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Guo TJF, Singhera GK, Leung JM, Dorscheid DR. Airway Epithelial-Derived Immune Mediators in COVID-19. Viruses 2023; 15:1655. [PMID: 37631998 PMCID: PMC10458661 DOI: 10.3390/v15081655] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/13/2023] [Revised: 07/17/2023] [Accepted: 07/21/2023] [Indexed: 08/27/2023] Open
Abstract
The airway epithelium, which lines the conducting airways, is central to the defense of the lungs against inhaled particulate matter and pathogens such as SARS-CoV-2, the virus that causes COVID-19. Recognition of pathogens results in the activation of an innate and intermediate immune response which involves the release of cytokines and chemokines by the airway epithelium. This response can inhibit further viral invasion and influence adaptive immunity. However, severe COVID-19 is characterized by a hyper-inflammatory response which can give rise to clinical presentations including lung injury and lead to acute respiratory distress syndrome, viral pneumonia, coagulopathy, and multi-system organ failure. In response to SARS-CoV-2 infection, the airway epithelium can mount a maladaptive immune response which can delay viral clearance, perpetuate excessive inflammation, and contribute to the pathogenesis of severe COVID-19. In this article, we will review the barrier and immune functions of the airway epithelium, how SARS-CoV-2 can interact with the epithelium, and epithelial-derived cytokines and chemokines and their roles in COVID-19 and as biomarkers. Finally, we will discuss these immune mediators and their potential as therapeutic targets in COVID-19.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tony J. F. Guo
- Centre for Heart Lung Innovation, Providence Healthcare Research Institute, St. Paul’s Hospital, University of British Columbia, 1081 Burrard St., Vancouver, BC V6Z 1Y6, Canada
| | - Gurpreet K. Singhera
- Centre for Heart Lung Innovation, Providence Healthcare Research Institute, St. Paul’s Hospital, University of British Columbia, 1081 Burrard St., Vancouver, BC V6Z 1Y6, Canada
- Department of Medicine, University of British Columbia, 2775 Laurel St., Vancouver, BC V5Z 1M9, Canada
| | - Janice M. Leung
- Centre for Heart Lung Innovation, Providence Healthcare Research Institute, St. Paul’s Hospital, University of British Columbia, 1081 Burrard St., Vancouver, BC V6Z 1Y6, Canada
- Department of Medicine, University of British Columbia, 2775 Laurel St., Vancouver, BC V5Z 1M9, Canada
| | - Delbert R. Dorscheid
- Centre for Heart Lung Innovation, Providence Healthcare Research Institute, St. Paul’s Hospital, University of British Columbia, 1081 Burrard St., Vancouver, BC V6Z 1Y6, Canada
- Department of Medicine, University of British Columbia, 2775 Laurel St., Vancouver, BC V5Z 1M9, Canada
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Bivalirudin exerts antiviral activity against respiratory syncytial virus-induced lung infections in neonatal mice. ACTA PHARMACEUTICA (ZAGREB, CROATIA) 2022; 72:415-425. [PMID: 36651544 DOI: 10.2478/acph-2022-0022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 09/20/2021] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
Abstract
Respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) is the most common cause of small airways inflammation in the lungs (bronchiolitis) in neonates and immunocompromised adults. The deregulation of cellular and plasma components leads to increased morbidity and mortality. The activation of the clotting cascade plays a key role in the progression of disease severity during viral infection. The current investigation studied the effect of bivalirudin (BR) on the progression and cellular effects of RSV-induced infection in the neonatal mice model. Mice (5-7 days old) were inoculated intranasally with RSV with or without BR administration (2 mg kg-1 day-1, i.v.) for 2 weeks. Tissue histopathology, inflammatory signalling genes such as TLR, and cytokines were analyzed. The results showed pneumocytes exhibiting nuclear pyknosis, cellular infiltration in lung tissue and increased lung titers in RSV-infected mice compared to the control. Furthermore, RSV-infected mice demonstrated altered clotting parameters such as D-dimer, soluble thrombomodulin, and increased inflammatory cytokines IL-5, 6, IFN-γ, IL-13, and CXCL1. Additionally, the mRNA expression analysis displayed increased levels of IL-33, TLR3, and TLR7 genes in RSV-infected lung tissue. Further, to delineate the role of micro RNAs, the qRT-PCR analysis was done, and the results displayed an increase in miR-136, miR-30b, and let-7i. At the same time, the down-regulated expression of miR-221 in RSV-infected mice compared to the control. BR treatment reduced the cellular infiltration with reduced inflammatory cytokines and normalized clotting indices. Thus, the study shows that RSV infection induces specific changes in lung tissue and the clotting related signalling mechanism. Additionally, BR treatment significantly reduces bronchiolitis and prevents the severity of the infections suggesting that BR can possibly be used to reduce the viral-mediated infections in neonates.
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Grytting VS, Refsnes M, Øvrevik J, Halle MS, Schönenberger J, van der Lelij R, Snilsberg B, Skuland T, Blom R, Låg M. Respirable stone particles differ in their ability to induce cytotoxicity and pro-inflammatory responses in cell models of the human airways. Part Fibre Toxicol 2021; 18:18. [PMID: 33957952 PMCID: PMC8101231 DOI: 10.1186/s12989-021-00409-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/10/2020] [Accepted: 04/08/2021] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Respirable stone- and mineral particles may be a major constituent in occupational and ambient air pollution and represent a possible health hazard. However, with exception of quartz and asbestos, little is known about the toxic properties of mineral particles. In the present study, the pro-inflammatory and cytotoxic responses to six stone particle samples of different composition and with diameter below 10 μm were assessed in human bronchial epithelial cells (HBEC3-KT), THP-1 macrophages and a HBEC3-KT/THP-1 co-culture. Moreover, particle-induced lysis of human erythrocytes was assessed to determine the ability of the particles to lyse biological membranes. Finally, the role of the NLRP3 inflammasome was assessed using a NLRP3-specific inhibitor and detection of ASC oligomers and cleaved caspase-1 and IL-1β. A reference sample of pure α-quartz was included for comparison. Results Several stone particle samples induced a concentration-dependent increase in cytotoxicity and secretion of the pro-inflammatory cytokines CXCL8, IL-1α, IL-1β and TNFα. In HBEC3-KT, quartzite and anorthosite were the most cytotoxic stone particle samples and induced the highest levels of cytokines. Quartzite and anorthosite were also the most cytotoxic samples in THP-1 macrophages, while anorthosite and hornfels induced the highest cytokine responses. In comparison, few significant differences between particle samples were detected in the co-culture. Adjusting responses for differences in surface area concentrations did not fully account for the differences between particle samples. Moreover, the stone particles had low hemolytic potential, indicating that the effects were not driven by membrane lysis. Pre-incubation with a NLRP3-specific inhibitor reduced stone particle-induced cytokine responses in THP-1 macrophages, but not in HBEC3-KT cells, suggesting that the effects are mediated through different mechanisms in epithelial cells and macrophages. Particle exposure also induced an increase in ASC oligomers and cleaved caspase-1 and IL-1β in THP-1 macrophages, confirming the involvement of the NLRP3 inflammasome. Conclusions The present study indicates that stone particles induce cytotoxicity and pro-inflammatory responses in human bronchial epithelial cells and macrophages, acting through NLRP3-independent and -dependent mechanisms, respectively. Moreover, some particle samples induced cytotoxicity and cytokine release to a similar or greater extent than α-quartz. Thus, these minerals warrant further attention in future research. Supplementary Information The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12989-021-00409-y.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vegard Sæter Grytting
- Section of Air Pollution and Noise, Department of Environmental Health, Domain of Infectious Disease Control and Environmental Health, Norwegian Institute of Public Health, PO Box 4404, Nydalen, N-0403, Oslo, Norway.
| | - Magne Refsnes
- Section of Air Pollution and Noise, Department of Environmental Health, Domain of Infectious Disease Control and Environmental Health, Norwegian Institute of Public Health, PO Box 4404, Nydalen, N-0403, Oslo, Norway
| | - Johan Øvrevik
- Section of Air Pollution and Noise, Department of Environmental Health, Domain of Infectious Disease Control and Environmental Health, Norwegian Institute of Public Health, PO Box 4404, Nydalen, N-0403, Oslo, Norway
| | | | | | | | | | - Tonje Skuland
- Section of Air Pollution and Noise, Department of Environmental Health, Domain of Infectious Disease Control and Environmental Health, Norwegian Institute of Public Health, PO Box 4404, Nydalen, N-0403, Oslo, Norway
| | | | - Marit Låg
- Section of Air Pollution and Noise, Department of Environmental Health, Domain of Infectious Disease Control and Environmental Health, Norwegian Institute of Public Health, PO Box 4404, Nydalen, N-0403, Oslo, Norway.
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Glaser L, Coulter PJ, Shields M, Touzelet O, Power UF, Broadbent L. Airway Epithelial Derived Cytokines and Chemokines and Their Role in the Immune Response to Respiratory Syncytial Virus Infection. Pathogens 2019; 8:E106. [PMID: 31331089 PMCID: PMC6789711 DOI: 10.3390/pathogens8030106] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/25/2019] [Revised: 07/16/2019] [Accepted: 07/17/2019] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
The airway epithelium is the primary target of respiratory syncytial virus infection. It is an important component of the antiviral immune response. It contributes to the recruitment and activation of innate immune cells from the periphery through the secretion of cytokines and chemokines. This paper provides a broad review of the cytokines and chemokines secreted from human airway epithelial cell models during respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) infection based on a comprehensive literature review. Epithelium-derived chemokines constitute most inflammatory mediators secreted from the epithelium during RSV infection. This suggests chemo-attraction of peripheral immune cells, such as monocytes, neutrophils, eosinophils, and natural killer cells as a key function of the epithelium. The reports of epithelium-derived cytokines are limited. Recent research has started to identify novel cytokines, the functions of which remain largely unknown in the wider context of the RSV immune response. It is argued that the correct choice of in vitro models used for investigations of epithelial immune functions during RSV infection could facilitate greater progress in this field.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lena Glaser
- Wellcome-Wolfson Institute for Experimental Medicine, School of Medicine, Dentistry and Biomedical Sciences, Queen's University Belfast, Belfast BT9 7BL, Northern Ireland, UK
| | - Patricia J Coulter
- Wellcome-Wolfson Institute for Experimental Medicine, School of Medicine, Dentistry and Biomedical Sciences, Queen's University Belfast, Belfast BT9 7BL, Northern Ireland, UK
- Department of Paediatric Respiratory Medicine, Royal Belfast Hospital for Sick Children, Belfast BT12 6BE, Northern Ireland, UK
| | - Michael Shields
- Wellcome-Wolfson Institute for Experimental Medicine, School of Medicine, Dentistry and Biomedical Sciences, Queen's University Belfast, Belfast BT9 7BL, Northern Ireland, UK
- Department of Paediatric Respiratory Medicine, Royal Belfast Hospital for Sick Children, Belfast BT12 6BE, Northern Ireland, UK
| | - Olivier Touzelet
- Wellcome-Wolfson Institute for Experimental Medicine, School of Medicine, Dentistry and Biomedical Sciences, Queen's University Belfast, Belfast BT9 7BL, Northern Ireland, UK
| | - Ultan F Power
- Wellcome-Wolfson Institute for Experimental Medicine, School of Medicine, Dentistry and Biomedical Sciences, Queen's University Belfast, Belfast BT9 7BL, Northern Ireland, UK.
| | - Lindsay Broadbent
- Wellcome-Wolfson Institute for Experimental Medicine, School of Medicine, Dentistry and Biomedical Sciences, Queen's University Belfast, Belfast BT9 7BL, Northern Ireland, UK.
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Qian Z, Zhang Z, Wang Y. T cell receptor signaling pathway and cytokine-cytokine receptor interaction affect the rehabilitation process after respiratory syncytial virus infection. PeerJ 2019; 7:e7089. [PMID: 31223533 PMCID: PMC6571000 DOI: 10.7717/peerj.7089] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/14/2019] [Accepted: 05/06/2019] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) is the main cause of respiratory tract infection, which seriously threatens the health and life of children. This study is conducted to reveal the rehabilitation mechanisms of RSV infection. Methods E-MTAB-5195 dataset was downloaded from EBI ArrayExpress database, including 39 acute phase samples in the acute phase of infection and 21 samples in the recovery period. Using the limma package, differentially expressed RNAs (DE-RNAs) were analyzed. The significant modules were identified using WGCNA package, and the mRNAs in them were conducted with enrichment analysis using DAVID tool. Afterwards, co-expression network for the RNAs involved in the significant modules was built by Cytoscape software. Additionally, RSV-correlated pathways were searched from Comparative Toxicogenomics Database, and then the pathway network was constructed. Results There were 2,489 DE-RNAs between the two groups, including 2,386 DE-mRNAs and 103 DE-lncRNAs. The RNAs in the black, salmon, blue, tan and turquoise modules correlated with stage were taken as RNA set1. Meanwhile, the RNAs in brown, blue, magenta and pink modules related to disease severity were defined as RNA set2. In the pathway networks, CD40LG and RASGRP1 co-expressed with LINC00891/LINC00526/LINC01215 were involved in the T cell receptor signaling pathway, and IL1B, IL1R2, IL18, and IL18R1 co-expressed with BAIAP2-AS1/CRNDE/LINC01503/SMIM25 were implicated in cytokine-cytokine receptor interaction. Conclusion LINC00891/LINC00526/LINC01215 co-expressed with CD40LG and RASGRP1 might affect the rehabilitation process of RSV infection through the T cell receptor signaling pathway. Besides, BAIAP2-AS1/CRNDE/LINC01503/SMIM25 co-expressed with IL1 and IL18 families might function in the clearance process after RSV infection via cytokine-cytokine receptor interaction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zuanhao Qian
- Department of Pediatrics, Taikang Xianlin Drum Tower Hospital, Nanjing, China
| | - Zhenglei Zhang
- Department of Pediatrics, Taikang Xianlin Drum Tower Hospital, Nanjing, China
| | - Yingying Wang
- Department of Pediatrics, Taikang Xianlin Drum Tower Hospital, Nanjing, China
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Øvrevik J, Refsnes M, Låg M, Holme JA, Schwarze PE. Activation of Proinflammatory Responses in Cells of the Airway Mucosa by Particulate Matter: Oxidant- and Non-Oxidant-Mediated Triggering Mechanisms. Biomolecules 2015; 5:1399-440. [PMID: 26147224 PMCID: PMC4598757 DOI: 10.3390/biom5031399] [Citation(s) in RCA: 144] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/18/2015] [Revised: 06/16/2015] [Accepted: 06/16/2015] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Inflammation is considered to play a central role in a diverse range of disease outcomes associated with exposure to various types of inhalable particulates. The initial mechanisms through which particles trigger cellular responses leading to activation of inflammatory responses are crucial to clarify in order to understand what physico-chemical characteristics govern the inflammogenic activity of particulate matter and why some particles are more harmful than others. Recent research suggests that molecular triggering mechanisms involved in activation of proinflammatory genes and onset of inflammatory reactions by particles or soluble particle components can be categorized into direct formation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) with subsequent oxidative stress, interaction with the lipid layer of cellular membranes, activation of cell surface receptors, and direct interactions with intracellular molecular targets. The present review focuses on the immediate effects and responses in cells exposed to particles and central down-stream signaling mechanisms involved in regulation of proinflammatory genes, with special emphasis on the role of oxidant and non-oxidant triggering mechanisms. Importantly, ROS act as a central second-messenger in a variety of signaling pathways. Even non-oxidant mediated triggering mechanisms are therefore also likely to activate downstream redox-regulated events.
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Affiliation(s)
- Johan Øvrevik
- Department of Air Pollution and Noise, Division of Environmental Medicine, Norwegian Institute of Public Health, P.O. Box 4404 Nydalen, N-0403 Oslo, Norway.
| | - Magne Refsnes
- Department of Air Pollution and Noise, Division of Environmental Medicine, Norwegian Institute of Public Health, P.O. Box 4404 Nydalen, N-0403 Oslo, Norway.
| | - Marit Låg
- Department of Air Pollution and Noise, Division of Environmental Medicine, Norwegian Institute of Public Health, P.O. Box 4404 Nydalen, N-0403 Oslo, Norway.
| | - Jørn A Holme
- Department of Air Pollution and Noise, Division of Environmental Medicine, Norwegian Institute of Public Health, P.O. Box 4404 Nydalen, N-0403 Oslo, Norway.
| | - Per E Schwarze
- Department of Air Pollution and Noise, Division of Environmental Medicine, Norwegian Institute of Public Health, P.O. Box 4404 Nydalen, N-0403 Oslo, Norway.
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Webster Marketon JI, Corry J, Teng MN. The respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) nonstructural proteins mediate RSV suppression of glucocorticoid receptor transactivation. Virology 2014; 449:62-9. [PMID: 24418538 PMCID: PMC3904736 DOI: 10.1016/j.virol.2013.11.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/06/2013] [Revised: 07/12/2013] [Accepted: 11/06/2013] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Respiratory syncytial virus (RSV)-induced bronchiolitis in infants is not responsive to glucocorticoids. We have shown that RSV infection impairs glucocorticoid receptor (GR) function. In this study, we have investigated the mechanism by which RSV impairs GR function. We have shown that RSV repression of GR-induced transactivation is not mediated through a soluble autocrine factor. Knock-down of mitochondrial antiviral signaling protein (MAVS), but not retinoic acid-inducible gene 1 (RIG-I) or myeloid differentiation primary response gene 88 (MyD88), impairs GR-mediated gene activation even in mock-infected cells. Over-expression of the RSV nonstructural protein NS1, but not NS2, impairs glucocorticoid-induced transactivation and viruses deleted in NS1 and/or NS2 are unable to repress glucocorticoid-induction of the known GR regulated gene glucocorticoid-inducible leucine zipper (GILZ). These data suggest that the RSV nonstructural proteins mediate RSV repression of GR-induced transactivation and that inhibition of the nonstructural proteins may be a viable target for therapy against RSV-related disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeanette I Webster Marketon
- Division of Pulmonary, Allergy, Critical Care and Sleep Medicine, Department of Internal Medicine, Wexner Medical Center at The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210, United States; Institute for Behavioral Medicine Research, Wexner Medical Center at The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210, United States.
| | - Jacqueline Corry
- Division of Pulmonary, Allergy, Critical Care and Sleep Medicine, Department of Internal Medicine, Wexner Medical Center at The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210, United States.
| | - Michael N Teng
- Joy McCann Culverhouse Airway Disease Research Center, Division of Allergy and Immunology, Department of Internal Medicine, Morsani College of Medicine, University of South Florida, Tampa, FL 33612, United States
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Effects of respiratory syncytial virus infection and major basic protein derived from eosinophils in pulmonary alveolar epithelial cells (A549). Cell Biol Int 2011; 35:467-74. [PMID: 20977431 DOI: 10.1042/cbi20100255] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
RSV (respiratory syncytial virus)-induced pneumonia and bronchiolitis may be associated with hyperresponsive conditions, including asthma. Eosinophilic proteins such as MBP (major basic protein) may also be associated with the pathophysiology of asthma. To elucidate the roles of RSV infection and MBP in the pathogenesis of pneumonia with hyperresponsiveness, we investigated the effects of RSV infection and MBP on A549 (alveolar epithelial) cells. CPE (cytopathic effects) in A549 cells were observed by microscopy. Apoptosis and cell death was evaluated by flow cytometric analysis and modified MTT [3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide] assay. We also measured 15 types of cytokines and chemokines in A549 cell supernatants. Although RSV alone did not affect the CPE of A549, high concentrations of MBP resulted in cell death within 24 h. Combinations of RSV and MBP synergistically induced cell death. In A549 cells infected with RSV alone, the release of GM-CSF (granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor) was significantly enhanced compared with control cells (no infection). In the cells treated with MBP alone, the production of IL (interleukin)-2, 4, 5, 7, 10, 12, 13, 17, IFN (interferon)-γ, GM-CSF, G-CSF (granulocyte colony-stimulating factor) and MIP (macrophage inflammatory protein)-1β was significantly increased compared with control cells. Notably, the levels of GM-CSF and IL-17 in RSV/MBP-treated cells were significantly higher than those treated with MBP alone. These results suggest that MBP synergistically enhanced the release of various cytokines/chemokines and the cell death of RSV-infected A549 cells, indicating that MBP may be closely associated with the pathophysiology of allergic reactions in bronchiolitis/pneumonia due to RSV.
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Morrison PT, Thomas LH, Sharland M, Friedland JS. RSV-infected airway epithelial cells cause biphasic up-regulation of CCR1 expression on human monocytes. J Leukoc Biol 2007; 81:1487-95. [PMID: 17389578 DOI: 10.1189/jlb.1006611] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) infection can cause extensive airway inflammation, which is orchestrated by chemokines and their receptors. RSV-infected epithelial cells secrete many cytokines and chemokines, but little is known about regulation of chemokine receptors on target cells. We investigated the effects of conditioned media (CM) from RSV-infected epithelial cells on monocyte CCR1, CCR2, and CCR5 expression. RSV-CM but not control-CM stimulated a biphasic increase in cell-surface CCR1, and levels peaked at 36 h and 96 h poststimulation. Similar CCR1 up-regulation occurred on monocyte-derived macrophages. Cytochlasin D and colchicine blocked both peaks of expression, demonstrating requirement of a functional cytoskeleton. Intracellular staining revealed little internal sequestration of CCR1 protein, and CCR1 up-regulation was inhibited by actinomycin D and cycloheximide, indicating that both waves of RSV-CM-induced surface CCR1 expression were dependent on de novo transcription and protein synthesis. Cytokine-neutralizing experiments showed that the effects of RSV-CM were decreased by blocking TNF-alpha (percent inhibition=51+/-2.3% at 36 h peak and 42+/-7.7% at 96 h peak) and to a lesser extent, IL-1 (percent inhibition=32+/-7.2% at 36 h and 23+/-2.9% at 96 h). In summary, RSV-CM causes a biphasic up-regulation of surface CCR1 on monocytes, which is dependent on an intact cytoskeleton, requires new gene transcription and protein synthesis, and is mediated in part by the proinflammatory cytokines TNF-alpha and IL-1.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paul T Morrison
- Department of Infectious Diseases and Immunity, Imperial College, Hammersmith Campus, Du Cane Road, London, W12 0NN, UK
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Arnold R, König W. Peroxisome-proliferator-activated receptor-gamma agonists inhibit the release of proinflammatory cytokines from RSV-infected epithelial cells. Virology 2005; 346:427-39. [PMID: 16330064 DOI: 10.1016/j.virol.2005.11.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/24/2005] [Revised: 10/07/2005] [Accepted: 11/09/2005] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
The epithelial cells of the airways are the target cells for respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) infection and the site of the majority of the inflammation associated with the disease. Recently, peroxisome-proliferator-activated receptor gamma (PPARgamma), a member of the nuclear hormone receptor superfamily, has been shown to possess anti-inflammatory properties. Therefore, we investigated the role of PPARgamma agonists (15d-PGJ(2), ciglitazone and troglitazone) on the synthesis of RSV-induced cytokine release from RSV-infected human lung epithelial cells (A549). We observed that all PPARgamma ligands inhibited dose-dependently the release of TNF-alpha, GM-CSF, IL-1alpha, IL-6 and the chemokines CXCL8 (IL-8) and CCL5 (RANTES) from RSV-infected A549 cells. Concomitantly, the PPARgamma ligands diminished the cellular amount of mRNA encoding for IL-6, CXCL8 and CCL5 and the RSV-induced binding activity of the transcription factors NF-kappaB (p65/p50) and AP-1 (c-fos), respectively. Our data presented herein suggest a potential application of PPARgamma ligands in the anti-inflammatory treatment of RSV infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ralf Arnold
- Institute of Medical Microbiology, Otto-von-Guericke-University, Leipzigerstr. 44, 39120 Magdeburg, Germany.
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Sato H, Miura R, Kai C. Measles virus infection induces interleukin-8 release in human pulmonary epithelial cells. Comp Immunol Microbiol Infect Dis 2005; 28:311-20. [PMID: 16197996 DOI: 10.1016/j.cimid.2005.08.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 07/27/2005] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
Measles virus (MV) infection primarily targets epithelial cells of the respiratory tract, which have the potential to synthesize a variety of cytokines. In this report, we studied the effect of MV infection on the production of interleukin (IL)-8 by the pulmonary epithelial cells. A549 cells, a lower airway epithelial cell line, produced IL-8 after MV inoculation in a dose- and time-dependent manner. The IL-8 production was little affected by UV-inactivation of MV and scarcely suppressed by cycloheximide treatment. These results indicated that MV particle binding to and/or incorporation into cells stimulated IL-8 expression in A549 cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hiroki Sato
- Laboratory Animal Research Center, The Institute of Medical Science, The University of Tokyo, 4-6-1, Shirokanedai, Minato-ku, Tokyo 108-8639, Japan
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Tirado R, Ortega A, Sarmiento RE, Gómez B. Interleukin-8 mRNA synthesis and protein secretion are continuously up-regulated by respiratory syncytial virus persistently infected cells. Cell Immunol 2005; 233:61-71. [PMID: 15936741 DOI: 10.1016/j.cellimm.2005.04.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/23/2005] [Revised: 04/13/2005] [Accepted: 04/15/2005] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
The aim of this study was to investigate whether respiratory syncytial virus persistence regulates interleukin 8 (IL-8) mRNA synthesis and protein secretion in a human lung epithelial cell line (A549). Therefore, we established RSV persistence in these cells (A549per) and determined the levels of interleukin-8 mRNA by RT-PCR and of protein through ELISA. Interleukin-8 mRNA synthesis and protein secretion were continuously up-regulated in A549per cells during passages and in A549 cells that had been incubated with supernatants (cA549per) obtained from A549per passages. These results suggested that the enhancement of interleukin-8 was stimulated either by the presence of the RSV genome in the cell or by soluble mediator(s) induced by RSV, which, in turn, increased interleukin-8 mRNA synthesis and protein secretion. Soluble RSV F and G proteins were identified as mediators. Moreover, interleukin-8 enhancement was observed after 1-min incubation with the soluble mediators, thus suggesting that interleukin-8 up-regulation was triggered by receptor-ligand interaction.
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MESH Headings
- Antigens, Surface/analysis
- Antigens, Surface/physiology
- Antigens, Viral/analysis
- Cell Line, Tumor
- Culture Media, Conditioned/chemistry
- Culture Media, Conditioned/pharmacology
- Culture Media, Conditioned/radiation effects
- Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay
- Epithelial Cells/drug effects
- Epithelial Cells/metabolism
- Epithelial Cells/virology
- Fractional Precipitation
- Gene Expression/drug effects
- Hot Temperature
- Humans
- Immunoprecipitation
- Interleukin-1/antagonists & inhibitors
- Interleukin-1/metabolism
- Interleukin-8/genetics
- Interleukin-8/metabolism
- Polyethylene Glycols/chemistry
- RNA, Messenger/genetics
- RNA, Messenger/metabolism
- Respiratory Syncytial Virus, Human/metabolism
- Respiratory Syncytial Virus, Human/radiation effects
- Reverse Transcriptase Polymerase Chain Reaction
- Trypsin/metabolism
- Ultraviolet Rays
- Up-Regulation/drug effects
- Viral Envelope Proteins/metabolism
- Viral Envelope Proteins/pharmacology
- Viral Fusion Proteins/metabolism
- Viral Fusion Proteins/pharmacology
- Viral Proteins/analysis
- Viral Proteins/immunology
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Affiliation(s)
- Rocio Tirado
- Departamento de Microbiología y Parasitología, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Cd. Universitaria, Mexico D.F. 04510, Mexico
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Richardson JY, Ottolini MG, Pletneva L, Boukhvalova M, Zhang S, Vogel SN, Prince GA, Blanco JCG. Respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) infection induces cyclooxygenase 2: a potential target for RSV therapy. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2005; 174:4356-64. [PMID: 15778400 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.174.7.4356] [Citation(s) in RCA: 63] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Cyclooxygenases (COXs) are rate-limiting enzymes that initiate the conversion of arachidonic acid to prostanoids. COX-2 is the inducible isoform that is up-regulated by proinflammatory agents, initiating many prostanoid-mediated pathological aspects of inflammation. The roles of cyclooxygenases and their products, PGs, have not been evaluated during respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) infection. In this study we demonstrate that COX-2 is induced by RSV infection of human lung alveolar epithelial cells with the concomitant production of PGs. COX-2 induction was dependent on the dose of virus and the time postinfection. PG production was inhibited preferentially by NS-398, a COX-2-specific inhibitor, and indomethacin, a pan-COX inhibitor, but not by SC-560, a COX-1-specific inhibitor. In vivo, COX-2 mRNA expression and protein production were strongly induced in the lungs and cells derived from bronchioalveolar lavage of cotton rats infected with RSV. The pattern of COX-2 expression in vivo in lungs is cyclical, with a final peak on day 5 that correlates with maximal histopathology. Treatment of cotton rats with indomethacin significantly mitigated lung histopathology produced by RSV. The studies described in this study provide the first evidence that COX-2 is a potential therapeutic target in RSV-induced disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joann Y Richardson
- Department of Pediatrics, Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences, Bethesda, MD 20814, USA
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14
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Das S, Palmer OP, Leight WD, Surowitz JB, Pickles RJ, Randell SH, Buchman CA. Cytokine amplification by respiratory syncytial virus infection in human nasal epithelial cells. Laryngoscope 2005; 115:764-8. [PMID: 15867636 DOI: 10.1097/01.mlg.0000159527.76949.93] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES Respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) is an important cause of upper respiratory infections and is known to play a causal role in the pathogenesis of rhinitis, sinusitis, acute otitis media, and pneumonia. RSV appears to prime the respiratory tract to secondary inciting events, such as bacterial or antigen challenges. To study the proinflammatory priming effects of RSV infection, cytokine expression was measured in well-differentiated human nasal epithelial cells (WD-NE) after RSV infection alone or after subsequent tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-alpha stimulation. STUDY DESIGN In vitro investigation. METHODS Human nasal epithelial cells were obtained from surgical specimens and allowed to differentiate in air-liquid interface cultures until ciliation and mucus production were evident. Two experimental paradigms were used. First, accumulation of cytokines in the media was measured by real-time, quantitative reverse-transcriptase polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay after RSV infection alone. In the second set of experiments, cytokines were also measured after TNF-alpha stimulation in both RSV-infected and uninfected cultures. RESULTS RSV infection of WD-NE resulted in significant accumulations of interleukin (IL)-6, IL-8, and RANTES when compared with findings in control samples. Real-time, quantitative RT-PCR demonstrated significant increases in IL-8 gene expression following RSV infection when compared to controls. Secondary TNF-alpha stimulation following well-established (i.e., 72 h) RSV infection induced marked increases in IL-6, IL-8, and RANTES when compared with both RSV infection alone and TNF-alpha stimulation alone. CONCLUSIONS These findings suggest that RSV infection primes nasal epithelial cells to secondary proinflammatory challenge, resulting in a hyperimmune response. RSV-induced priming of a hyperimmune response may be important in the pathogenesis of sinusitis, acute otitis media, and pneumonia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Subinoy Das
- Department of Otolaryngology-Head & Neck Surgery, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, USA
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15
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Rudd BD, Burstein E, Duckett CS, Li X, Lukacs NW. Differential role for TLR3 in respiratory syncytial virus-induced chemokine expression. J Virol 2005; 79:3350-7. [PMID: 15731229 PMCID: PMC1075725 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.79.6.3350-3357.2005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 206] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) is the leading cause of lower respiratory tract infection in young infants worldwide. Previous studies have reported that the induction of interleukin-8/CXCL8 and RANTES/CCL5 correlates with disease severity in humans. The production of these chemokines is elicited by viral replication and is NF-kappaB dependent. RSV, a negative-sense single-stranded RNA virus, requires full-length positive-sense RNA for synthesis of new viral RNA. The aim of our studies was to investigate whether active viral replication by RSV could evoke chemokine production through TLR3-mediated signaling pathways. In TLR3-transfected HEK 293 cells, live RSV preferentially activated chemokines in both a time- and dose-dependent manner compared to vector controls. RSV was also shown to upregulate TLR3 in human lung fibroblasts and epithelial cells (MRC-5 and A549). Targeting the expression of TLR3 with small interfering RNA decreased synthesis of IP-10/CXCL10 and CCL5 but did not significantly reduce levels of CXCL8. Blocking the expression of the adapter protein MyD88 established a role for MyD88 in CXCL8 production, whereas CCL5 synthesis was found to be MyD88 independent. Production of CCL5 by RSV was induced directly through TLR3 signaling pathways and did not require interferon (IFN) signaling through the IFN-alpha/beta receptor. TLR3 did not affect viral replication, since equivalent viral loads were recovered from RSV-infected cells despite altered TLR3 expression. Taken together, our studies indicate that TLR3 mediates inflammatory cytokine and chemokine production in RSV-infected epithelial cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brian D Rudd
- Department of Pathology, University of Michigan Medical School, 1301 Catherine St., 5214 Medical Science 1, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA
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16
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Arnold R, König B, Werchau H, König W. Respiratory syncytial virus deficient in soluble G protein induced an increased proinflammatory response in human lung epithelial cells. Virology 2005; 330:384-97. [PMID: 15567433 DOI: 10.1016/j.virol.2004.10.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/27/2004] [Revised: 08/04/2004] [Accepted: 10/05/2004] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) is worldwide the single most important respiratory pathogen in infancy and early childhood. The G glycoprotein of RSV, named attachment protein, is produced by RSV-infected lung epithelial cells in both a membrane-anchored (mG protein) and a soluble form (sG protein) that is secreted by the epithelial cell. Currently, the biological role of the sG protein in primary RSV infection is still elusive. Therefore, we analyzed the inflammatory response of human lung epithelial cells (A549) infected either with wild-type RSV (RSV-WT) or a spontaneous mutant thereof deficient in the production of secreted G protein (RSV-DeltasG). Our data reveal that RSV-DeltasG, in comparison to RSV-WT, induced an increased cell surface expression of ICAM-1 on A549 cells and an enhanced release of the chemokines IL-8 and RANTES after 20 h postinfection. The increased protein expression pattern correlated with an enhanced mRNA level encoding for ICAM-1, IL-8, and RANTES, respectively. Furthermore, epithelial cells infected with RSV-DeltasG showed a more increased binding activity of the transcription factor NF-kappaB when compared to RSV-WT. In contrast, the mutant RSV-DeltasG replicated less efficiently in A549 cells than RSV-WT. Our data suggest that RSV, in the course of an ongoing infection, reduces by the production of sG protein the detrimental inflammatory response evolved by the infected resident lung epithelial cell and thereby supports its own replication.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ralf Arnold
- Institute of Medical Microbiology, Otto-von-Guericke-University, Magdeburg, Germany.
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17
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Bose S, Banerjee AK. Innate immune response against nonsegmented negative strand RNA viruses. J Interferon Cytokine Res 2004; 23:401-12. [PMID: 13678428 DOI: 10.1089/107999003322277810] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/14/2023] Open
Abstract
Innate immune response represents the hallmark of host defense against foreign pathogens, including viruses. Not only does this response combat viruses during initial stages of infection, but it shapes the adaptive immune response as well. This review focuses on this critical host defense mechanism, the innate immune response, in the context of infection by nonsegmented negative strand RNA viruses of the Paramyxoviridae family. We specifically focus on the two critical transcription factors, nuclear factor-kappaB (NF-kappaB) and interferon (IFN) regulatory factor-3 (IRF-3), that play an important role in establishing an innate antiviral state. The antiviral cytokine IFN-alpha/beta (IFN type I) produced following viral infection as a result of activation of NF-kappaB or IRF-3 or both exerts an antiviral state by inducing the Janus kinases/signal transducer and activator (Jak-Stat) pathway. In that context, our review discusses various strategies adopted by these viruses to counteract and evade the antiviral action of IFN I for replicative advantages, especially after modulation of the Jak-Stat antiviral pathway. Understanding this interplay between the innate immune response and viral replication is fundamental to probing into the molecular basis of host-virus interaction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Santanu Bose
- Department of Virology, Lerner Research Institute, The Cleveland Clinic Foundation, Cleveland, OH 44195, USA
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18
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Takaki M, Ushikai M, Deguchi K, Nishimoto K, Matsune S, Kurono Y. The role of nuclear factor-kappa B in interleukin-8 expression by human adenoidal fibroblasts. Laryngoscope 2003; 113:1378-85. [PMID: 12897563 DOI: 10.1097/00005537-200308000-00021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES/HYPOTHESIS The production of cytokines by adenoids is known to be associated with inflammation of nasopharynx and the pathogenesis of otitis media with effusion. However, the role of adenoids in producing inflammatory cytokines such as interleukin-8 (IL-8) is not yet clear. In the present study, expression of IL-8 in adenoidal fibroblasts was investigated at the level of transcription factors. Further, the effects of clarithromycin, a 14-member ring macrolide, on IL-8 gene expression and nuclear factor-kappa B (NF-kappa B) activation in adenoidal fibroblasts were evaluated. STUDY DESIGN In vitro study for the production of inflammatory cytokine from human adenoidal fibroblasts. METHODS Adenoidal fibroblasts were incubated with nontypeable Haemophilus influenzae endotoxin or interleukin-1 beta. Then the expression of IL-8 and the influence of NF-kappa B inhibitor and clarithromycin were evaluated. Interleukin-8 protein production was assessed by ELISA, and IL-8 messenger RNA production was measured by Northern blot analysis and reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction. Activation of NF-kappa B and inhibition of its activation were determined by electrophoretic mobility shift assay. RESULTS The expression of both IL-8 protein and messenger RNA in adenoidal fibroblasts was enhanced by Haemophilus influenzae endotoxin and interleukin-1 beta and was positively correlated with increases in NF-kappa B activity. Treatment of cells with the NF-kappa B inhibitor N-tosyl-(L)-phenylalanine chloromethyl ketone, as well as with clarithromycin, reduced expression of IL-8 and NF-kappa B activity in a dose-dependent manner. CONCLUSIONS Results suggest that adenoidal fibroblasts produce IL-8 in response to endotoxin through NF-kappa B activation. The inhibitory effects of clarithromycin on NF-kappa B activation and IL-8 production in adenoidal fibroblasts might explain, in part, the mechanism of this drug in improving otitis media with effusion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Minoru Takaki
- Department of Otolarynology, Faculty of Medicine, Kagoshima University, Sakuragaoka, Japan
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19
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Natarajan K, Chodosh J, Kennedy R. Innate immunity in th e cornea: a putative role for keratocytes in the chemokine response to viral infection of the human corneal stroma. ADVANCES IN EXPERIMENTAL MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY 2003; 506:745-51. [PMID: 12613987 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4615-0717-8_105] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/01/2023]
Abstract
Existing evidence suggests that chemokine expression by virus-infected cells is a common response to viral infection. By such a mechanism, non-immunologic cells may participate in the generation of an early innate immune response to infection. In the absence of classic immunologic cells in the corneal stroma, keratocytes may play a similar role in the corneal responses to viral infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kanchana Natarajan
- Department of Ophthalmology, Molecular Pathogenesis of Eye Infection Research Center, Dean A. McGee Eye Institute, Oklahoma City, Oklahoma, USA
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20
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Abstract
Despite great advances in medicine, the common cold continues to be a great burden on society in terms of human suffering and economic losses. Of the several viruses that cause the disease, the role of rhinoviruses is most prominent. About a quarter of all colds are still without proven cause, and the recent discovery of human metapneumovirus suggests that other viruses could remain undiscovered. Research into the inflammatory mechanisms of the common cold has elucidated the complexity of the virus-host relation. Increasing evidence is also available for the central role of viruses in predisposing to complications. New antivirals for the treatment of colds are being developed, but optimum use of these agents would require rapid detection of the specific virus causing the infection. Although vaccines against many respiratory viruses could also become available, the ultimate prevention of the common cold seems to remain a distant aim.
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Affiliation(s)
- Terho Heikkinen
- Department of Paediatrics, Turku University Hospital, Turku, Finland.
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21
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Stark JM, McDowell SA, Koenigsknecht V, Prows DR, Leikauf JE, Le Vine AM, Leikauf GD. Genetic susceptibility to respiratory syncytial virus infection in inbred mice. J Med Virol 2002; 67:92-100. [PMID: 11920822 DOI: 10.1002/jmv.2196] [Citation(s) in RCA: 66] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Abstract
Differences in the severity of respiratory syncytial virus (RSV)-induced lower respiratory disease in infants have been attributed to multiple environmental and genetic factors. To identify the genetic factor(s) influencing RSV susceptibility, we examined RSV infection in eight inbred mouse strains. Lung RSV titers differed significantly between mouse strains: the RSV titers were 15-fold higher in AKR/J (permissive) mice compared with C57BL/6J (resistant) mice at 4 days after inoculation. This strain-specific difference in RSV titers suggested that susceptibility to RSV infection was attributable to genetic differences between strains. To examine the mode of inheritance of RSV susceptibility, F1 and backcross (F1 x AKR/J) progeny were infected and RSV titers determined. RSV titers in the F1 progeny were similar to those found in the resistant (C57BL/6J) parent, suggesting resistance was inherited as a dominant trait. The distribution of RSV titers in backcross progeny were discordant with that predicted for a single gene effect, suggesting susceptibility was influenced by more than one gene. These data suggest that RSV susceptibility is a multigenic trait that should be amenable to resolution by genomic analysis.
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Affiliation(s)
- James M Stark
- Department of Pulmonary Medicine, Allergy and Clinical Immunology, Children's Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati, Ohio, USA.
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22
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Hacking D, Rockett K, Hull J, Kwiatkowski D. Synergistic action of cytokines and purified respiratory syncytial virus in nitric oxide induction. J Leukoc Biol 2002. [DOI: 10.1189/jlb.71.4.729] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Doug Hacking
- International Child Health Group, University of Oxford Department of Paediatrics, John Radcliffe Hospital Headington, Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - Kirk Rockett
- International Child Health Group, University of Oxford Department of Paediatrics, John Radcliffe Hospital Headington, Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - Jeremy Hull
- International Child Health Group, University of Oxford Department of Paediatrics, John Radcliffe Hospital Headington, Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - Dominic Kwiatkowski
- International Child Health Group, University of Oxford Department of Paediatrics, John Radcliffe Hospital Headington, Oxford, United Kingdom
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23
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Sfakianakis A, Barr CE, Kreutzer DL. Actinobacillus actinomycetemcomitans-induced expression of IL-1alpha and IL-1beta in human gingival epithelial cells: role in IL-8 expression. Eur J Oral Sci 2001; 109:393-401. [PMID: 11767276 DOI: 10.1034/j.1600-0722.2001.00162.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
Gingival epithelial cells (GEC) are the first cells of the host that encounter the periodontal pathogens. and therefore their role in the initiation of the inflammatory response is critical. We aimed to: 1) characterize the expression of interleukin (IL)- Ialpha and IL-Ibeta in human gingiva and cultured GEC: 2) demonstrate the ability of A. actinomycetemcomitans extracts to upregulate IL-1alpha, IL-1beta and IL-8 expression in GEC in vitro: and 3) characterize the role of IL-1alpha and IL-1beta in the induction of IL-8 expression in GEC in vitro. Ten gingival biopsies (5 inflamed and 5 controls) and cultured GEC were examined for IL-1alpha and IL-Ibeta using immunohistochemical techniques. GEC were also challenged with A. actinomycetemcomitans extracts or IL-1alpha, and secretion of IL-1 and IL-8 was determined by ELISA. In vivo, IL-lalpha and IL-1beta were localized in the gingival epithelium and the infiltrating leukocytes. In vitro, A. actinomycetemcomitans extracts induced a time-dependent expression of IL-1alpha, IL-1beta and IL-8 in GEC. IL-1 inhibitors did not affect A. actinomycetemcomitans-induced IL-8. although they inhibited IL-8 induced by IL-1alpha or IL-1beta. In conclusion, GEC are a major source of IL-1alpha and IL-1beta in the periodontium, which in turn induce additional inflammatory mediators such as IL-8. Therefore GEC can be a potential target for therapeutic intervention in the future.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Sfakianakis
- Department of Periodontology, University of Connecticut, School of Medicine, School of Dental Medicine, Farmington 06030-3105, USA
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24
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Guerrero-Plata A, Ortega E, Gomez B. Persistence of respiratory syncytial virus in macrophages alters phagocytosis and pro-inflammatory cytokine production. Viral Immunol 2001; 14:19-30. [PMID: 11270594 DOI: 10.1089/08828240151061347] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Functions of macrophage are known to be altered by acute infection with respiratory syncytial virus (RSV). However, it is unknown whether the persistent presence and expression of the RSV genome have any effect on the functions of these cells. We used a murine macrophage-like cell line (P388D1) persistently infected with RSV to determine: (i) phagocytic activity mediated by Fcgamma receptors, (ii) expression of Fcgamma receptors, and (iii) production of IL-1beta, IL-6 and TNF-alpha. Viral persistence was found to increase phagocytosis, expression of Fcgamma receptors and the production of IL-1beta and IL-6. In contrast the biological activity of secreted TNF-alpha decreased. In this study we give novel evidence that RSV persistence alters the biological activities of macrophages.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Guerrero-Plata
- Departamento de Microbiologia y Parasitologia, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, México
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25
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Monick M, Staber J, Thomas K, Hunninghake G. Respiratory syncytial virus infection results in activation of multiple protein kinase C isoforms leading to activation of mitogen-activated protein kinase. JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY (BALTIMORE, MD. : 1950) 2001; 166:2681-7. [PMID: 11160332 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.166.4.2681] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) is an important respiratory pathogen that preferentially infects epithelial cells in the airway and causes a local inflammatory response. Very little is known about the second messenger pathways involved in this response. To characterize some of the acute response pathways involved in RSV infection, we used cultured human epithelial cells (A549) and optimal tissue culture-infective doses (TCID(50)) of RSV. We have previously shown that RSV-induced IL-8 release is linked to activation of the extracellular signal-related kinase (ERK) mitogen-activated protein kinase pathway. In this study, we evaluated the upstream events involved in ERK activation by RSV. RSV activated ERK at two time points, an early time point consistent with viral binding and a later sustained activation consistent with viral replication. We next evaluated the role of protein kinase C (PKC) isoforms in RSV-induced ERK kinase activity. We found that A549 cells contain the Ca(2+)-dependent isoforms alpha and beta1, and the Ca(2+)-independent isoforms delta, epsilon, eta, mu, theta, and zeta. Western analysis showed that RSV caused no change in the amounts of these isoforms. However, kinase activity assays demonstrated activation of isoform zeta within 10 min of infection, followed by a sustained activation of isoforms beta1, delta, epsilon, and mu 24-48 h postinfection. A cell-permeable peptide inhibitor specific for the zeta isoform decreased early ERK kinase activation by RSV. Down-regulation of the other PKC isoforms with PMA blocked the late sustained activation of ERK by RSV. These studies suggest that RSV activates multiple PKC isoforms with subsequent downstream activation of ERK kinase.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Monick
- Department of Medicine, University of Iowa College of Medicine and Veterans Administration Medical Center, Iowa City, IA 52242, USA.
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26
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Abstract
Evidence derived from numerous studies ranging from animal experiments to extensive clinical trials supports a crucial role for respiratory viruses in acute otitis media. Viral infection of the upper respiratory tract initiates the whole cascade of events that ultimately leads to development of acute otitis media, and viruses contribute to the pathogenesis of this disease by several mechanisms. Recent data indicate that at least some types of viruses actively invade the middle ear and may also interfere with the outcome of otitis media. The availability of effective vaccines against the principal viruses predisposing to acute otitis media could be expected to result in a substantial reduction in the incidence of this disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- T Heikkinen
- Department of Pediatrics, Turku University Hospital, FIN-20520 Turku, Finland.
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27
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Røntved C, Tjørnehøj K, Viuff B, Larsen L, Godson D, Rønsholt L, Alexandersen S. Increased pulmonary secretion of tumor necrosis factor-alpha in calves experimentally infected with bovine respiratory syncytial virus. Vet Immunol Immunopathol 2000; 76:199-214. [PMID: 11044554 PMCID: PMC7119796 DOI: 10.1016/s0165-2427(00)00214-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/17/1999] [Revised: 06/21/2000] [Accepted: 06/27/2000] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Bovine respiratory syncytial virus (BRSV) is an important cause of respiratory disease among calves in the Danish cattle industry. An experimental BRSV infection model was used to study the pathogenesis of the disease in calves. Broncho alveolar lung lavage (BAL) was performed on 28 Jersey calves, of which 23 were experimentally infected with BRSV and five were given a mock inoculum. The presence of the cytokine tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-alpha) in the BAL fluids was detected and quantified by a capture ELISA. TNF-alpha was detected in 21 of the infected animals. The amount of TNF-alpha in the BAL fluid of calves killed post inoculation day (PID) 2 and 4 was at the same very low level as in the uninfected control animals. Large amounts of TNF-alpha were detected on PID 6, maximum levels of TNF-alpha were reached on PID 7, and smaller amounts of TNF-alpha were seen on PID 8. The high levels of TNF-alpha appeared on the days where severe lung lesions and clinical signs were obvious and the amounts of BRSV-antigen were at their greatest. Although Pasteurellaceae were isolated from some of the BRSV-infected calves, calves treated with antibiotics before and through the whole period of the infection, as well as BRSV-infected calves free of bacteria reached the same level of TNF-alpha as animals from which bacteria were isolated from the lungs. It is concluded that significant quantities of TNF-alpha are produced in the lungs of the calves on PID 6-7 of BRSV infection. The involvement of TNF-alpha in the pathogenesis of, as well as the anti-viral immune response against, BRSV infection is discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- C.M Røntved
- Laboratory of Veterinary Pathology, Institute of Pharmacology and Pathobiology, The Royal Veterinary and Agricultural University, Ridebanevej 1, DK-1870 Frederiksberg C, Denmark
| | - K Tjørnehøj
- The Danish Veterinary Institute for Virus Research, Lindholm, DK-4771 Kalvehave, Denmark
| | - B Viuff
- Laboratory of Veterinary Pathology, Institute of Pharmacology and Pathobiology, The Royal Veterinary and Agricultural University, Ridebanevej 1, DK-1870 Frederiksberg C, Denmark
| | - L.E Larsen
- The Danish Veterinary Laboratory, Bülowsvej 27, DK-1790 Copenhagen V, Denmark
| | - D.L Godson
- Veterinary Infectious Disease Organization, 120 Veterinary Road, Saskatoon, Sask., Canada S7N 5E3
| | - L Rønsholt
- The Danish Veterinary Institute for Virus Research, Lindholm, DK-4771 Kalvehave, Denmark
| | - S Alexandersen
- The Danish Veterinary Institute for Virus Research, Lindholm, DK-4771 Kalvehave, Denmark
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28
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Thomas LH, Wickremasinghe MI, Sharland M, Friedland JS. Synergistic upregulation of interleukin-8 secretion from pulmonary epithelial cells by direct and monocyte-dependent effects of respiratory syncytial virus infection. J Virol 2000; 74:8425-33. [PMID: 10954542 PMCID: PMC116353 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.74.18.8425-8433.2000] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) infection is the major cause of severe bronchiolitis in infants. Pathology of this infection is partly due to excessive proinflammatory leukocyte influx mediated by chemokines. Although direct infection of the respiratory epithelium by RSV may induce chemokine secretion, little is known about the role of cytokine networks. We investigated the effects of conditioned medium (CM) from RSV-infected monocytes (RSV-CM) on respiratory epithelial (A549) cell chemokine release. RSV-CM, but not control CM (both at a 1:5 dilution), stimulated interleukin-8 (IL-8) secretion from A549 cells within 2 h, and secretion increased over 72 h to 11,360 +/- 1,090 pg/ml without affecting cell viability. In contrast, RSV-CM had only a small effect on RANTES secretion. RSV-CM interacted with direct RSV infection to synergistically amplify IL-8 secretion from respiratory epithelial cells (levels of secretion at 48 h were as follows: RSV-CM alone, 8,140 +/- 2,160 pg/ml; RSV alone, 12,170 +/- 300 pg/ml; RSV-CM plus RSV, 27,040 +/- 5,260 pg/ml; P < 0.05). RSV-CM induced degradation of IkappaBalpha within 5 min but did not affect IkappaBbeta. RSV-CM activated transient nuclear binding of NF-kappaB within 1 h, while activation of NF-IL6 was delayed until 8 h and was still detectable at 24 h. Promoter-reporter analysis demonstrated that NF-kappaB binding was essential and that NF-IL6 was important for IL-8 promoter activity in RSV-CM-activated cells. Blocking experiments revealed that the effects of RSV-CM depended on monocyte-derived IL-1 but that tumor necrosis factor alpha was not involved in this network. In summary, RSV infection of monocytes results in and amplifies direct RSV-mediated IL-8 secretion from respiratory epithelial cells by an NF-kappaB-dependent, NF-IL6-requiring mechanism.
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Affiliation(s)
- L H Thomas
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Imperial College of Science, Technology and Medicine, Hammersmith Campus, London W12 0NN, United Kingdom
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29
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Lu H, Shen C, Brunham RC. Chlamydia trachomatis infection of epithelial cells induces the activation of caspase-1 and release of mature IL-18. JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY (BALTIMORE, MD. : 1950) 2000; 165:1463-9. [PMID: 10903751 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.165.3.1463] [Citation(s) in RCA: 82] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Th1 cells that secrete IFN-gamma are particularly important in protective immunity against intracellular pathogens, including chlamydiae, and IL-18 together with IL-12 are strong inducers of IFN-gamma secretion by CD4 T cells. Because epithelial cells are known to synthesize IL-18, we investigated the effects of Chlamydia trachomatis infection of human epithelial cell lines on IL-18 secretion. We confirmed that several human epithelial cell lines constitutively express pro-IL-18 and that C. trachomatis infection causes cells to secrete mature IL-18. This was observed for several different serovars and biovars of C. trachomatis. Chlamydia-induced secretion of IL-18 from epithelial cells was regulated at the posttranscriptional level and was dependent on the activation of caspase-1. IL-1alpha or other secreted factor(s) from chlamydia-infected epithelial cells as well as chlamydial structural component(s) were not involved in inducing IL-18 secretion. Activation of caspase-1 and increased secretion of mature IL-18 was correlated with chlamydial, but not with host protein synthesis. In contrast to epithelial cell lines, fibroblast cell lines constitutively expressed much lower levels of pro-IL-18 and did not secrete mature IL-18 after chlamydial infection even though caspase-1 was activated. Taken together, the results suggest that a chlamydia-derived factor(s) is essential for the secretion of mature IL-18 through caspase-1 activation in infected epithelial cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- H Lu
- Department of Medical Microbiology, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada
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Abstract
Acute otitis media is generally considered a simple bacterial infection that can be effectively treated with antibiotics. However, despite the extensive use of broad-spectrum antibiotics, poor clinical response to treatment of acute otitis media is common in children. Numerous studies ranging from animal experiments to extensive clinical studies have clearly demonstrated that respiratory viruses play a crucial role in the aetiology and pathogenesis of acute otitis media. Viral infection of the upper respiratory tract initiates the whole cascade of events that finally leads to the development of acute otitis media as a complication. Respiratory viruses induce a release of inflammatory mediators in the nasopharynx, increase bacterial colonization and adherence, and have a suppressive effect on the host's immune defense. Recent data indicate that at least some types of viruses actively invade the middle ear. Viruses also seem to enhance the inflammatory process in the middle ear and impair the outcome of the disease. Vaccines against the major viruses predisposing to acute otitis media hold a great promise for the prevention of this disease. Major advances in the management of acute otitis media will require further research into the mechanisms of viral infection, viral-bacterial interaction and the host inflammatory response during viral infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- T Heikkinen
- Department of Pediatrics, Turku University Hospital, Finland.
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31
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Abstract
Viral respiratory infection is very common. Respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) infects almost all children during the first 2 years of life. Respiratory syncytial virus is the most frequent cause of bronchiolitis, which is strongly linked with asthma. However, the pathophysiology of RSV bronchiolitis is unclear. Neutrophils are the predominant airway leucocytes in RSV bronchiolitis and other viral infections. Neutrophils and their products are likely to play an important role in viral infection. Current evidence indicates that: (i) viral infection of epithelial cells increases the production of neutrophil chemoattractants or chemokines, which induce neutrophil migration into the inflammatory sites; (ii) the expression of adhesion molecules on neutrophils and epithelial cells is up-regulated in viral infection, and neutrophil-epithelial adhesion is increased; (iii) neutrophils augment epithelial damage and detachment induced by viral infection and contribute to the pathophysiology of viral disease; (iv) neutrophil apoptosis is up-regulated in RSV infection, which may be an in vivo mechanism to limit neutrophil-induced epithelial damage; (v) inhibitors of chemokines, adhesion molecules or neutrophil proteases may be useful in prevention of neutrophil-induced epithelial damage. In conclusion, neutrophils play an important role in viral infection, and intervention to prevent neutrophil-induced epithelial damage may be a potential clinical therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- S Z Wang
- Department of Paediatrics, Flinders Medical Centre, Bedford Park, South Australia, Australia
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Herbein G, O'Brien WA. Tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-alpha and TNF receptors in viral pathogenesis. PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY FOR EXPERIMENTAL BIOLOGY AND MEDICINE. SOCIETY FOR EXPERIMENTAL BIOLOGY AND MEDICINE (NEW YORK, N.Y.) 2000. [PMID: 10719836 DOI: 10.1046/j.1525-1373.2000.22335.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 171] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-alpha) and TNF receptors (TNFR) are members of the growing TNF ligand and receptor families that are involved in immune regulation. The present report will focus on the role of the prototypic ligand TNF and its two receptors, TNFR1 and TNFR2, in viral pathogenesis. Although TNF was reported years ago to modulate viral infections, recent findings on the molecular pathways involved in TNFR signaling have allowed a better understanding of the molecular interactions between cellular and viral factors within the infected cell. The interactions of viral proteins with intracellular components downstream of the TNFR have highlighted at the molecular level how viruses can manipulate the cellular machinery to escape the immune response and to favor the spread of the infection. We will review here the role of TNF and TNFR in immune response and the role of TNF and TNFR signaling in viral pathogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- G Herbein
- Department of Internal Medicine, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston 77555-0835, USA.
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33
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Abstract
Despite the extensive use of broad-spectrum antibiotics, poor clinical response to the treatment of acute otitis media is common. Evidence derived from numerous studies during the past two decades supports a crucial role for respiratory viruses in the etiology and pathogenesis of acute otitis media, and recent studies indicate that viruses may also have a profound adverse effect on the resolution of this disease. Viruses seem to interact with bacteria and enhance the local inflammatory process in the middle ear. Effective adjuvant therapies are needed to improve outcome in children with otitis media. Increasing knowledge of the role of viruses, viral-bacterial interaction, and host inflammatory mechanisms in otitis media may lead to major improvements in the management of this disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Terho Heikkinen
- Department of Pediatrics, Turku University Hospital, FIN-20520 Turku, Finland
| | - Tasnee Chonmaitree
- Department of Pediatrics, Division of Infectious Disease, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, TX USA
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