Differential cytotoxic effects of graphene and graphene oxide on skin keratinocytes

Hazard assessment of hexagonal boron nitride and hexagonal boron nitride reinforced thermoplastic polyurethane composites using human skin and lung cells

Hexagonal boron nitride (hBN) is an emerging two-dimensional material attracting considerable attention in the industrial sector given its innovative physicochemical properties. Potential risks are associated mainly with occupational exposure where inhalation and skin contact are the most relevant exposure routes for workers. Here we aimed at characterizing the effects induced by composites of thermoplastic polyurethane (TPU) and hBN, using immortalized HaCaT skin keratinocytes and BEAS-2B bronchial epithelial cells. The composite was abraded using a Taber® rotary abraser and abraded TPU and TPU-hBN were also subjected to photo-Fenton-mediated degradation mimicking potential weathering across the product life cycle. Cells were exposed to the materials for 24 h (acute exposure) or twice per week for 4 weeks (chronic exposure) and evaluated with respect to material internalization, cytotoxicity, and proinflammatory cytokine secretion. Additionally, comprehensive mass spectrometry-based proteomics and metabolomics (secretomics) analyses were performed. Overall, despite evidence of cellular uptake of the material, no significant cellular and/or protein expression profiles alterations were observed after acute or chronic exposure of HaCaT or BEAS-2B cells, identifying only few pro-inflammatory proteins. Similar results were obtained for the degraded materials. These results support the determination of hazard profiles associated with cutaneous and pulmonary hBN-reinforced polymer composites exposure.

Comparative toxicological analysis of two pristine carbon nanomaterials (graphene oxide and aminated graphene oxide) and their corresponding degraded forms using human in vitro models

Despite the wide application of graphene-based materials, the information of the toxicity associated to some specific derivatives such as aminated graphene oxide is scarce. Likewise, most of these studies analyse the pristine materials, while the available data regarding the harmful effects of degraded forms is very limited. In this work, the toxicity of graphene oxide (GO), aminated graphene oxide (GO-NH2), and their respective degraded forms (dGO and dGO-NH2) obtained after being submitted to high-intensity sonication was evaluated applying in vitro assays in different models of human exposure. Viability and ROS assays were performed on A549 and HT29 cells, while their skin irritation potential was tested on a reconstructed human epidermis model. The obtained results showed that GO-NH2 and dGO-NH2 substantially decrease cell viability in the lung and gastrointestinal models, being this reduction slightly higher in the cells exposed to the degraded forms. In contrast, this parameter was not affected by GO and dGO which, conversely, showed the ability to induce higher levels of ROS than the pristine and degraded aminated forms. Furthermore, none of the materials is skin irritant. Altogether, these results provide new insights about the potential harmful effects of the selected graphene-based nanomaterials in comparison with their degraded counterparts.

Ten years of laser-induced graphene: impact and future prospect on biomedical, healthcare, and wearable technology

Since its introduction in 2014, laser-induced graphene (LIG) from commercial polymers has been gaining interests in both academic and industrial sectors. This can be clearly seen from its mass adoption in various fields ranging from energy storage and sensing platforms to biomedical applications. LIG is a 3-dimensional, nanoporous graphene structure with highly tuneable electrical, physical, and chemical properties. LIG can be easily produced by single-step laser scribing at normal room temperature and pressure using easily accessible commercial level laser machines and materials. With the increasing demand for novel wearable devices for biomedical applications, LIG on flexible substrates can readily serve as a technological platform to be further developed for biomedical applications such as point-of-care (POC) testing and wearable devices for healthcare monitoring system. This review will provide a comprehensive grounding on LIG from its inception and fabrication mechanism to the characterization of its key functional properties. The exploration of biomedicals applications in the form of wearable and point-of-care devices will then be presented. Issue of health risk from accidental exposure to LIG will be covered. Then LIG-based wearable devices will be compared to devices of different materials. Finally, we discuss the implementation of Internet of Medical Things (IoMT) to wearable devices and explore and speculate on its potentials and challenges.

Environmental and Health Impacts of Graphene and Other Two-Dimensional Materials: A Graphene Flagship Perspective

Two-dimensional (2D) materials have attracted tremendous interest ever since the isolation of atomically thin sheets of graphene in 2004 due to the specific and versatile properties of these materials. However, the increasing production and use of 2D materials necessitate a thorough evaluation of the potential impact on human health and the environment. Furthermore, harmonized test protocols are needed with which to assess the safety of 2D materials. The Graphene Flagship project (2013-2023), funded by the European Commission, addressed the identification of the possible hazard of graphene-based materials as well as emerging 2D materials including transition metal dichalcogenides, hexagonal boron nitride, and others. Additionally, so-called green chemistry approaches were explored to achieve the goal of a safe and sustainable production and use of this fascinating family of nanomaterials. The present review provides a compact survey of the findings and the lessons learned in the Graphene Flagship.

Efficient skin interactions of graphene derivatives: challenge, opportunity or both?

Interactions between graphene, with its wide deployment in consumer products, and skin, the body's largest organ and first barrier, are highly relevant with respect to toxicology and dermal delivery. In this work, interaction of polyglycerol-functionalized graphene sheets, with 200 nm average lateral size and different surface charges, and human skin was studied and their potential as topical delivery systems were investigated. While neutral graphene sheets showed no significant skin interaction, their positively and negatively charged counterparts interacted with the skin, remaining in the stratum corneum. This efficient skin interaction bears a warning but also suggests a new topical drug delivery strategy based on the sheets' high loading capacity and photothermal property. Therefore, the immunosuppressive drug tacrolimus was loaded onto positively and negatively charged graphene sheets, and its release measured with and without laser irradiation using liquid chromatography tandem-mass spectrometry. Laser irradiation accelerated the release of tacrolimus, due to the photothermal property of graphene sheets. In addition, graphene sheets with positive and negative surface charges were loaded with Nile red, and their ability to deliver this cargo through the skin was investigated. Graphene sheets with positive surface charge were more efficient than the negatively charged ones in enhancing Nile red penetration into the skin.

In vitro assessment of skin irritation and corrosion properties of graphene-related materials on a 3D epidermis

The increasing use of graphene-related materials (GRMs) in many technological applications, ranging from electronics to biomedicine, needs a careful evaluation of their impact on human health. Skin contact can be considered one of the most relevant exposure routes to GRMs. Hence, this study is focused on two main adverse outcomes at the skin level, irritation and corrosion, assessed following two specific Test Guidelines (TGs) defined by the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) (439 and 431, respectively) that use an in vitro 3D reconstructed human epidermis (RhE) model. After the evaluation of their suitability to test a large panel of powdered GRMs, it was found that the latter were not irritants or corrosive. Only GRMs prepared with irritant surfactants, not sufficiently removed, reduced RhE viability at levels lower than those predicting skin irritation (≤50%, after 42 min exposure followed by 42 h recovery), but not at levels lower than those predicting corrosion (<50%, after 3 min exposure or <15% after 1 h exposure). As an additional readout, a hierarchical clustering analysis on a panel of inflammatory mediators (interleukins: IL-1α, IL-1β, IL-6, and IL-18; tumor necrosis factor-α and prostaglandin E2) released by RhE exposed to these materials supported the lack of irritant and pro-inflammatory properties. Overall, these results demonstrate that both TGs are useful in assessing GRMs for their irritant or corrosion potential, and that the tested materials did not cause these adverse effects at the skin level. Only GRMs prepared using toxic surfactants, not adequately removed, turned out to be skin irritants.

Role of Chemical Reduction and Formulation of Graphene Oxide on Its Cytotoxicity towards Human Epithelial Bronchial Cells

Graphene-based materials may pose a potential risk for human health due to occupational exposure, mainly by inhalation. This study was carried out on bronchial epithelial 16HBE14o- cells to evaluate the role of chemical reduction and formulation of graphene oxide (GO) on its cytotoxic potential. To this end, the effects of GO were compared to its chemically reduced form (rGO) and its stable water dispersion (wdGO), by means of cell viability reduction, reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation, pro-inflammatory mediators release and genotoxicity. These materials induced a concentration-dependent cell viability reduction with the following potency rank: rGO > GO >> wdGO. After 24 h exposure, rGO reduced cell viability with an EC50 of 4.8 μg/mL (eight-fold lower than that of GO) and was the most potent material in inducing ROS generation, in contrast to wdGO. Cytokines release and genotoxicity (DNA damage and micronucleus induction) appeared low for all the materials, with wdGO showing the lowest effect, especially for the former. These results suggest a key role for GO reduction in increasing GO cytotoxic potential, probably due to material structure alterations resulting from the reduction process. In contrast, GO formulated in a stable dispersion seems to be the lowest cytotoxic material, presumably due to its lower cellular internalization and damaging capacity.

Cost-effective one-spot hydrothermal synthesis of graphene oxide nanoparticles for wastewater remediation: AI-enhanced approach for transition metal oxides

This investigation presents a cost-efficient hydrothermal synthesis technique for producing graphene oxide nanoparticles (GO-NPs) that exhibit promising potential in wastewater treatment. The synthesis process involves a facile and expandable hydrothermal reactor that can be regulated using an AI-empowered methodology. The generated GO-NPs were characterised using X-ray diffraction (XRD), Fourier-transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy, Raman spectroscopy, and transmission electron microscopy (TEM), confirming their successful synthesis and high quality. The high degree of crystallinity observed in the GO-NPs can be attributed to the favourable reaction conditions facilitated by the hydrothermal synthesis. The TEM analysis showed that the GO-NPs had a homogeneous dispersion pattern and a consistent size distribution of approximately 10 nm. Carboxylation was employed to functionalize the GO-NPs, enhancing their reactivity towards diverse contaminants present in wastewater. The remediation potential of the GO-NPs for transition metal oxides, which are frequently found in wastewater, was assessed. The GO-NPs exhibited notable efficacy in remediating the transition metal oxides that were subjected to testing. The heightened efficacy of remediation can be attributed to the substantial surface area and elevated reactivity of the GO-NPs, in addition to their functionalization using carboxylic groups. The cost-effective and efficient synthesis method, coupled with the high remediation potential of the GO-NPs, makes them a highly promising contender for employment in wastewater remediation applications. The use of AI in regulating the hydrothermal synthesis procedure enables accurate manipulation of the reaction parameters, thereby augmenting the quality and uniformity of the resultant GO-NPs. The proposed method exhibits scalability potential for large-scale production of GO-NPs, presenting a viable remedy for the challenges associated with wastewater remediation.

Impact of physico-chemical properties on the toxicological potential of reduced graphene oxide in human bronchial epithelial cells

The increasing use of graphene-based materials (GBM) requires their safety evaluation, especially in occupational settings. The same physico-chemical (PC) properties that confer GBM extraordinary functionalities may affect the potential toxic response. Most toxicity assessments mainly focus on graphene oxide and rarely investigate GBMs varying only by one property. As a novelty, the present study assessed the in vitro cytotoxicity and genotoxicity of six reduced graphene oxides (rGOs) with different PC properties in the human bronchial epithelial 16HBE14o - cell line. Of the six materials, rGO1-rGO4 only differed in the carbon-to-oxygen (C/O) content, whereas rGO5 and rGO6 were characterized by different lateral size and number of layers, respectively, but similar C/O content compared with rGO1. The materials were characterized by transmission electron microscopy, X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy, laser diffraction and dynamic light scattering, and Brunauer-Emmett-Teller analysis. Cytotoxicity (Luminescent Cell Viability and WST-8 assays), the induction of reactive oxygen species (ROS; 2',7'-dichlorofluorescin diacetate-based assay), the production of cytokines (enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays) and genotoxicity (comet and micronucleus assays) were evaluated. Furthermore, the internalization of the materials in the cells was confirmed by laser confocal microscopy. No relationships were found between the C/O ratio or the lateral size and any of the rGO-induced biological effects. However, rGO of higher oxygen content showed higher cytotoxic and early ROS-inducing potential, whereas genotoxic effects were observed with the rGO of the lowest density of oxygen groups. On the other hand, a higher number of layers seems to be associated with a decreased potential for inducing cytotoxicity and ROS production.

Effectiveness of Nonfunctionalized Graphene Oxide Nanolayers as Nanomedicine against Colon, Cervical, and Breast Cancer Cells

Recent studies in nanomedicine have intensively explored the prospective applications of surface-tailored graphene oxide (GO) as anticancer entity. However, the efficacy of nonfunctionalized graphene oxide nanolayers (GRO-NLs) as an anticancer agent is less explored. In this study, we report the synthesis of GRO-NLs and their in vitro anticancer potential in breast (MCF-7), colon (HT-29), and cervical (HeLa) cancer cells. GRO-NLs-treated HT-29, HeLa, and MCF-7 cells showed cytotoxicity in the MTT and NRU assays via defects in mitochondrial functions and lysosomal activity. HT-29, HeLa, and MCF-7 cells treated with GRO-NLs exhibited substantial elevations in ROS, disturbances of the mitochondrial membrane potential, an influx of Ca²⁺, and apoptosis. The qPCR quantification showed the upregulation of caspase 3, caspase 9, bax, and SOD1 genes in GRO-NLs-treated cells. Western blotting showed the depletion of P21, P53, and CDC25C proteins in the above cancer cell lines after GRO-NLs treatment, indicating its function as a mutagen to induce mutation in the P53 gene, thereby affecting P53 protein and downstream effectors P21 and CDC25C. In addition, there may be a mechanism other than P53 mutation that controls P53 dysfunction. We conclude that nonfunctionalized GRO-NLs exhibit prospective biomedical application as a putative anticancer entity against colon, cervical, and breast cancers.

In-vivo processing of nanoassemblies: a neglected framework for recycling to bypass nanotoxicological therapeutics

The proof-of-concept of nanomaterials (NMs) in the fields of imaging, diagnosis, treatment, and theranostics shows the importance in biopharmaceuticals development due to structural orientation, on-targeting, and long-term stability. However, biotransformation of NMs and their modified form in human body via recyclable techniques are not explored owing to tiny structures and cytotoxic effects. Recycling of NMs offers advantages of dose reduction, re-utilization of the administered therapeutics providing secondary release, and decrease in nanotoxicity in human body. Therefore, approaches like in-vivo re-processing and bio-recycling are essential to overcome nanocargo system-associated toxicities such as hepatotoxicity, nephrotoxicity, neurotoxicity, and lung toxicity. After 3-5 stages of recycling process of some NMs of gold, lipid, iron oxide, polymer, silver, and graphene in spleen, kidney, and Kupffer's cells retain biological efficiency in the body. Thus, substantial attention towards recyclability and reusability of NMs for sustainable development necessitates further advancement in healthcare for effective therapy. This review article outlines biotransformation of engineered NMs as a valuable source of drug carriers and biocatalyst with critical strategies like pH modification, flocculation, or magnetization for recovery of NMs in the body. Furthermore, this article summarizes the challenges of recycled NMs and advances in integrated technologies such as artificial intelligence, machine learning, in-silico assay, etc. Therefore, potential contribution of NM's life-cycle in the recovery of nanosystems for futuristic developments require consideration in site-specific delivery, reduction of dose, remodeling in breast cancer therapy, wound healing action, antibacterial effect, and for bioremediation to develop ideal nanotherapeutics.

Insights of Platinum Drug Interaction with Spinel Magnetic Nanocomposites for Targeted Anti-Cancer Effect

In nanotherapeutics, gaining insight about the drug interaction with the pore architecture and surface functional groups of nanocarriers is crucial to aid in the development of targeted drug delivery. Manganese ferrite impregnated graphene oxide (MnFe₂O₄/GO) with a two-dimensional sheet and spherical silica with a three-dimensional interconnected porous structure (MnFe₂O₄/silica) were evaluated for cisplatin release and cytotoxic effects. Characterization studies revealed the presence of Mn²⁺ species with a variable spinel cubic phase and superparamagnetic effect. We used first principles calculations to study the physisorption of cisplatin on monodispersed silica and on single- and multi-layered GO. The binding energy of cisplatin on silica and single-layer GO was ~1.5 eV, while it was about double that value for the multilayer GO structure. Moreover, we treated MCF-7 (breast cancer cells) and HFF-1 (human foreskin fibroblast) with our nanocomposites and used the cell viability assay MTT. Both nanocomposites significantly reduced the cell viability. Pt⁴⁺ species of cisplatin on the spinel ferrite/silica nanocomposite had a better effect on the cytotoxic capability when compared to GO. The EC50 for MnFe₂O₄/silica/cisplatin and MnFe₂O₄/GO/cisplatin on MCF-7 was: 48.43 µg/mL and 85.36 µg/mL, respectively. The EC50 for the same conditions on HFF was: 102.92 µg/mL and 102.21 µg/mL, respectively. In addition, immunofluorescence images using c-caspase 3/7, and TEM analysis indicated that treating cells with these nanocomposites resulted in apoptosis as the major mechanism of cell death.

Assessment of skin sensitization properties of few-layer graphene and graphene oxide through the Local Lymph Node Assay (OECD TG 442B)

Skin contact is one of the most common exposure routes to graphene-based materials (GBMs) during their small-scale and industrial production or their use in technological applications. Nevertheless, toxic effects in humans by cutaneous exposure to GBMs remain largely unexplored, despite skin contact to other related materials has been associated with adverse effects. Hence, this in vivo study was carried out to evaluate the cutaneous effects of two GBMs, focusing on skin sensitization as a possible adverse outcome. Skin sensitization by few-layer graphene (FLG) and graphene oxide (GO) was evaluated following the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) guideline 442B (Local Lymph Node Assay; LLNA) measuring the proliferation of auricular lymph node cells during the induction phase of skin sensitization. Groups of four female CBA/JN mice (8-12 weeks) were daily exposed to FLG or GO through the dorsal skin of each ear (0.4-40 mg/mL, equal to 0.01-1.00 mg/ear) for 3 consecutive days, and proliferation of auricular lymph node cells was evaluated 3 days after the last treatment. During this period, no clinical signs of toxicity and no alterations in body weight and food or water consumptions were observed. In addition, no ear erythema or edema were recorded as signs of irritation or inflammation. Bromo-deoxyuridine (BrdU) incorporation in proliferating lymphocytes from ear lymph nodes (stimulation indexes <1.6) and the histological analysis of ear tissues excluded sensitizing or irritant properties of these materials, while myeloperoxidase activity in ear biopsies confirmed no inflammatory cells infiltrate. On the whole, this study indicates the absence of sensitization and irritant potential of FLG and GO.

Highly Efficient Near-IR Photothermal Microneedles with Flame-Made Plasmonic Nanoaggregates for Reduced Intradermal Nanoparticle Deposition

Near-infrared (NIR) photothermal therapy by microneedles (MNs) exhibits high potential against skin diseases. However, high costs, photobleaching of organic agents, low long-term stability, and potential nanotoxicity limit the clinical translation of photothermal MNs. Here, photothermal MNs are developed by utilizing Au nanoaggregates made by flame aerosol technology and incorporated in water-insoluble polymer matrix to reduce intradermal nanoparticle (NP) deposition. The individual Au interparticle distance and plasmonic coupling within the nanoaggregates are controlled by the addition of a spacer during their synthesis rendering the Au nanoaggregates highly efficient NIR photothermal agents. In situ aerosol deposition of Au nanoaggregates on MN molds results in the fabrication of photothermal MNs with thin plasmonic layers. The photothermal performance of these MN arrays is compared to ones made by three methods utilizing NP dispersions, and it is found that similar temperatures are reached with 28-fold lower Au mass due to reduced light scattering losses of the thin layers. Finally, all developed photothermal MN arrays here cause clinically relevant hyperthermia at benign laser intensities while reducing intradermal NP deposition 127-fold compared to conventional MNs made with water-soluble polymers. Such rational design of photothermal MNs requiring low laser intensities and minimal NP intradermal accumulation sets the basis for their safe clinical translation.

Graphene Incorporated Electrospun Nanofiber for Electrochemical Sensing and Biomedical Applications: A Critical Review

The extraordinary material graphene arrived in the fields of engineering and science to instigate a material revolution in 2004. Graphene has promptly risen as the super star due to its outstanding properties. Graphene is an allotrope of carbon and is made up of sp²-bonded carbon atoms placed in a two-dimensional honeycomb lattice. Graphite consists of stacked layers of graphene. Due to the distinctive structural features as well as excellent physico-chemical and electrical conductivity, graphene allows remarkable improvement in the performance of electrospun nanofibers (NFs), which results in the enhancement of promising applications in NF-based sensor and biomedical technologies. Electrospinning is an easy, economical, and versatile technology depending on electrostatic repulsion between the surface charges to generate fibers from the extensive list of polymeric and ceramic materials with diameters down to a few nanometers. NFs have emerged as important and attractive platform with outstanding properties for biosensing and biomedical applications, because of their excellent functional features, that include high porosity, high surface area to volume ratio, high catalytic and charge transfer, much better electrical conductivity, controllable nanofiber mat configuration, biocompatibility, and bioresorbability. The inclusion of graphene nanomaterials (GNMs) into NFs is highly desirable. Pre-processing techniques and post-processing techniques to incorporate GNMs into electrospun polymer NFs are precisely discussed. The accomplishment and the utilization of NFs containing GNMs in the electrochemical biosensing pathway for the detection of a broad range biological analytes are discussed. Graphene oxide (GO) has great importance and potential in the biomedical field and can imitate the composition of the extracellular matrix. The oxygen-rich GO is hydrophilic in nature and easily disperses in water, and assists in cell growth, drug delivery, and antimicrobial properties of electrospun nanofiber matrices. NFs containing GO for tissue engineering, drug and gene delivery, wound healing applications, and medical equipment are discussed. NFs containing GO have importance in biomedical applications, which include engineered cardiac patches, instrument coatings, and triboelectric nanogenerators (TENGs) for motion sensing applications. This review deals with graphene-based nanomaterials (GNMs) such as GO incorporated electrospun polymeric NFs for biosensing and biomedical applications, that can bridge the gap between the laboratory facility and industry.

Hazard assessment of abraded thermoplastic composites reinforced with reduced graphene oxide

Graphene-related materials (GRMs) are subject to intensive investigations and considerable progress has been made in recent years in terms of safety assessment. However, limited information is available concerning the hazard potential of GRM-containing products such as graphene-reinforced composites. In the present study, we conducted a comprehensive investigation of the potential biological effects of particles released through an abrasion process from reduced graphene oxide (rGO)-reinforced composites of polyamide 6 (PA6), a widely used engineered thermoplastic polymer, in comparison to as-produced rGO. First, a panel of well-established in vitro models, representative of the immune system and possible target organs such as the lungs, the gut, and the skin, was applied. Limited responses to PA6-rGO exposure were found in the different in vitro models. Only as-produced rGO induced substantial adverse effects, in particular in macrophages. Since inhalation of airborne materials is a key occupational concern, we then sought to test whether the in vitro responses noted for these materials would translate into adverse effects in vivo. To this end, the response at 1, 7 and 28 days after a single pulmonary exposure was evaluated in mice. In agreement with the in vitro data, PA6-rGO induced a modest and transient pulmonary inflammation, resolved by day 28. In contrast, rGO induced a longer-lasting, albeit moderate inflammation that did not lead to tissue remodeling within 28 days. Taken together, the present study suggests a negligible impact on human health under acute exposure conditions of GRM fillers such as rGO when released from composites at doses expected at the workplace.

Silk-Elastin-Like-Protein/Graphene-Oxide Composites for Dynamic Electronic Biomaterials

Genetically engineered silk-elastin-like-proteins (SELPs) synthesized with the combination of silk and elastin domains are bioengineered to also contain a graphene oxide (GO) binding domain. The conductivity and mechanical stability of graphene, combined with SELP-specific graphene interfaces are pursued as dynamic hybrid materials, toward biomaterial-based electronic switches. The resulting bioengineered proteins with added GO demonstrate cytocompatibility and conductivity that could be modulated by changing hydrogel size in response to temperature due to the SELP chemistry. Upon increased temperature, the gels coalesce and contract, providing sufficient condensed spacing to facilitate conductivity via the graphene domains, a feature that is lost at lower temperatures with the more expanded hydrogels. This thermally induced contraction-expansion is reversible and cyclable, providing an "on-off" conductive switch driven by temperature-driven hydrogel shape-change.

Molecular Biocompatibility of a Silver Nanoparticle Complex with Graphene Oxide to Human Skin in a 3D Epidermis In Vitro Model

Silver nanoparticles (AgNP) can migrate to tissues and cells of the body, as well as to agglomerate, which reduces the effectiveness of their use for the antimicrobial protection of the skin. Graphene oxide (GO), with a super-thin flake structure, can be a carrier of AgNP that stabilizes their movement without inhibiting their antibacterial properties. Considering that the human skin is often the first contact with antimicrobial agent, the aim of the study was to assess whether the application of the complex of AgNP and GO is biocompatible with the skin model in in vitro studies. The conducted tests were performed in accordance with the criteria set in OECD TG439. AgNP-GO complex did not influence the genotoxicity and metabolism of the tissue. Furthermore, the complex reduced the pro-inflammatory properties of AgNP by reducing expression of IP-10 (interferon gamma-induced protein 10), IL-3 (interleukin 3), and IL-4 (interleukin 4) as well as MIP1β (macrophage inflammatory protein 1β) expressed in the GO group. Moreover, it showed a positive effect on the micro- and ultra-structure of the skin model. In conclusion, the synergistic effect of AgNP and GO as a complex can activate the process of epidermis renewal, which makes it suitable for use as a material for skin contact.

Selective Ion Sensing in Artificial Sweat Using Low-Cost Reduced Graphene Oxide Liquid-Gated Plastic Transistors

Health monitoring is experiencing a radical shift from clinic-based to point-of-care and wearable technologies, and a variety of nanomaterials and transducers have been employed for this purpose. 2D materials (2DMs) hold enormous potential for novel electronics, yet they struggle to meet the requirements of wearable technologies. Here, aiming to foster the development of 2DM-based wearable technologies, reduced graphene oxide (rGO)-based liquid-gated transistors (LGTs) for cation sensing in artificial sweat endowed with distinguished performance and great potential for scalable manufacturing is reported. Laser micromachining is employed to produce flexible transistor test patterns employing rGO as the electronic transducer. Analyte selectivity is achieved by functionalizing the transistor channel with ion-selective membranes (ISMs) via a simple casting method. Real-time monitoring of K⁺ and Na⁺ in artificial sweat is carried out employing a gate voltage pulsed stimulus to take advantage of the fast responsivity of rGO. The sensors show excellent selectivity toward the target analyte, low working voltages (<0.5 V), fast (5-15 s), linear response at a wide range of concentrations (10 µm to 100 mm), and sensitivities of 1 µA/decade. The reported strategy is an important step forward toward the development of wearable sensors based on 2DMs for future health monitoring technologies.

The era of nano-bionic: 2D materials for wearable and implantable body sensors

Nano-bionics have the potential of revolutionizing modern medicine. Among nano-bionic devices, body sensors allow to monitor in real-time the health of patients, to achieve personalized medicine, and even to restore or enhance human functions. The advent of two-dimensional (2D) materials is facilitating the manufacturing of miniaturized and ultrathin bioelectronics, that can be easily integrated in the human body. Their unique electronic properties allow to efficiently transduce physical and chemical stimuli into electric current. Their flexibility and nanometric thickness facilitate the adaption and adhesion to human body. The low opacity permits to obtain transparent devices. The good cellular adhesion and reduced cytotoxicity are advantageous for the integration of the devices in vivo. Herein we review the latest and more significant examples of 2D material-based sensors for health monitoring, describing their architectures, sensing mechanisms, advantages and, as well, the challenges and drawbacks that hampers their translation into commercial clinical devices.

Graphene Oxide (GO) Materials-Applications and Toxicity on Living Organisms and Environment

Graphene-based materials have attracted much attention due to their fascinating properties such as hydrophilicity, high dispersion in aqueous media, robust size, high biocompatibility, and surface functionalization ability due to the presence of functional groups and interactions with biomolecules such as proteins and nucleic acid. Modified methods were developed for safe, direct, inexpensive, and eco-friendly synthesis. However, toxicity to the environment and animal health has been reported, raising concerns about their utilization. This review focuses primarily on the synthesis methods of graphene-based materials already developed and the unique properties that make them so interesting for different applications. Different applications are presented and discussed with particular emphasis on biological fields. Furthermore, antimicrobial potential and the factors that affect this activity are reviewed. Finally, questions related to toxicity to the environment and living organisms are revised by highlighting factors that may interfere with it.

Graphene 2D platform is safe and cytocompatibile for HaCaT cells growing under static and dynamic conditions

The study concerns the influence of graphene monolayer, as a 2 D platform, on cell viability, cytoskeleton, adhesions sites andmorphology of mitochondria of keratinocytes (HaCaT) under static conditions. Based on quantitative and immunofluorescent analysis, it could be stated that graphene substrate does not cause any damage to membrane or disruption of other monitored parameters. Spindle poles and cytokinesis bridges indicating proliferation of cells on this graphene substrate were detected. Moreover, the keratinocyte migration rate on the graphene substrate was comparable to control glass substrate when the created wound was completely closed after 38 hours. HaCaT morphology and viability were also assessed under dynamic conditions (lab on a chip - micro scale). For this purpose, microfluidic graphene system was designed and constructed. No differences as well as no anomalies were observed during cultivation of these cells on the graphene or glass substrates in relation to cultivation conditions: static (macro scale) and dynamic (micro scale). Only natural percentage of dead cells was determined using different methods, which proved that the graphene as the 2 D platform is cytocompatible with keratinocytes. The obtained results encourage the use of the designed lab on a chip system in toxicity testing of graphene also on other cells and further research on the use of graphene monolayers to produce bio-bandages for skin wounds in animal tests.

Advanced wearable biosensors for the detection of body fluids and exhaled breath by graphene

Given the huge economic burden caused by chronic and acute diseases on human beings, it is an urgent requirement of a cost-effective diagnosis and monitoring process to treat and cure the disease in their preliminary stage to avoid severe complications. Wearable biosensors have been developed by using numerous materials for non-invasive, wireless, and consistent human health monitoring. Graphene, a 2D nanomaterial, has received considerable attention for the development of wearable biosensors due to its outstanding physical, chemical, and structural properties. Moreover, the extremely flexible, foldable, and biocompatible nature of graphene provide a wide scope for developing wearable biosensor devices. Therefore, graphene and its derivatives could be trending materials to fabricate wearable biosensor devices for remote human health management in the near future. Various biofluids and exhaled breath contain many relevant biomarkers which can be exploited by wearable biosensors non-invasively to identify diseases. In this article, we have discussed various methodologies and strategies for synthesizing and pattering graphene. Furthermore, general sensing mechanism of biosensors, and graphene-based biosensing devices for tear, sweat, interstitial fluid (ISF), saliva, and exhaled breath have also been explored and discussed thoroughly. Finally, current challenges and future prospective of graphene-based wearable biosensors have been evaluated with conclusion. Graphene is a promising 2D material for the development of wearable sensors. Various biofluids (sweat, tears, saliva and ISF) and exhaled breath contains many relevant biomarkers which facilitate in identify diseases. Biosensor is made up of biological recognition element such as enzyme, antibody, nucleic acid, hormone, organelle, or complete cell and physical (transducer, amplifier), provide fast response without causing organ harm.

Subchronic Graphene Exposure Reshapes Skin Cell Metabolism

In recent years, the toxicity of graphene-related materials (GRMs) has been evaluated in diverse models to guarantee their safety. In most applications, sublethal doses of GRMs contact human barriers such as skin in a subchronic way. Herein, the subchronic effect (30 day exposure) of three GRMs (GO 1, GO 2, and FLG) with different oxidation degrees and sizes was studied. The effects of these materials on human skin cells, HaCaTs, were assayed through high-throughput metabolic-based readout and other cell-based assays. A differential effect was found between the different GRMs. GO 2 induced a metabolic remodeling in epithelial cells, increasing the level of tricarboxylic acid components, mirrored by increased cell proliferation and changes in cell phenotype. The oxidation degree, size, and method of manufacture of GRMs dictated harmful effects on cell metabolism and behavior generated by nontoxic exposures. Therefore, a “safe by design” procedure is necessary when working with these nanomaterials.

Rapid and efficient testing of the toxicity of graphene-related materials in primary human lung cells

Graphene and its derivative materials are manufactured by numerous companies and research laboratories, during which processes they can come into contact with their handlers' physiological barriers—for instance, their respiratory system. Despite their potential toxicity, these materials have even been used in face masks to prevent COVID-19 transmission. The increasingly widespread use of these materials requires the design and implementation of appropriate, versatile, and accurate toxicological screening methods to guarantee their safety. Murine models are adequate, though limited when exploring different doses and lengths of exposure—as this increases the number of animals required, contrary to the Three R's principle in animal experimentation. This article proposes an in vitro model using primary, non-transformed normal human bronchial epithelial (NHBE) cells as an alternative to the most widely used model to date, the human lung tumor cell line A549. The model has been tested with three graphene derivatives—graphene oxide (GO), few-layer graphene (FLG), and small FLG (sFLG). We observed a cytotoxic effect (necrosis and apoptosis) at early (6- and 24-h) exposures, which intensified after seven days of contact between cells and the graphene-related materials (GRMs)—with cell death reaching 90% after a 5 µg/mL dose. A549 cells are more resistant to necrosis and apoptosis, yielding values less than half of NHBE cells at low concentrations of GRMs (between 0.05 and 5 µg/mL). Indeed, GRM-induced cell death in NHBE cells is comparable to that induced by toxic compounds such as diesel exhaust particles on the same cell line. We propose NHBE as a suitable model to test GRM-induced toxicity, allowing refinement of the dose concentrations and exposure timings for better-designed in vivo mouse assays.

In Vitro and In Vivo Biocompatibility Studies on Engineered Fabric with Graphene Nanoplatelets

To produce clothes made with engineered fabrics to monitor the physiological parameters of workers, strain sensors were produced by depositing two different types of water-based inks (P1 and P2) suitably mixed with graphene nanoplatelets (GNPs) on a fabric. We evaluated the biocompatibility of fabrics with GNPs (GNP fabric) through in vitro and in vivo assays. We investigated the effects induced on human keratinocytes by the eluates extracted from GNP fabrics by the contact of GNP fabrics with cells and by seeding keratinocytes directly onto the GNP fabrics using a cell viability test and morphological analysis. Moreover, we evaluated in vivo possible adverse effects of the GNPs using the model system Caenorhabditis elegans. Cell viability assay, morphological analysis and Caenorhabditis elegans tests performed on smart fabric treated with P2 (P2GNP fabric) did not show significant differences when compared with their respective control samples. Instead, a reduction in cell viability and changes in the membrane microvilli structure were found in cells incubated with smart fabric treated with P1. The results were helpful in determining the non-toxic properties of the P2GNP fabric. In the future, therefore, graphene-based ink integrated into elastic fabric will be developed for piezoresistive sensors.

Prospective pathways of green graphene-based lab-on-chip devices: the pursuit toward sustainability

At present, analytical lab-on-chip devices find their usage in different facets of chemical analysis, biological analysis, point of care analysis, biosensors, etc. In addition, graphene has already established itself as an essential component of advanced lab-on-chip devices. Graphene-based lab-on-chip devices have achieved appreciable admiration because of their peerless performance in comparison to others. However, to accomplish a sustainable future, a device must undergo “green screening” to check its environmental compatibility. Thus, extensive research is carried out globally to make the graphene-based lab-on-chip green, though it is yet to be achieved. Nevertheless, as a ray of hope, there are few existing strategies that can be stitched together for feasible fabrication of environment-friendly green graphene-based analytical lab-on-chip, and those prospective pathways are reviewed in this paper.

Differential modulation of endothelial cytoplasmic protrusions after exposure to graphene-family nanomaterials

Engineered nanomaterials offer the benefit of having systematically tunable physicochemical characteristics (e.g., size, dimensionality, and surface chemistry) that highly dictate the biological activity of a material. Among the most promising engineered nanomaterials to date are graphene-family nanomaterials (GFNs), which are 2-D nanomaterials (2DNMs) with unique electrical and mechanical properties. Beyond engineering new nanomaterial properties, employing safety-by-design through considering the consequences of cell-material interactions is essential for exploring their applicability in the biomedical realm. In this study, we asked the effect of GFNs on the endothelial barrier function and cellular architecture of vascular endothelial cells. Using micropatterned cell pairs as a reductionist in vitro model of the endothelium, the progression of cytoskeletal reorganization as a function of GFN surface chemistry and time was quantitatively monitored. Here, we show that the surface oxidation of GFNs (graphene, reduced graphene oxide, partially reduced graphene oxide, and graphene oxide) differentially affect the endothelial barrier at multiple scales; from the biochemical pathways that influence the development of cellular protrusions to endothelial barrier integrity. More oxidized GFNs induce higher endothelial permeability and the increased formation of cytoplasmic protrusions such as filopodia. We found that these changes in cytoskeletal organization, along with barrier function, can be potentiated by the effect of GFNs on the Rho/Rho-associated kinase (ROCK) pathway. Specifically, GFNs with higher surface oxidation elicit stronger ROCK2 inhibitory behavior as compared to pristine graphene sheets. Overall, findings from these studies offer a new perspective towards systematically controlling the surface-dependent effects of GFNs on cytoskeletal organization via ROCK2 inhibition, providing insight for implementing safety-by-design principles in GFN manufacturing towards their targeted biomedical applications.

Graphene-based phenformin carriers for cancer cell treatment: a comparative study between oxidized and pegylated pristine graphene in human cells and zebrafish

Graphene is an attractive choice for the development of an effective drug carrier in cancer treatment due to its high adsorption area and pH-responsive drug affinity. In combination with the highly potent metabolic drug phenformin, increased doses could be efficiently delivered to cancer cells. This study compares the use of graphene oxide (GO) and polyethylene glycol stabilized (PEGylated) pristine graphene nanosheets (PGNSs) for drug delivery applications with phenformin. The cytotoxicity and mitotoxicity of the graphene-based systems were assessed in human cells and zebrafish larvae. Targeted drug release from GO and PGNSs was evaluated at different pH levels known to arise in proliferating tumor microenvironments. PGNSs were less cytotoxic and mitotoxic than GO, and showed an increased release of phenformin at lower pH in cells, compared to GO. In addition, the systemic phenformin effect was mitigated in zebrafish larvae when bound to GO and PGNSs compared to free phenformin, as measured by flavin metabolic lifetime imaging. These results pave the way for improved phenformin-based cancer therapy using graphene nano-sheets, where PGNSs were superior to GO.

Electroactive Scaffolds to Improve Neural Stem Cell Therapy for Spinal Cord Injury

Spinal cord injury (SCI) is a serious condition caused by damage to the spinal cord through trauma or disease, often with permanent debilitating effects. Globally, the prevalence of SCI is estimated between 40 to 80 cases per million people per year. Patients with SCI can experience devastating health and socioeconomic consequences from paralysis, which is a loss of motor, sensory and autonomic nerve function below the level of the injury that often accompanies SCI. SCI carries a high mortality and increased risk of premature death due to secondary complications. The health, social and economic consequences of SCI are significant, and therefore elucidation of the complex molecular processes that occur in SCI and development of novel effective treatments is critical. Despite advances in medicine for the SCI patient such as surgery and anaesthesiology, imaging, rehabilitation and drug discovery, there have been no definitive findings toward complete functional neurologic recovery. However, the advent of neural stem cell therapy and the engineering of functionalized biomaterials to facilitate cell transplantation and promote regeneration of damaged spinal cord tissue presents a potential avenue to advance SCI research. This review will explore this emerging field and identify new lines of research.

Graphene Nanoplatelets: In Vivo and In Vitro Toxicity, Cell Proliferative Activity, and Cell Gene Expression

Multi-layer graphene (2–10 layers), also called graphene nanoplatelets (GNPs), is a carbon-based nanomaterial (CBN) type with excellent properties desirable for many biomedical applications. Despite the promising advantages reported of GNPs, nanoscale materials may also present a potential hazard to humans. Therefore, in this study, the in vivo toxicity of these nanomaterials at a wide range of concentrations from 12.5 to 500 µg/mL was evaluated in the Caenorhabditis elegans model for 24 h (acute toxicity) and 72 h (chronic toxicity). Furthermore, their in vitro toxicity (from 0 to 10 µg/mL for 12 and 24 h), proliferative activity at 72 and 96 h, and their effect on the expression of thirteen genes in human keratinocytes HaCaT cells were studied. The physico-chemical and morphological aspects of the GNPs used in this study were analyzed by Raman scattering spectroscopy, electron microscopy, zeta potential as a function of pH, and particle size measurements by dynamic light scattering. The results of this study showed that GNPs showed in vivo non-toxic concentrations of 25 and 12.5 µg/mL for 24 h, and at 12.5 µg/mL for 72 h. Moreover, GNPs present time-dependent cytotoxicity (EC50 of 1.142 µg/mL and 0.760 µg/mL at 12 h and 24 h, respectively) and significant proliferative activity at the non-toxic concentrations of 0.005 and 0.01 μg/mL in the HaCaT cell line. The gene expression study showed that this multi-layer-graphene is capable of up-regulating six of the thirteen genes of human keratinocytes (SOD1, CAT, TGFB1, FN1, CDH1, and FBN), two more genes than other CBNs in their oxidized form such as multi-layer graphene oxide. Therefore, all these results reinforce the promising use of these CBNs in biomedical fields such as wound healing and skin tissue engineering.

Biocompatible graphene-zirconia nanocomposite as a cyto-safe immunosensor for the rapid detection of carcinoembryonic antigen

Graphene-based materials have gained remarkable attention in numerous disciplines owing to their unique electrochemical properties. Out of various hybridized nanocomposites, graphene-zirconia nanocomposite (GZ) was distinctive due to its biocompatibility. Zirconia nanoparticles serve as spacers that reduce the stacking of graphene and improve the electrochemical performance of the material. Considering that lungs and skin suffer the greatest exposure to nanoparticles, this study aimed to evaluate the cytotoxicity of the as-synthesized GZ nanocomposites on MRC5 (lung cells) and HaCaT (skin cells) via morphological observation and cell viability assay using 3-(4,5 dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-(2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide) tetrazolium (MTT). GZ-treated cells showed a comparable proliferation rate and morphology with untreated cells under microscopic evaluation. Based on MTT results, the IC₅₀ values of GZ were > 500 µg/ml for MRC5 and HaCaT cells. The excellent biocompatibility was the supremacy of GZ over other nanocomposites applied as electrode materials in biosensors. GZ was functionalized with biolinker for the detection of carcinoembryonic antigen (CEA). The proposed immunosensor exhibited good responses towards CEA detection, with a 4.25 pg/ml LOD and correlation coefficient of R² = 0.99 within a linear working range from 0.01 to 10 ng/ml. The performance of the immunosensor to detect CEA present in human serum was also evaluated. Good recovery of CEA was found, suggesting that the proposed immunosensor possess a high affinity to CEA even in a complex biological matrix, rendering it a promising sensing platform for real sample analysis and open a new way for the detection of cancer-associated proteins.

Ceramide-Graphene Oxide Nanoparticles Enhance the Cytotoxicity and Reduce the Occurrence and Development of Breast Cancer Xenografts

Ceramide exerts crucial effect on inducing tumor cell apoptosis, while its insolublility limits the application in treating tumors. In this study, we used NGO-PEG-PEI (NPP) and C6-NPP/Cer (NPP/C) as method to explore NPP/C’s effect and its anti-tumor ability on breast cancer. Confocal microscopy was used to detect the transfection efficiency in tumor cells. Breast cancer cells were treated with C6-NGO-PEG-PEI solution (control group) or NPP/C followed by analysis of cell proliferation and apoptosis by flow cytometry. C6-ceramide solution (control group) or NPP/C was administrated into nude mice with tumor followed by measuring tumor volume and size as well as cell proliferation and apoptosis. NGO-PEG-PEI could significantly enhance cell intake and inhibit cell proliferation and promote apoptosis. In vivo transplantation tumor model experiments showed that NPP/C could decrease tumor growth, slow down the multiplication rate and accelerate apoptosis. In conclusion, Ceramide-graphene oxide can inhibit tumor growth by inhibiting tumor cell growth and promoting cell apoptosis.

Comparative Evaluation for Controlled Release of Amoxicillin from RSM-CCD-Optimized Nanocomposites Based on Sodium Alginate and Chitosan-Containing Inclusion Complexes

Amoxicillin (AMX) is a semisynthetic antibiotic, an analogue of ampicillin, with a wide spectrum of bacterial activity against many microorganisms but possesses some limits. To increase the drug effectiveness, supramolecule nanocomposites composed of β-cyclodextrin (β-CD) and chitosan/sodium alginate/GO were chosen in the present study as a sustained release formulation. Nanocomposites of chitosan (CH), sodium alginate (ALG), and graphene oxide (GO) were synthesized at 50 °C. The inclusion complexes (ICs) were processed via the physical mixture (PM), kneading (KM), microwave (MW) method, or coprecipitation (CP) and directly loaded into the nanocomposite. To confirm the formation of true ICs, the ICs were analyzed by DSC, SEM, ¹H NMR, 2D NMR ROESY, and XRD. A drug release study was performed to find out which method is best for the controlled release of drugs in different environments of pH 2, 7, and 7.4 at 37 °C. From the observed drug release data, it was found that PM and KM showed a burst release of drugs and the microwave method was the most suitable method to prepare exact ICs of AMX and β-CD for sustained release of drugs. Kinetics of drug release was analyzed by various kinetic models, and it was observed that the Korsmeyer-Peppas and Peppas-Sahlin models were best fit for drug release in all cases. A Phase solubility study was carried out to find the stoichiometry of IC formation and the complexation constant. The drug release was controlled and pH-dependent, confirming that nanocomposites are pH-sensitive. From drug release analysis, it was acknowledged that β-CD is capable of causing sustained drug release.

Graphene-Based Materials In Vitro Toxicity and Their Structure-Activity Relationships: A Systematic Literature Review

The unique properties of graphene-based materials (GBMs) placed them among the most exciting nanomaterials of the past decade. Scientists and industry are looking forward to working with not only efficient but also safe, sustainable GBMs. Designing a safer-by-design GBM implies to acquire the knowledge of which physicochemical characteristics (PCCs) can increase toxicity. In this systematic review, we extracted data from the literature to provide the available information about the structure-activity relationship of GBMs. 93 papers studying a total of 185 GBMs are included. Graphene oxides (GOs) and few-layer graphenes (FLGs) are the most studied GBMs. While reduced graphene oxides were often classified as poorly oxidant and weakly cytotoxic, graphene quantum dots were mostly moderately or highly cytotoxic. FLGs demonstrated relationships between median size and oxidative stress, between lateral size and both cytotoxicity and oxidative stress, and between thickness and cytotoxicity. We also underline relationships between median size, lateral size, and thickness of GOs and oxidative stress. However, it appears difficult to highlight clear structure-activity relationships for most PCCs and biological end points because despite a large amount of available data, the GBMs are often too poorly characterized in terms of PCCs descriptors and the biological end points investigation is not standardized enough. There is an urgent need for a better standardization of the experimental investigation of both PCCs and biological end points to allow research teams to play a part in the collaborative work toward the construction of a safer-by-design GBM through a better understanding of their key toxicity drivers.

Comparison of the Toxicity of Pristine Graphene and Graphene Oxide, Using Four Biological Models

There are numerous applications of graphene in biomedicine and they can be classified into several main areas: delivery systems, sensors, tissue engineering and biological agents. The growing biomedical field of applications of graphene and its derivates raises questions regarding their toxicity. We will demonstrate an analysis of the toxicity of two forms of graphene using four various biological models: zebrafish (Danio rerio) embryo, duckweed (Lemna minor), human HS-5 cells and bacteria (Staphylococcus aureus). The toxicity of pristine graphene (PG) and graphene oxide (GO) was tested at concentrations of 5, 10, 20, 50 and 100 µg/mL. Higher toxicity was noted after administration of high doses of PG and GO in all tested biological models. Hydrophilic GO shows greater toxicity to biological models living in the entire volume of the culture medium (zebrafish, duckweed, S. aureus). PG showed the highest toxicity to adherent cells growing on the bottom of the culture plates—human HS-5 cells. The differences in toxicity between the tested graphene materials result from their physicochemical properties and the model used. Dose-dependent toxicity has been demonstrated with both forms of graphene.

Fabrication and Characterization of a Biomaterial Based on Extracellular-Vesicle Functionalized Graphene Oxide

Mesenchymal stem cell (MSC) derived extracellular vesicles (EV) are emerging as acellular therapeutics for solid organ injury and as carriers for drug delivery. Graphene-based materials are novel two-dimensional crystal structure-based materials with unique characteristics of stiffness, strength and elasticity that are being explored for various structural and biological applications. We fabricated a biomaterial that would capture desirable properties of both graphene and stem cell derived EV. Metabolically engineered EV that express azide groups were cross-linked with alkyne-functionalized graphene oxide (GO) via a copper catalyzed alkyne-azide cycloaddition (CuAAC) reaction. The crosslinking between EV and GO was accomplished without the need for ligand expression on the metal. Scanning electron and fluorescence microscopy demonstrated excellent cross-linking between EV and GO. Biological effects were assessed by phagocytosis studies and cell viability studies. The uptake of GO or sonicated GO (sGO) resulted in a durable pro-inflammatory immune response. Cell studies further showed that crosslinked GO-EV scaffolds exhibited cell-type dependent cytotoxicity on liver cancer cells whereas there was minimal impact on healthy hepatocyte proliferation. In vitro, neither GO-EV nor sGO-EV induced DNA strand breaks. In vivo studies in zebrafish revealed gross developmental malformations but treatment-induced mortality was only seen with the highest doses of GO-EV and sGO-EV. With these advantages, this engineered biomaterial combining the versatility of graphene with the therapeutic effects of MSC-EV has potential for applications in tissue engineering and regenerative medicine.

Nanomaterials and Essential Oils as Candidates for Developing Novel Treatment Options for Bovine Mastitis

Nanomaterials have been used for diagnosis and therapy in the human medical field, while their application in veterinary medicine and animal production is still relatively new. Nanotechnology, however, is a rapidly growing field, offering the possibility of manufacturing new materials at the nanoscale level, with the formidable potential to revolutionize the agri-food sector by offering novel treatment options for prevalent and expensive illnesses such as bovine mastitis. Since current treatments are becoming progressively more ineffective in resistant bacteria, the development of innovative products based on both nanotechnology and phytotherapy may directly address a major global problem, antimicrobial resistance, while providing a sustainable animal health solution that supports the production of safe and high-quality food products. This review summarizes the challenges encountered presently in the treatment of bovine mastitis, emphasizing the possibility of using new-generation nanomaterials (e.g., biological synthesized nanoparticles and graphene) and essential oils, as candidates for developing novel treatment options for bovine mastitis.

Mechanical properties of aerospace epoxy composites reinforced with 2D nano-fillers: current status and road to industrialization

High-performance epoxy composites find application in the aerospace industry. Although epoxy is a high-performance polymer, its fracture toughness is compromised due to its highly cross-linked nature. Nanomaterials such as carbon nanotubes (CNTs), graphene derivatives, and inorganic 2-dimensional (2D) nanomaterials are being explored to improve epoxy composites' mechanical properties. Graphene is one of the most popular 2D nano-reinforcing agents for epoxy composites. Following graphene discovery, the research community's attention was brought to various other few-atom thick 2D nanomaterials. Hence, apart from graphene, inorganic nanosheets such as transition metal dichalcogenides (TMDs), hexagonal boron nitride (hBN), etc., are also being studied as modifiers for enhancing the mechanical performance of epoxy composites. Graphene, TMDs and hBN are known to possess a high aspect ratio, high specific surface area and inherently high mechanical strength and stiffness, contributing to a stronger and tougher composite. Despite that, the challenges associated with these nanomaterials, such as dispersion issues, lack of standardization, underlying health hazards, etc., have hampered their commercialization. It has been long past a decade since the discovery of graphene, yet there are concerns regarding the lab to industry scale-up, and health and environmental hazards associated with nanomaterials for the fabrication of aerospace composites. This review offers a comprehensive literature survey and a perspective into the possible ways of bridging the gaps between the laboratory research and industrialization of 2D nanosheet-filled epoxy composites.

Graphene Oxide: Opportunities and Challenges in Biomedicine

Desirable carbon allotropes such as graphene oxide (GO) have entered the field with several biomedical applications, owing to their exceptional physicochemical and biological features, including extreme strength, found to be 200 times stronger than steel; remarkable light weight; large surface-to-volume ratio; chemical stability; unparalleled thermal and electrical conductivity; and enhanced cell adhesion, proliferation, and differentiation properties. The presence of functional groups on graphene oxide (GO) enhances further interactions with other molecules. Therefore, recent studies have focused on GO-based materials (GOBMs) rather than graphene. The aim of this research was to highlight the physicochemical and biological properties of GOBMs, especially their significance to biomedical applications. The latest studies of GOBMs in biomedical applications are critically reviewed, and in vitro and preclinical studies are assessed. Furthermore, the challenges likely to be faced and prospective future potential are addressed. GOBMs, a high potential emerging material, will dominate the materials of choice in the repair and development of human organs and medical devices. There is already great interest among academics as well as in pharmaceutical and biomedical industries.

Graphitic Carbon Nitride Causes Widespread Global Molecular Changes in Epithelial and Fibroblast Cells

For scaffold and imaging applications, nanomaterials such as graphene and its derivatives have been widely used. Graphitic carbon nitride (g-C₃N₄) is among one such derivative of graphenes, which draws strong consideration due to its physicochemical properties and photocatalytic activity. To use g-C₃N₄ for biological applications, such as molecular imaging or drug delivery, it must interact with the epithelium, cross the epithelial barrier, and then come in contact with the extracellular matrix of the fibroblast cells. Thus, it becomes essential to understand its molecular mechanism of action. Hence, in this study, to understand the molecular reprogramming associated with g-C₃N₄, global gene expression using DNA microarrays and proteomics using tandem mass tag (TMT) labeling and mass spectrometry were performed in epithelial and fibroblast cells, respectively. Our results showed that g-C₃N₄ can cross the epithelial barrier by regulating the adherens junction proteins. Further, using g-C₃N₄-PDMS scaffolds as a mimic of the extracellular matrix for fibroblast cells, the common signaling pathways were identified between the epithelium and fibroblast cells. These pathways include Wnt signaling, integrin signaling, TGF-β signaling, cadherin signaling, oxidative stress response, ubiquitin proteasome pathway, and EGF receptor signaling pathways. These altered signature pathways identified could play a prominent role in g-C₃N₄-mediated cellular interactions in both epithelial and fibroblast cells. Additionally, β catenin, EGFR, and MAP2K2 protein-protein interaction networks could play a prominent role in fibroblast cell proliferation. The findings could further our knowledge on g-C₃N₄-mediated alterations in cellular molecular signatures, enabling the potential use of these materials for biological applications such as molecular imaging and drug delivery.

Biomedical Applications of Electrospun Graphene Oxide

Graphene oxide (GO) has broad potential in the biomedical sector. The oxygen-abundant nature of GO means the material is hydrophilic and readily dispersible in water. GO has also been known to improve cell proliferation, drug loading, and antimicrobial properties of composites. Electrospun composites likewise have great potential for biomedical applications because they are generally biocompatible and bioresorbable, possess low immune rejection risk, and can mimic the structure of the extracellular matrix. In the current review, GO-containing electrospun composites for tissue engineering applications are described in detail. In addition, electrospun GO-containing materials for their use in drug and gene delivery, wound healing, and biomaterials/medical devices have been examined. Good biocompatibility and anionic-exchange properties of GO make it an ideal candidate for drug and gene delivery systems. Drug/gene delivery applications for electrospun GO composites are described with a number of examples. Various systems using electrospun GO-containing therapeutics have been compared for their potential uses in cancer therapy. Micro- to nanosized electrospun fibers for wound healing applications and antimicrobial applications are explained in detail. Applications of various GO-containing electrospun composite materials for medical device applications are listed. It is concluded that the electrospun GO materials will find a broad range of biomedical applications such as cardiac patches, medical device coatings, sensors, and triboelectric nanogenerators for motion sensing and biosensing.

Design of new bioinspired GO-COOH decorated alginate/gelatin hybrid scaffolds with nanofibrous architecture: structural, mechanical and biological investigations

The current research study deals with the design and investigation of novel bioinspired and biocompatible GO-COOH decorated hybrid polymeric scaffolds with nanofibrous architecture as biomaterials with highly appropriate features for functional restoration of damaged tissue. Gelatin and alginate, two biobased-polymers with excellent biocompatibility, high microenvironment biomimicry and ability for proper guidance of cell development in combination with carboxylated graphene oxide (GO-COOH), embody the matrix of electrospun hybrid scaffolds. The underlying principle is based on various types of interactions that can take place between the functionalities of the system's entities (proved by DLS) and their synergy in improving the structural integrity, mechanical tailorability and biological performances of the new nanofibrous GO-COOH decorated hybrid scaffolds. The nanofibrous structure along with the presence of GO-COOH are established by SEM. The new covalent bonds formed between various functionalities of the protein-polysaccharide-GO-COOH system are proved by FTIR and XPS. The physico-chemical state of GO-COOH lattices within the hybrid structures is investigated by Raman spectrometry. The interpenetrated network of bicomponent structures determines a 10-fold increase of Young's modulus as compared to monocomponent counterparts while the dispersion of GO-COOH significantly increases the elasticity of materials. The biological results (MTT and LDH assays) indicate a good cytocompatibility of crosslinked bicomponent AGS scaffolds; the metabolic cellular activity is substantially improved following the GO-COOH addition, suggesting that GO-COOH can support the cell adhesion, growth and proliferation.

Lipid Phase Influences the Dynamic Interactions between Graphene Oxide Nanosheets and a Phospholipid Membrane

To understand the possible perturbations of graphene oxide (GO) nanosheets on cell membranes is the first step to evaluate their cytotoxicity, while the membrane heterogeneity such like lipid phase separation complicates such interactions. Using the dynamic giant unilamellar vesicle leakage assays, atomic force microscopy characterizations, and molecular dynamics simulations, we demonstrated the structural and property disturbance of GO on a lipid bilayer membrane in a low ionic strength and neutral pH condition, specifically the influence of lipid phase on this process. GO tends to obliquely insert into and even be sandwiched between leaflets of a liquid-phase membrane, inducing formidable flaw in lipid packing states and fast transmembrane leakage. However, GO adopts parallel adsorption or vertical insertion on/into a gel-phase bilayer, while permeabilization occurs only when the disturbance is strong enough. Our results are helpful to understand the fundamental interaction mechanism between GO nanosheets and cells.

A comprehensive review on alginate-based delivery systems for the delivery of chemotherapeutic agent: Doxorubicin

Doxorubicin (DOX), an anthracycline drug, is widely used for the treatment of several cancers like osteosarcoma, cervical carcinoma, breast cancer, etc. DOX lacks target specificity; thereby it also affects normal cells thus resulting in several side-effects. A drug delivery system (DDS) can be used to deliver the drug in a controlled and sustained manner at a targeted site within the body. Various DDS like nanoemulsions, polymeric nanoparticles, and liposomes are used for loading DOX. Alginate, a polysaccharide is widely used for fabricating DDS due to its biodegradable and bio-compatible properties. Alginates, in combination with other biomaterials, have been extensively used as a novel drug delivery carrier for DOX. Alginate provides a platform for drug delivery in different forms like hydrogels, nanogels, nanoparticles, microparticles, graphene oxide systems, magnetic systems, etc. Herein, we briefly describe alginate in combination with other materials as a nanocarrier for targeted delivery of DOX for anti-cancer treatment.

Ultrasound accelerated near-edge functionalized heterogeneous graphene oxide sonocatalyst for surface optical bandwidth efficacy and in situ sonothermocatalysis

Ultrasound-accelerated optically active heterogeneous catalyst and sonochemical time driven thermodynamic dye catalysis.

Sublethal exposure of small few-layer graphene promotes metabolic alterations in human skin cells

Small few-layer graphene (sFLG), a novel small-sized graphene-related material (GRM), can be considered as an intermediate degradation product of graphene. GRMs have a promising present and future in the field of biomedicine. However, safety issues must be carefully addressed to facilitate their implementation. In the work described here, the effect of sub-lethal doses of sFLG on the biology of human HaCaT keratinocytes was examined. A one-week treatment of HaCaTs with sub-lethal doses of sFLG resulted in metabolome remodeling, dampening of the mitochondrial function and a shift in the redox state to pro-oxidant conditions. sFLG raises reactive oxygen species and calcium from 24 h to one week after the treatment and this involves the activation of NADPH oxidase 1. Likewise, sFLG seems to induce a shift from oxidative phosphorylation to glycolysis and promotes the use of glutamine as an alternative source of energy. When sub-toxic sFLG exposure was sustained for 30 days, an increase in cell proliferation and mitochondrial damage were observed. Further research is required to unveil the safety of GRMs and degradation-derived products before their use in the workplace and in practical applications.