parasitic infections continue to be a burden for developing countries-the lack of hygiene measures and clean water results in dangerous scenarios that can lead to challenging problems. Most Ascaris lumbricoides infections are usually mild; nonetheless, in rare cases in endemic regions, they can migrate to the bile duct and cause severe complications requiring surgery. We present the case of a 43-year-old woman who had severe cholangitis due to A. lumbricoides. The worm migrated from the bowel and obstructed the bile duct; after surgery, the patient fully recovered.

Serological diagnosis of soil-transmitted helminth (Ascaris, Trichuris and hookworm) infections: A scoping review

BACKGROUND

The World Health Organization emphasizes the importance of integrated monitoring and evaluation in neglected tropical disease (NTD) control programs. Serological assays offer a potential solution for integrated diagnosis of NTDs, particularly for those requiring mass drug administration (MDA) as primary control and elimination strategy. This scoping review aims (i) to provide an overview of assays using serum or plasma to detect infections with soil-transmitted helminths (STHs) in both humans and animals, (ii) to examine the methodologies used in this research field and (iii) to discuss advancements in serological diagnosis of STHs to guide prevention and control programs in veterinary and human medicine.

METHODOLOGY

We conducted a systematic search in the Ovid MEDLINE, Embase and Cochrane Library databases, supplemented by a Google search using predefined keywords to identify commercially available serological assays. Additionally, we performed a patent search through Espacenet.

PRINCIPAL FINDINGS

We identified 85 relevant literature records spanning over 50 years, with a notable increased interest in serological assay development in recent years. Most of the research efforts concentrated on diagnosing Ascaris infections in both humans and pigs, primarily using ELISA and western blot technologies. Almost all records targeted antibodies as analytes, employing proteins and peptides as analyte detection agents. Approximately 60% of sample sets described pertained to human samples. No commercially available tests for Trichuris or hookworms were identified, while for Ascaris, there are at least seven different ELISAs on the market.

CONCLUSIONS

While a substantial number of assays are employed in epidemiological research, the current state of serological diagnosis for guiding STH prevention and control programs is limited. Only two assays designed for pigs are used to inform efficient deworming practices in pig populations. Regarding human diagnosis, none of the existing assays has undergone extensive large-scale validation or integration into routine diagnostics for MDA programs.