Effect of amygdaloid kindling on the content and release of amino acids from the amygdaloid complex: in vivo and in vitro studies

Transcranial Focal Electric Stimulation Avoids P-Glycoprotein Over-Expression during Electrical Amygdala Kindling and Delays Epileptogenesis in Rats

Recent evidence suggests that P-glycoprotein (P-gp) overexpression mediates hyperexcitability and is associated with epileptogenesis. Transcranial focal electrical stimulation (TFS) delays epileptogenesis and inhibits P-gp overexpression after a generalized seizure. Here, first we measured P-gp expression during epileptogenesis and second, we assessed if TFS antiepileptogenic effect was related with P-gp overexpression avoidance. Male Wistar rats were implanted in right basolateral amygdala and stimulated daily for electrical amygdala kindling (EAK), P-gp expression was assessed during epileptogenesis in relevant brain areas. Stage I group showed 85% increase in P-gp in ipsilateral hippocampus (p < 0.001). Stage III group presented 58% and 57% increase in P-gp in both hippocampi (p < 0.05). Kindled group had 92% and 90% increase in P-gp in both hippocampi (p < 0.01), and 93% and 143% increase in both neocortices (p < 0.01). For the second experiment, TFS was administrated daily after each EAK stimulation for 20 days and P-gp concentration was assessed. No changes were found in the TFS group (p > 0.05). Kindled group showed 132% and 138% increase in P-gp in both hippocampi (p < 0.001) and 51% and 92% increase in both cortices (p < 0.001). Kindled + TFS group presented no changes (p > 0.05). Our experiments revealed that progression of EAK is associated with increased P-gp expression. These changes are structure-specific and dependent on seizure severity. EAK-induced P-gp overexpression would be associated with neuronal hyperexcitability and thus, epileptogenesis. P-gp could be a novel therapeutical target to avoid epileptogenesis. In accordance with this, TFS inhibited P-gp overexpression and interfered with EAK. An important limitation of the present study is that P-gp neuronal expression was not evaluated under the different experimental conditions. Future studies should be carried out to determine P-gp neuronal overexpression in hyperexcitable networks during epileptogenesis. The TFS-induced lessening of P-gp overexpression could be a novel therapeutical strategy to avoid epileptogenesis in high-risk patients.

Kindling of the basolateral or central nucleus of the amygdala increases suboptimal choice in a rat gambling task and increases motor impulsivity in risk-preferring animals

Impairments in decision making under uncertainty, as measured by the Iowa Gambling Task (IGT), are observed in persons suffering from temporal lobe epilepsy (TLE), in which seizures originate in the amygdala and hippocampal formations. Gambling disorder is also more prevalent in this population. Individuals with amygdala damage show similar deficits in decision-making, as do rats with lesions restricted to the basolateral amygdala (BLA) performing an analogous rat gambling task (rGT), yet whether hyperstimulation of the BLA impacts risky decision-making has yet to be demonstrated. We therefore investigated whether kindling of the BLA affected rGT performance. In this task, sugar pellet profits are maximised through consistent selection of options associated with smaller per-trial gains but shorter punishing time-outs. Just as in the IGT, subjects must avoid the risky options, as penalties are disproportionately high despite the higher reward available. Most rats adopt the optimal strategy, but some instead make high numbers of risky, disadvantageous choices. Once stable choice preferences had been established on-task, sixteen male Long Evans rats were implanted unilaterally with a bipolar electrode targeting the BLA and stimulated twice daily until three stage five seizures had been elicited. The electrodes revealed to be nearly evenly places in the BLA and the Central Nucleus of the Amygdala (CeA). Kindling transiently increased choice of the option paired with the smallest reward but also the lowest level of punishment- a risk-averse, but suboptimal, choice. Risk-preferring rats also made more premature responses, a marker of motor impulsivity, and were faster to make a choice, whereas these variables were unaffected in optimal decision-makers. These data suggest epileptiform activity originating within the amygdala can impair choice and promote impulsivity, at least in some individuals.

Transmitter self-regulation by extracellular glutamate in fresh human cortical slices

Glutamate is thought to be the most important excitatory neurotransmitter in the CNS, while glutamine predominantly serves as a precursor and metabolite in the glutamate-glutamine cycle. To verify the interaction between intrinsic extracellular glutamate, y-aminobutyric acid (GABA) levels and glial glutamine outflow in human tissue, fresh brain slices from human frontal cortex were incubated in superfusion chambers in vitro. Human neocortical tissue was obtained during surgical treatment of subcortical brain tumors. For superfusion experiments, the white matter was separated and discarded from the gray matter, which finally contained all six neocortical layers. Outflows of endogenous glutamate, GABA and glutamine were established after a 40-min washout period and amounts were simultaneously quantified after two-phase derivatization by high-performance liquid chromatography with electrochemical detection. Under basal conditions, amounts of glutamate could be found 20-fold in comparison to the inhibitory neurotransmitter GABA, whereas this excitatory predominance markedly declined after veratridine-induced activation. The basal glutamate:glutamine ratio of extracellular levels was approximately 1:2. Blockade or activation of the voltage-gated sodium channel by tetrodotoxin or veratridine significantly modulated glutamate levels, but the glutamate:glutamine ratio was nearly constant with 1:2. When the EAAT blocker TBOA was employed, glutamine remained nearly unchanged whereas glutamate significantly enhanced. These results led us to suggest that glutamine release through glial SN1 is related to EAAT activity that can be modulated by intrinsic extracellular glutamate in human cortical slices.

Ethanol-induced alterations of amino acids measured by in vivo microdialysis in rats: a meta-analysis

PURPOSE

In recent years in vivo microdialysis has become an important method in research studies investigating the alterations of neurotransmitters in the extracellular fluid of the brain. Based on the major involvement of glutamate and γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA) in mediating a variety of alcohol effects in the mammalian brain, numerous microdialysis studies have focused on the dynamical behavior of these systems in response to alcohol.

METHODS

Here we performed multiple meta-analyses on published datasets from the rat brain: (i) we studied basal extracellular concentrations of glutamate and GABA in brain regions that belong to a neurocircuitry involved in neuropsychiatric diseases, especially in alcoholism (Noori et al., Addict Biol 17:827-864, 2012); (ii) we examined the effect of acute ethanol administration on glutamate and GABA levels within this network and (iii) we studied alcohol withdrawal-induced alterations in glutamate and GABA levels within this neurocircuitry.

RESULTS

For extraction of basal concentrations of these neurotransmitters, datasets of 6932 rats were analyzed and the absolute basal glutamate and GABA levels were estimated for 18 different brain sites. In response to different doses of acute ethanol administration, datasets of 529 rats were analyzed and a non-linear dose response (glutamate and GABA release) relationship was observed in several brain sites. Specifically, glutamate in the nucleus accumbens shows a decreasing logarithmic dose response curve. Finally, regression analysis of 11 published reports employing brain microdialysis experiments in 104 alcohol-dependent rats reveals very consistent augmented extracellular glutamate and GABA levels in various brain sites that correlate with the intensity of the withdrawal response were identified.

CONCLUSIONS

In summary, our results provide standardized basal values for future experimental and in silico studies on neurotransmitter release in the rat brain and may be helpful to understand the effect of ethanol on neurotransmitter release. Furthermore, this study illustrates the benefit of meta-analyses using the generalization of a wide range of preclinical data.

Hispidulin inhibits the release of glutamate in rat cerebrocortical nerve terminals

Hispidulin, a naturally occurring flavone, has been reported to have an antiepileptic profile. An excessive release of glutamate is considered to be related to neuropathology of epilepsy. We investigated whether hispidulin affected endogenous glutamate release in rat cerebral cortex nerve terminals (synaptosomes) and explored the possible mechanism. Hispidulin inhibited the release of glutamate evoked by the K⁺ channel blocker 4-aminopyridine (4-AP). The effects of hispidulin on the evoked glutamate release were prevented by the chelation of extracellular Ca²⁺ ions and the vesicular transporter inhibitor bafilomycin A1. However, the glutamate transporter inhibitor dl-threo-beta-benzyl-oxyaspartate did not have any effect on hispidulin action. Hispidulin reduced the depolarization-induced increase in cytosolic free Ca²⁺ concentration ([Ca²⁺](C)), but did not alter 4-AP-mediated depolarization. Furthermore, the effect of hispidulin on evoked glutamate release was abolished by blocking the Ca(v)2.2 (N-type) and Ca(v)2.1 (P/Q-type) channels, but not by blocking ryanodine receptors or mitochondrial Na⁺/Ca²⁺ exchange. Mitogen-activated protein kinase kinase (MEK) inhibition also prevented the inhibitory effect of hispidulin on evoked glutamate release. Western blot analyses showed that hispidulin decreased the 4-AP-induced phosphorylation of extracellular signal-regulated kinase 1 and 2 (ERK1/2) and synaptic vesicle-associated protein synapsin I, a major presynaptic substrate for ERK; this decrease was also blocked by the MEK inhibitor. Moreover, the inhibition of glutamate release by hispidulin was strongly attenuated in mice without synapsin I. These results show that hispidulin inhibits glutamate release from cortical synaptosomes in rats through the suppression of presynaptic voltage-dependent Ca²⁺ entry and ERK/synapsin I signaling pathway.

The effects of electrical hippocampal kindling of seizures on amino acids and kynurenic acid concentrations in brain structures

Our study demonstrated that the development of seizures during the electrically induced kindling of seizures is associated with significant changes in the concentration of kynurenic acid (KYNA) and its precursor, tryptophan (TRP). The primary finding of our study was an increase in KYNA levels and the KYNA/TRP ratio (a theoretical index of activity of the kynurenine pathway) in the amygdala and hippocampus of kindled animals. We also found decreases in the concentration of tryptophan in the hippocampus and prefrontal cortex. Changes in the concentration of KYNA and TRP in the amygdala were accompanied by a significant decrease in γ-Aminobutryic Acid (GABA) levels and an increase in the glutamate/GABA ratio. Moreover, we found a significant negative correlation between the local concentrations of KYNA and glutamate in the amygdala of kindled rats. However, there were no changes in the local concentrations of the following amino acids: glutamate, aspartate, glutamine, glycine, taurine and alanine. In conclusion, these new results suggest a modulatory influence of KYNA on the process of epileptogenesis, characterized by a negative relationship between the KYNA and glutamate systems in the amygdala.

Glutamate microinjected in the posterodorsal medial amygdala induces subtle increase in the consumption of a three-choice macronutrient self-selection diet in male rats

Previous studies have involved the "posterodorsal" amygdaloid area with the control of food intake and the development of obesity in rats. Within this wide region, the posterodorsal medial amygdala (MePD) has connections with specific hypothalamic nuclei that increase feeding behavior and modulate energy balance. Glutamate is the major brain excitatory neurotransmitter, remarkably enhances centrally mediated food consumption, and is abundantly found in the MePD. Here, it was studied the effects of saline (0.3 μL) and glutamate (45 nM or 45 mM/0.3 μL) directly microinjected in the MePD of adult male rats on the consumption of a three-choice (high-carbohydrate, high-protein, or high-lipid) macronutrient selective diet. The rat adaptation to the experimental procedures and its body weight gain were continuously evaluated. Control data for all groups and results following microinjections were obtained after a fasting protocol. Feeding behavior was evaluated during the subsequent 2-hr period of free access to the selective diets. Both doses of glutamate microinjected in the MePD did not lead to a higher percentage of animals consuming any of the different diets (P > 0.05), although glutamate 45 mM induced a higher consumption of the high-carbohydrate diet when compared with presurgery control values (P < 0.01). Interestingly, present data indicate that glutamate in the male MePD induces only a subtle modification in the feeding behavior and suggest that large electrolytic lesions of the "posterodorsal" amygdaloid region might have affected other regions to alter drastically meal size consumption in rats.

Hypo-osmotic swelling modifies glutamate-glutamine cycle in the cerebral cortex and in astrocyte cultures

In our previous work, we found that perfusion of the rat cerebral cortex with hypo-osmotic medium triggers massive release of the excitatory amino acid L-glutamate but decreases extracellular levels of L-glutamine (R. E. Haskew-Layton et al., PLoS ONE, 3: e3543). The release of glutamate was linked to activation of volume-regulated anion channels, whereas mechanism(s) responsible for alterations in extracellular glutamine remained unclear. When mannitol was added to the hypo-osmotic medium to reverse reductions in osmolarity, changes in microdialysate levels of glutamine were prevented, indicating an involvement of cellular swelling. As the main source of brain glutamine is astrocytic synthesis and export, we explored the impact of hypo-osmotic medium on glutamine synthesis and transport in rat primary astrocyte cultures. In astrocytes, a 40% reduction in medium osmolarity moderately stimulated the release of L-[(3) H]glutamine by ∼twofold and produced no changes in L-[(3) H]glutamine uptake. In comparison, hypo-osmotic medium stimulated the release of glutamate (traced with D-[(3) H]aspartate) by more than 20-fold. In whole-cell enzymatic assays, we discovered that hypo-osmotic medium caused a 20% inhibition of astrocytic conversion of L-[(3) H]glutamate into L-[(3) H]glutamine by glutamine synthetase. Using an HPLC assay, we further found a 35% reduction in intracellular levels of endogenous glutamine. Overall, our findings suggest that cellular swelling (i) inhibits astrocytic glutamine synthetase activity, and (ii) reduces substrate availability for this enzyme because of the activation of volume-regulated anion channels. These combined effects likely lead to reductions in astrocytic glutamine export in vivo and may partially explain occurrence of hyperexcitability and seizures in human hyponatremia.

Effects of cocaine-kindling on the expression of NMDA receptors and glutamate levels in mouse brain

In the present study we examined the effects of cocaine seizure kindling on the expression of NMDA receptors and levels of extracellular glutamate in mouse brain. Quantitative autoradiography did not reveal any changes in binding of [³H] MK-801 to NMDA receptors in several brain regions. Likewise, in situ hybridization and Western blotting revealed no alteration in expression of the NMDA receptor subunits, NR1 and NR2B. Basal overflow of glutamate in the ventral hippocampus determined by microdialysis in freely moving animals also did not differ between cocaine-kindled and control groups. Perfusion with the selective excitatory amino acid transporter inhibitor, pyrrolidine-2,4-dicarboxylic acid (tPDC, 0.6 mM), increased glutamate overflow confirming transport inhibition. Importantly, KCl-evoked glutamate overflow under tPDC perfusion was significantly higher in cocaine-kindled mice than in control mice. These data suggest that enhancement of depolarization stimulated glutamate release may be one of the mechanisms underlying the development of increased seizure susceptibility after cocaine kindling.

Fragile X syndrome and epilepsy

Fragile X syndrome (FXS) is one of the most prevalent mental retardations. It is mainly caused by the loss of fragile X mental retardation protein (FMRP). FMRP is an RNA binding protein and can regulate the translation of its binding RNA, thus regulate several signaling pathways. Many FXS patients show high susceptibility to epilepsy. Epilepsy is a chronic neurological disorder which is characterized by the recurrent appearance of spontaneous seizures due to neuronal hyperactivity in the brain. Both the abnormal activation of several signaling pathway and morphological abnormality that are caused by the loss of FMRP can lead to a high susceptibility to epilepsy. Combining with the research progresses on both FXS and epilepsy, we outlined the possible mechanisms of high susceptibility to epilepsy in FXS and tried to give a prospect on the future research on the mechanism of epilepsy that happened in other mental retardations.

Time course of changes in the concentration of kynurenic acid in the brain of pentylenetetrazol-kindled rats

The time response of changes in the brain concentration of kynurenic acid (KYNA) was examined in rats subjected to the pentylenetetrazol (PTZ)-induced kindling of seizures (n=32). The development of seizures was accompanied by a progressive decrease in KYNA concentration in the caudate putamen, entorhinal cortex, piriform cortex, amygdala and hippocampus. A single injection of PTZ (35 mg/kg i.p.--the dose used in the kindling experiment, n=7) caused a much less pronounced KYNA depletion, with different structures affected: the nucleus accumbens, piriform cortex and amygdala. The comparison of KYNA concentration in rats subjected to the kindling of seizures with that in animals given a single, proconvulsive, dose of PTZ (55 mg/kg, n=7) showed that the kindling itself, rather than the occurrence of a fit of seizures, was responsible for the depletion of KYNA in the hippocampus and caudate putamen. Another control experiment showed that neither single nor repeated saline injections caused significant changes in KYNA concentration. The data indicate that changes in the brain concentration of an endogenous inhibitory neurotransmitter, KYNA, undergo selective modulation in the course of a kindling of seizures. This suggests that the depletion of KYNA within the hippocampus may be directly related to the development of kindled seizures in this model of epilepsy.

Amino acid levels in some brain areas of inducible nitric oxide synthase knock out mouse (iNOS−/−) before and after pentylenetetrazole kindling

Inducible nitric oxide synthase knock-out (iNOS(-/-)) mice are valid models of investigation for the role of iNOS in patho-physiological conditions. There are no available data concerning neuroactive amino acid levels of iNOS(-/-) mice and their behaviour in response to pentylenetetrazole (PTZ). We found no significant differences in the convulsive dose 50 (CD(50)) between iNOS(-/-) and control (iNOS(+/+)) mice, however, iNOS(-/-) mice reach the kindled status more slowly than control, suggesting that in basal condition the GABA-benzodiazepine inhibitory inputs are unaltered by iNOS mutation. Clear differences between iNOS(+/+) and iNOS(-/-) mice amino acid concentrations were evident both in basal conditions and after kindling. Our results show that aspartate was significantly lower in all brain areas studied except the brain stem whereas glutamate and glutamine were significantly higher in the cortex, hippocampus and brain stem. GABA was slightly and not significantly higher in the cortex, hippocampus and brain stem, whereas taurine was significantly higher in all areas except diencephalon and glycine was significantly lower in the diencephalon and cerebellum. In this context, the inability of iNOS(-/-) mice to increase the NO levels following PTZ administrations indicate that NO might play a pro-epileptogenic role in the genesis and development of some types of epilepsy. Since there is no correlation between neurotransmitter levels and the development of kindling, it is possible to exclude that the difference between the two strains is due to an imbalance between the considered neurotransmitters, and it is then possible that this difference is due to the presence of iNOS, which might be involved in long term plasticity of the brain.

Unilateral cortical spreading depression is an early marker of audiogenic kindling in awake rats

Spreading depression (SD), a self-propagating wave of reversible cellular depolarization, is thought to play an important role in brain pathophysiology. SD and seizures are closely related events but little is known about involvement of SD in chronic epileptogenesis. Here we show that cortical SD is the first and highly reproducible manifestation of audiogenic kindling induced by repeated sound stimulation of WAG/Rij rats with genetic audiogenic and absence epilepsy. Repetition of sound-induced running seizures in freely moving rats led to an appearance and gradual intensification of post-running facial and forelimb clonic convulsions coupled with afterdischarge in the fronto-parietal cortex. Before the development of these traditional manifestations of audiogenic kindling, an unilateral cortical SD wave began to be triggered by audiogenic seizures. Once cortical SD appeared, it became a permanent component of subsequent seizures. SD was always recorded in the hemisphere ipsilateral to the running direction. Only at the late stages of audiogenic kindling SD developed bilaterally. To estimate the contribution of SD in postictal effects of audiogenic seizures, we compared cortical activity after seizures induced SD or not. It was found that only seizures with cortical SD were followed by postictal suppression of spontaneous spike-wave discharges displayed by WAG/Rij rats. The results show that (1) cortical SD is readily triggered by brief sensory-induced seizures in awake animals; (2) SD may be responsible for postictal changes in cortical activity; (3) unilateral initiation of SD suggests asymmetrical recruitment of the cortex into seizure network during audiogenic kindling.

Induction of B1 bradykinin receptors in the kindled hippocampus increases extracellular glutamate levels: a microdialysis study

A link between temporal lobe epilepsy (the most common epileptic syndrome in adults) and neuropeptides has been established. Among neuropeptides, the possible involvement of bradykinin has recently received attention. An autoradiographic analysis has shown that B1 receptors, which are physiologically absent, are expressed at high levels in the rat brain after completion of kindling, a model of temporal lobe epilepsy. Thus, the present work aimed at investigating the functional implications of this observation, by studying the effect of B1 receptor activation on extracellular glutamate levels in the kindled hippocampus. Microdialysis experiments have been performed in two groups of rats, control and kindled. Glutamate outflow has been measured under basal conditions and after chemical stimulation with high K+ (100 mM in the dialysis solution). Basal glutamate outflow in kindled animals was significantly higher than in controls. High K+-evoked glutamate outflow was also more pronounced in kindled animals, consistent with the latent hyperexcitability of the epileptic tissue. The B1 receptor agonist Lys-des-Arg9-BK induced an increase of basal and high K+-evoked glutamate outflow in kindled but not in control rats, and the selective B1 receptor antagonist R-715 prevented both these effects. Furthermore, R-715 significantly reduced high K+-evoked glutamate outflow when applied alone. These data suggest that the bradykinin system contributes to the modulation of epileptic neuronal excitability through B1 receptors.

Vigabatrin in Low Doses Selectively Suppresses the Clonic Component of Audiogenically Kindled Seizures in Rats

PURPOSE

The effect of systemic administration of the gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA)-transaminase inhibitor vigabatrin (VGB) on different components of convulsions was tested in the model of audiogenically kindled seizures, which consist of brainstem (running, tonus) and forebrain (clonus) elements.

METHODS

Audiogenically susceptible rats of Krushinsky-Molodkina (KM), Wistar, and WAG/Rij strains received repeated sound stimulation (60 dB, 10-80 kHz) until kindled audiogenic seizures were reliably elicited. Kindled audiogenic seizures consisted of running, tonic, and generalized clonic phases in KM rats (severe audiogenic seizures) and of running and Racine stage 5 facial/forelimb clonus in Wistar and WAG/Rij rats (moderate seizures). Vehicle, 100, or 200 mg/kg of VGB was intraperitoneally injected 2, 4 and 24 h before the induction of kindled audiogenic seizures.

RESULTS

At both doses, VGB did not change the seizure latency and the duration of running and tonic convulsions, but suppressed clonic ones in all rat strains. In KM rats, the mean duration of posttonic clonus was significantly reduced at 24 h after 100 mg/kg and from 4 h after 200 mg/kg. In Wistar and WAG/Rij rats, the mean duration of facial/forelimb clonus was reduced from 4 and 2 h after 100- and 200-mg/kg administration, respectively; 24 h after the high-dose injection, clonus was completely blocked in all rats of both strains. No difference in efficacy of VGB between Wistar and WAG/Rij rats was observed.

CONCLUSIONS

VGB more effectively suppresses clonic convulsions than running and tonic ones in audiogenically kindled rats. It is supposed that this selective anticonvulsive effect of VGB results from different sensitivities of forebrain and brainstem epileptic networks to the presumed GABA enhancement.

Amino acid levels in some lethargic mouse brain areas before and after pentylenetetrazole kindling

Genetic animal models have contributed significantly to our understanding of epilepsy causes. Lethargic mice are considered a valid model of absence epilepsy, which have been shown to possess behavioral, electrographic and pharmacological profiles similar to those of humans with absence epilepsies. Single gene mutations that comprise the beta4 subunit of voltage-sensitive Ca2+ channels underlie the spontaneous discharges of the absence, non-convulsive seizures of lethargic mice. There are no available data concerning how the mutant channels actually behave at terminals in response to chemical activation by subconvulsant stimulation with pentylenetetrazole. In this study, we found no significant difference in the convulsive dose 50 between lethargic and control mice. Lethargic mice showed a more rapid development of kindling to pentylenetetrazole than control animals. No significant differences were observed between the groups of mice rechallenged with pentylenetetrazole 30 or 60 days after the end of the chronic treatment. Marked differences in brain amino acid levels were found between the two strains of mice in basal conditions and after kindling. In conclusion, our results indicate that lethargic mice show a range of biochemical and behavioral changes, correlated in particular with a higher susceptibility to develop kindled seizures.

In vitro1H NMR spectroscopy shows an increase in N-acetylaspartylglutamate and glutamine content in the hippocampus of amygdaloid-kindled rats

We examined energy metabolism and amino acid content in the hippocampus of amygdaloid-kindled rats using (1)H NMR spectroscopy. Three weeks after the last stage 5 seizure, kindled rats were killed by microwave irradiation. The hippocampus was dissected out and subjected to MeOH/CHCl(3) extraction. All (1)H spectra were analyzed to quantify absolute concentrations using a non-linear least squares method, combined with a prior knowledge of chemical shifts. Saturation effects were compensated for by the T1 measurement of each component. Levels of energy metabolism-related compounds, phosphocreatine, creatine, glucose and succinate were the same in both kindled rats and sham controls. Lactate concentration had a tendency to increase, although this was not statistically significant. When compared with sham controls, levels of aspartate, glutamate, glycine and glutamine, as well as GABA and inositol, were increased in the ipsilateral but not the contralateral hippocampus. In contrast, levels of taurine, alanine and threonine were unchanged. Finally, N-acetylaspartylglutamate content was elevated, whereas N-acetyl-l-aspartate content was unaltered in the ipsilateral hippocampus of kindled animals. Our results suggest that amygdala kindling may affects amino acid metabolism, but not energy metabolism.

Amygdala-kindling does not induce a persistent loss of GABA neurons in the substantia nigra pars reticulata of rats

GABAergic inhibition of the substantia nigra pars reticulata (SNR) has been shown to suppress seizures in most models of epilepsy, including the amygdala-kindling model of temporal lobe epilepsy (TLE). A dysfunction of this seizure gating mechanism of the SNR may lead to facilitation of seizure propagation in such models. In post-status epilepticus models of TLE, GABAergic neurons in the SNR are damaged, but it is not known whether such damage also occurs in kindling. By using stereological techniques for cell counting in amygdala-kindled rats, we determined the density of SNR neurons that were labeled for GABA by immunohistochemistry or for the two isoforms of the GABA-synthesizing enzyme glutamate decarboxylase (GAD), GAD65 and GAD67, by in situ hybridization (ISH). In addition, GABA neurons in the basolateral amygdala (BLA) were counted. While there was a significant reduction of GAD65 mRNA expressing neurons in the BLA of kindled rats, no alteration in the density of neurons was observed in the anterior or posterior SNR when cells were counted 6 weeks after the last kindled seizure. Our previous finding of reduced GAD and GABA levels in synaptosomes isolated from the SN of kindled rats together with the present observation of unchanged density of SNR neurons in such rats suggest that kindling affects the GABAergic projections from the striatum or globus pallidus to the SNR rather than directly affecting GABA neurons in the SNR.

Neurons in the amygdala play an important role in the neuronal network mediating a clonic form of audiogenic seizures both before and after audiogenic kindling

Previous studies showed that neuronal network nuclei for behaviorally different forms of audiogenic seizure (AGS) exhibit similarities and important differences. The amygdala is involved differentially in tonic AGS as compared to clonic AGS networks. The role of the lateral amygdala (LAMG) undergoes major changes after AGS repetition (AGS kindling) in tonic forms of AGS. The present study examined the role of LAMG in a clonic form of AGS [genetically epilepsy-prone rats (GEPR-3s)] before and after AGS kindling using bilateral microinjection and chronic neuronal recordings. AGS kindling in GEPR-3s results in facial and forelimb (F&F) clonus, and this behavior could be blocked following bilateral microinjection of a NMDA antagonist (2-amino-7-phosphonoheptanoate) without affecting generalized clonus. Higher AP7 doses blocked both generalized clonus and F&F clonus. LAMG neurons in GEPR-3s exhibited only onset type neuronal responses both before and after AGS kindling, unlike LAMG neurons in normal rats and a tonic form of AGS. A significantly greater LAMG neuronal firing rate occurred after AGS kindling at high acoustic intensities. The latency of LAMG neuronal firing increased significantly after AGS kindling. Burst firing occurred during wild running and generalized clonic behaviors before and after AGS kindling. Burst firing also occurred during F&F clonus after AGS kindling. These findings indicate that LAMG neurons play a critical role in the neuronal network for generalized clonus as well as F&F clonus in GEPR-3s, both before and after AGS kindling, which contrasts markedly with the role of LAMG in tonic AGS.

Kindling and status epilepticus models of epilepsy: rewiring the brain

This review focuses on the remodeling of brain circuitry associated with epilepsy, particularly in excitatory glutamate and inhibitory GABA systems, including alterations in synaptic efficacy, growth of new connections, and loss of existing connections. From recent studies on the kindling and status epilepticus models, which have been used most extensively to investigate temporal lobe epilepsy, it is now clear that the brain reorganizes itself in response to excess neural activation, such as seizure activity. The contributing factors to this reorganization include activation of glutamate receptors, second messengers, immediate early genes, transcription factors, neurotrophic factors, axon guidance molecules, protein synthesis, neurogenesis, and synaptogenesis. Some of the resulting changes may, in turn, contribute to the permanent alterations in seizure susceptibility. There is increasing evidence that neurogenesis and synaptogenesis can appear not only in the mossy fiber pathway in the hippocampus but also in other limbic structures. Neuronal loss, induced by prolonged seizure activity, may also contribute to circuit restructuring, particularly in the status epilepticus model. However, it is unlikely that any one structure, plastic system, neurotrophin, or downstream effector pathway is uniquely critical for epileptogenesis. The sensitivity of neural systems to the modulation of inhibition makes a disinhibition hypothesis compelling for both the triggering stage of the epileptic response and the long-term changes that promote the epileptic state. Loss of selective types of interneurons, alteration of GABA receptor configuration, and/or decrease in dendritic inhibition could contribute to the development of spontaneous seizures.

Amygdala amino acid and monoamine levels in genetically Fast and Slow kindling rat strains during massed amygdala kindling: a microdialysis study

We investigated the neurochemistry of epileptic seizures in rats selectively bred to be seizure-prone (Fast) vs. seizure-resistant (Slow) to amygdala kindling. Microdialysis was used to measure levels of amino acids [glutamate, aspartate and gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA)] and monoamines (noradrenaline, dopamine and serotonin) during 'massed' stimulation (MS) (every 6 min) of the ipsilateral amygdala for a total of 40 stimulation trials. Behavioral seizure profiles together with their afterdischarge thresholds (ADTs) and associated durations were assessed during the procedure, and subsequently were redetermined 1, 7 and 14 days later. Then normal 'daily' kindling commenced and continued until the animal reached the fully kindled state. During MS, several generalized seizures were triggered in Fast rats that were associated with long afterdischarge (AD) durations and intermittent periods of elevated thresholds, but in Slow rats, most stimulations were associated with stable ADTs and short ADs. Progressively increasing extracellular glutamate and decreasing GABA was observed in Fast rats during the MS, whereas Slow rats showed levels similar to baseline values. Levels of noradrenaline and dopamine, but not of serotonin, were also increased in both strains throughout the MS treatment. In Fast rats, a dramatic lengthening of AD durations occurred 7 and 14 days following MS, as well as subsequent strong positive transfer to daily kindling, all of which were not seen in Slow rats. Together, these results show that repeated, closely spaced stimulations of the amygdala can differentially alter excitatory and/or inhibitory transmitter levels in a seizure network, and that sensitivity to this manipulation is genetically determined.

Dynamic release of amino acid transmitters induced by valproate in PTZ-kindled epileptic rat hippocampus

In the present communication, the dynamic release of amino acid (AA) transmitters induced by valproate (VPA) in pentylenetetrazol (PTZ)-kindled freely moving rats hippocampus has been determined. The results showed that glutamate and aspartate release were significantly increased during the seizure/interical periods, and markedly decreased after the application of 200mg/kg valproate. In contrast, gamma-aminobutyric acid and taurine release were markedly decreased during interical period, and significantly increased during the seizure period. Glycine release was similar to the case of glutamate and aspartate release. The increase of either gamma-aminobutyric acid/taurine or glycine releases during the seizure period could be inhibited by the application of valproate likewise. The results indicate that: (a) the imbalance between excitatory and inhibitory neurotransmitters is really involved in epilepsy; (b) the modulation of valproate on the major amino acid neurotransmitters certainly plays one of important roles on antiepilepsy efficacy; (c) the pentylenetetrazol-kindled epileptogenesis model is a fit one for approaching the mechanisms of valproate modulating amino acid neurotransmitters.

Characterisation of the actions of group I metabotropic glutamate receptor subtype selective ligands on excitatory amino acid release and sodium-dependent re-uptake in rat cerebrocortical minislices

In this study we have tested the effects of a wide range of metabotropic glutamate receptor ligands on (i) depolarisation-evoked efflux of pre-accumulated d-[3H]aspartic acid (d-[3H]asp) from rapidly superfused rat cerebrocortical minislices, and (ii) Na+-dependent uptake of d-[3H]asp into cerebrocortical tissue. Transient elevations in extracellular K+ produced concentration-dependent increases in d-[3H]asp efflux. A submaximally effective concentration (50 mm) was used in all subsequent experiments. The broad-spectrum mGlu receptor agonist (1S,3R)-1-aminocyclopentane-1,3-dicarboxylic acid [(1S,3R)-ACPD; EC50 17.8 microm], the group I mGlu-selective agonist (S)-3,5-dihydroxyphenylglycine [(S)-3,5-DHPG; EC50 0.5 microm] and the mGlu5 receptor subtype-selective agonist (RS)-2-chloro-5-hydroxyphenylglycine [(RS)-CHPG; EC50 7.3 microm] all concentration-dependently potentiated high K+-evoked d-[3H]asp efflux in the absence of effects on basal outflow of radiolabel. At concentrations selective for mGlu1 receptors, the antagonists (RS)-1-aminoindan-1,5-dicarboxylic acid [(RS)-AIDA; 10-300 microm]; (+)-2-methyl-4-carboxyphenylglycine [LY367385; 1-100 microm] and 7-hydroxyiminocyclopropan[b]chromen-1a-carboxylate ethyl ester [CPCCOEt, 1-30 microm] all failed to inhibit responses to (S)-3,5-DHPG. However, the broad-spectrum mGlu receptor antagonist (S)-alpha-methyl-4-carboxyphenylglycine [(S)-MCPG; IC50 88.5 microm] together with the recently described mGlu5-selective antagonists, 2-methyl-6-(phenylethynyl)-pyridine (MPEP; IC50 0.6 microm), 6-methyl-2-(phenyl-azo)-3-pyridinol (SIB-1757; IC50 4.4 microm) and (E)-2-methyl-6-(2-phenylethenyl)pyridine (SIB-1893; IC50 3.1 microm), at mGlu5-selective concentrations, all powerfully and concentration-dependently inhibited (S)-3,5-DHPG-evoked responses. Two selective excitatory amino acid (EAA) uptake inhibitors, l-trans-2,4-pyrrolidine dicarboxylate (l-trans-2,4-PDC; IC50 229 microm) and dl-threo-beta-benzyloxyaspartate (dl-TBOA; IC50 665 microm) both inhibited the Na+-dependent uptake of d-[3H]asp into cerebrocortical minislices. Importantly, none of the mGlu ligands utilized in the present study significantly inhibited d-[3H]asp uptake at concentrations shown to potentiate K+-evoked efflux. These data demonstrate for the first time that mGlu5 ligands modulate extracellular EAA concentrations by a direct effect on mGlu5-type autoreceptors on EAA nerve terminals as they evoke clear changes in EAA release in the absence of any effects on EAA uptake. Selective mGlu5 receptor antagonists that show high potency and good central bioavailability may provide novel classes of neuroprotective agents for the treatment of brain disorders associated with abnormal EAAergic neurotransmission.

Coregulation of ethanol discrimination by the nucleus accumbens and amygdala

BACKGROUND

Activation of GABA(A) receptors in the amygdala or nucleus accumbens produces discriminative stimulus effects that substitute fully for those of systemically administered ethanol. This study was conducted to determine if GABA(A) receptors in the amygdala and nucleus accumbens interactively modulate ethanol discrimination.

METHODS

Male Long-Evans rats were trained to discriminate between intraperitoneal injections of ethanol (1 g/kg) and saline on a 2-lever drug discrimination task. The rats were then surgically implanted with bilateral injection cannulae aimed at the nucleus accumbens and the amygdala.

RESULTS

Infusion of the GABA(A) agonist muscimol in the nucleus accumbens resulted in full substitution for systemically administered ethanol. Concurrent infusion of the GABA(A) antagonist bicuculline in the amygdala shifted the muscimol substitution curve in the nucleus accumbens 10-fold to the right.

CONCLUSIONS

These results indicate that blockade of GABA(A) receptors in the amygdala significantly reduces the potency of the GABA(A) agonist in the nucleus accumbens. This suggests that the ethanol-like stimulus effects of GABA(A) receptor activation in the nucleus accumbens are modulated by GABA(A) receptor activity in the amygdala. These data support the hypothesis that the addictive stimulus properties of alcohol are mediated by GABAergic transmission in a neural circuit involving the amygdala and nucleus accumbens.

GABA and glutamate in the human brain

Cortical excitability reflects a balance between excitation and inhibition. Glutamate is the main excitatory and GABA the main inhibitory neurotransmitter in the mammalian cortex. Changes in glutamate and GABA metabolism may play important roles in the control of cortical excitability. Glutamate is the metabolic precursor of GABA, which can be recycled through the tricarboxylic acid cycle to synthesize glutamate. GABA synthesis is unique among neurotransmitters, having two separate isoforms of the rate-controlling enzyme, glutamic acid decarboxylase. The need for two separate genes on two chromosomes to control GABA synthesis is unexplained. Two metabolites of GABA are present in uniquely high concentrations in the human brain. Homocarnosine and pyrrolidinone have a major impact on GABA metabolism in the human brain. Both of these GABA metabolites have anticonvulsant properties and can have a major impact on cortical excitability.

Changes in extracellular levels of amygdala amino acids in genetically fast and slow kindling rat strains

A neurochemical basis for many of the epilepsies has long been suspected to result from an imbalance between excitatory and inhibitory neurotransmitter mechanisms. Data supporting changes in extrasynaptic amino acid levels during epileptogenesis, however, remain controversial. In the present study, we used in vivo microdialysis to measure the levels of extracellular GABA (gamma-aminobutyric acid) and glutamate during seizure development in rats with a genetic predisposition for (Fast), or against (Slow), amygdala kindling. Dialysates were collected from both amygdalae before, during, and up to 12 min after a threshold-triggered amygdala afterdischarge (AD). One hour later, samples were again collected from both amygdalae in response to a hippocampal threshold AD. Daily amygdala kindling commenced the next day but without dialysis. After the rats were fully kindled, the same protocol was again employed. Amino acid levels were not consistently increased above baseline with triggered seizures in either strain. Instead, before kindling, a focal seizure in the Slow rats was associated with a large decrease in GABA in the non-stimulated amygdala, while amino acid levels in the Fast rats remained near baseline in both amygdalae. Similar results were seen after kindling. By contrast, before and after kindling, hippocampal stimulation caused large decreases in all amino acid levels in both amygdalae in both strains. These data suggest that, in response to direct stimulation, extracellular amino acid concentrations remain stable in tissues associated with either greater natural (Fast) or induced (kindled Fast/Slow) excitability, but are lowered with indirect stimulation (hippocampus) and/or low excitability.

Reduction of glial glutamate transporters in the parietal cortex and hippocampus of the EL mouse

There is extensive experimental evidence indicating a crucial role for glutamate in epileptogenesis and epileptic activity. The glial glutamate transporters GLT1 and GLAST are proposed to account for the majority of extracellular glutamate re-uptake. In the present study, polyclonal antibodies specific to GLT1 and GLAST were generated and characterized, revealing distribution patterns for the two transporters confirming those previously reported. In situ hybridization and immunoblotting were then used to compare levels of these two transporters in the parietal cortex and hippocampus of unstimulated and stimulated EL mice with DDY control mice. Additionally, HPLC determined tissue glutamate concentrations in the same regions of these animals. These experiments revealed reductions in GLT1 mRNA and protein in the parietal cortex of unstimulated and stimulated EL mice compared with DDY controls, accompanied by an increase in tissue glutamate concentration in the stimulated EL mice group. GLT1 mRNA was also reduced in the CA3 hippocampal subfield of both unstimulated and stimulated EL mice. GLAST protein was reduced in the hippocampus of the stimulated EL mice group, while no changes in GLAST mRNA or protein were detected in the parietal cortex of EL mice when compared with DDY controls. The glial glutamate transporter down-regulation reported here may play a role in seizure initiation, spread and maintenance in the EL mouse.

Glutamate transport in rat cerebellar granule cells is impaired by inorganic epileptogenic agents

There is evidence that extracellular glutamate levels are elevated in certain brain regions immediately prior to and during induction and propagation of seizures. There appears to be a correlation between the capacity of removing released glutamate and the genesis of epileptiform activity. Some models make use of metals, such as Co(2+) and Ni(2+), to induce epilepsy. We used patch-clamp recordings to measure the electrogenic glutamate transport in neuronal cells. The present results indicate that Co(2+) (1 mM) and Ni(2+) (5 mM) blocked glutamate transport by 17.6+/-3.9% (n=5, P<0.05) and by 31.8+/-6.2% (n=7, P<0.05), respectively. Ni(2+) inhibited glutamate uptake in a dose-dependent manner. The IC(50) value obtained was 66.6 microM and the maximum inhibition was 40%. We conclude that one mechanism that may explain the seizures induced by exposure to those divalent cations is inhibition of the glutamate transporter.

Epilepsy-induced decrease of L-type Ca2+ channel activity and coordinate regulation of subunit mRNA in single neurons of rat hippocampal 'zipper' slices

L-type voltage-sensitive Ca2+ channels (VSCCs) preferentially modulate several neuronal processes that are thought to be important in epileptogenesis, including the slow afterhyperpolarization (AHP), LTP, and trophic factor gene expression. However, little is yet known about the roles of L-type VSCCs in the epileptogenic process. Here, we used cell-attached patch recording techniques and single cell mRNA analyses to study L-type VSCCs in CA1 neurons from partially dissociated (zipper) hippocampal slices from entorhinally-kindled rats. L-type Ca2+-channel activity was reduced by >50% at 1.5-3 months after kindling. Following recording, the same single neurons were extracted and collected for mRNA analysis using a recently developed method that does not amputate major dendritic processes. Therefore, neurons contained essentially full complements of mRNA. For each collected neuron, mRNA contents for the L-type pore-forming alpha1D/Ca(v)1.3-subunit and for calmodulin were then analyzed by semiquantitative kinetic RT-PCR. L-type alpha1D-subunit mRNA was correlated with L-type Ca2+-channel activity across single cells, whereas calmodulin mRNA was not. Thus, these results appear to provide the first direct evidence at the single channel and gene expression levels that chronic expression of an identified Ca2+-channel type is modulated by epileptiform activity. Moreover, the present data suggest the hypothesis that down regulation of alpha1D-gene expression by kindling may contribute to the long-term maintenance of epileptiform activity, possibly through reduced Ca2+-dependent AHP and/or altered expression of other relevant genes.

Monoamines and seizures: microdialysis findings in locus ceruleus and amygdala before and during amygdala kindling

We used microdialysis to determine extracellular concentrations of norepinephrine (NE), dopamine (DA) and serotonin (5-HT) before and during a 1-day amygdala kindling paradigm. Subjects were young cats (<1 year old; n=8; 6 female, 2 male). Consecutive 5-min samples (2 microl/min infusion rate) were obtained from left amygdala and ipsilateral locus ceruleus complex (LC) under 3 experimental conditions lasting 1-h each (n=12 samples per cat per condition): (1) just before amygdala stimulation (baseline), (2) during focal afterdischarge (AD) and (3) during generalized AD. ADs were elicited by electrical stimulation applied to establish thresholds immediately before dialysate collection as well as during each sample collected in focal vs. generalized AD conditions. Sample concentrations were time-adjusted to correspond with sleep vs. waking state and/or focal vs. generalized ADs. Seizure activity was indexed by AD threshold (mA) and duration (s) as well as number and duration of specific clinically evident (behavioral) seizure manifestations. Main results were: (1) Lower baseline concentrations (fmoles per sample) of NE, DA and 5-HT correlated with subsequent increases in duration of focal and generalized AD as well as number of behavioral seizure correlates. (2) When compared to baseline levels, NE, DA and 5-HT concentrations significantly increased only in amygdala during focal AD and in both amygdala and LC during generalized AD. (3) NE and 5-HT concentrations were higher than DA at both collection sites and were selectively associated with increased wakefulness throughout the study.

Long-lasting effects of feline amygdala kindling on monoamines, seizures and sleep

This report describes the relationship between monoamines, sleep and seizures before and 1-month after amygdala kindling in young cats (<1 year old; n=8; six female and two male). Concentrations (fmoles of norepinephrine or NE, dopamine or DA and serotonin or 5-HT) were quantified in consecutive, 5-min microdialysis samples (2 microl/min infusion rate) from amygdala and locus ceruleus complex (LC) during four, 6-8-h polygraphic recordings before (n=2) and 1 month post-kindling (n=2); 5-min recording epochs were temporally adjusted to correspond to dialysate samples and differentiated according to dominant sleep or waking state (lasting > or =80% of 5-min epoch) and degree of spontaneous seizure activity (number and duration of focal versus generalized spikes and spike trains and behavioral seizure correlates). Post-kindling records in each cat were divided into two groups (n=1 record each) based on higher or lower spontaneous EEG and behavioral seizure activity and compared to pre-kindling records. We found: (1) before and after kindling, NE and 5-HT but not DA concentrations were significantly lower in sleep than waking at both sites; (2) after kindling, each cat showed cyclic patterns, as follows: (a) higher NE, 5-HT and DA concentrations accompanied increased seizure activity with delayed sleep onset latency and increased sleep fragmentation (reduced sleep state percentages, number of epochs and/or epoch duration) in one recording versus (b) lower monoaminergic concentrations accompanied reduced seizure activity, rapid sleep onset and reduced sleep disruption in the other recording. The alternating, post-kindling pattern suggested "rebound" effects which could explain some controversies in the literature about chronic effects of kindling on monoamines and sleep-waking state patterns.

Action of 4-aminopyridine on extracellular amino acids in hippocampus and entorhinal cortex: a dual microdialysis and electroencehalographic study in awake rats

In order to study the role of amino acids in the hippocampus and the entorhinal cortex during the convulsive process induced by 4-aminopyridine (4-AP), we have used a device allowing the simultaneous microdialysis and the recording of their electrical activity of both regions in freely moving rats. We found that infusion of 4-AP into the entorhinal cortex resulted in a large increase in extracellular glutamate and glutamine and small increases in glycine and taurine levels. Likewise, infusion of 4-AP into the hippocampus resulted in a major increase in glutamate, as well as slight increases in taurine and glycine. In both infused regions the peak concentration of extracellular glutamate was observed 15 min after 4-AP administration. No significant changes were found in the non-infused hippocampus or entorhinal cortex of the same rats. Simultaneous electroencephalographic recordings showed intense epileptiform activity starting during 4-AP infusion and lasting for the rest of the experiment (1 h) in both the entorhinal cortex and the hippocampus. The discharges were characterized by poly-spikes and spike-wave complexes that propagated almost immediately to the other region studied. These findings suggest that increased glutamatergic synaptic function in the circuit that connects both regions is involved in the epileptic seizures induced by 4-AP.

Metabotropic glutamate autoreceptors of the mGlu(5) subtype positively modulate neuronal glutamate release in the rat forebrain in vitro

In the present study we have examined the role of presynaptic group I metabotropic glutamate (mGlu) receptors in the control of neuronal glutamate release using rat forebrain slices pre-loaded with [(3)H]D-aspartate. We have also addressed the question of which group I mGlu receptor subtype, mGlu(1) or mGlu(5), mediates the facilitatory response observed by the use of a range of established and some more novel agonists and antagonists showing selectivity for these receptors. The electrically-stimulated release of pre-loaded [(3)H]D-aspartate from rat forebrain slices was markedly potentiated by the potent group I mGlu receptor agonist, L-quisqualic acid (L-QUIS), in a concentration-dependent manner (EC(50) 17.31 microM). This response was inhibited by the mGlu receptor antagonists (S)-MCPG (100 microM) and (RS)-MTPG (100 microM) but not by the AMPA-type ionotropic glutamate receptor antagonist, NBQX (100 microM). The selective group I mGlu receptor agonist (S)-3, 5-dihydroxyphenylglycine ((S)-DHPG) also enhanced electrically-stimulated efflux of label, although responses diminished with high (10-100 microM) concentrations of the agonist. Maximum responses were fully restored when (S)-DHPG (10 microM) was applied in the presence of the proposed mGlu(5) receptor desensitization inhibitor, cyclothiazide (10 microM). The positive modulatory response to (S)-DHPG (1 microM) was powerfully inhibited by (S)-MCPG (IC(50) 0.08 microM) but was resistant to the mGlu(1) receptor antagonists, (RS)-AIDA (1-500 microM), CPCCOEt (0.1-100 microM) and (+)-2-methyl-4-carboxyphenylglycine (LY367385) (0.1-10 microM). The recently developed, selective mGlu(5) receptor agonist (RS)-2-chloro-5-hydroxyphenylglycine ((RS)-CHPG) enhanced electrically-stimulated [(3)H]D-aspartate efflux from rat forebrain slices with a similar concentration-response profile to that of (S)-DHPG. Responses to this receptor subtype-selective agonist were also blocked by (S)-MCPG (IC(50) 1.13 microM) but were unaffected by (RS)-AIDA (500 microM), CPCCOEt (100 microM) or LY367385 (10 microM). These results indicate that the positive modulation of neuronal glutamate release seen in the rat forebrain in the presence of group I mGlu receptor agonists is mediated by presynaptically located mGlu(5) glutamate autoreceptors. The pharmacological profile of these receptors appears to be distinct from that of postsynaptic mGlu receptors. Novel antagonists acting at these presynaptic receptors may provide new drugs for the experimental therapy of a range of acute or chronic neurodegenerative disorders.

Glutamate and gamma-aminobutyric acid content and release of synaptosomes from temporal lobe epilepsy patients

During surgical intervention in medically refractory temporal lobe epilepsy (TLE) patients, diagnosed with either mesial temporal lobe sclerosis (MTS)- or tumor (T)-associated TLE, biopsies were taken from the anterior temporal neocortex and the hippocampal region. Synaptosomes, isolated from these biopsies were used to study intrasynaptosomal Ca(2+) levels ([Ca(2+)](i)), and glutamate and gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) contents and release. All synaptosomal preparations demonstrated a basal [Ca(2+)](i) of about 200 nM, except neocortical synaptosomes from MTS-associated TLE patients (420 nM). K(+)-induced depolarization resulted in a robust increase of the basal [Ca(2+)](i) in all preparations. Neocortical synaptosomes from TLE patients contained 22.9 +/- 3.0 nmol glutamate and 4.6 +/- 0.5 nmol GABA per milligram synaptosomal protein, whereas rat cortical synaptosomes contained twice as much glutamate and four times as much GABA. Hippocampal synaptosomes from MTS-associated TLE patients, unlike those from T-associated TLE patients, contained about 70% less glutamate and 55% less GABA than neocortical synaptosomes. Expressed as percentage of total synaptosomal content, synaptosomes from MTS-associated TLE patients exhibited an increased basal and a reduced K(+)-induced glutamate and GABA release compared to rat cortical synaptosomes. In MTS-associated TLE patients, only GABA release from neocortical synaptosomes was partially Ca(2+)-dependent. Control experiments in rat synaptosomes demonstrated that at least part of the reduction in K(+)-induced release can be ascribed to resection-induced hypoxia in biopsies. Thus, synaptosomes from MTS-associated TLE patients exhibit a significant K(+)-induced increase in [Ca(2+)](i), but the consequent release of glutamate and GABA is severely impaired. Our data show that at least part of the differences in glutamate and GABA content and release between human biopsy material and fresh rat tissue is due to the resection time.

Hypothermia inhibits pentylenetetrazol kindling and prevents kindling-induced deficit in shuttle-box avoidance

In this study, we evaluated the effects of hypothermic exposure on pentylenetetrazol (PTZ) kindling and the resulting deficit of shuttle-box avoidance learning in rats. Additionally, to acknowledge neuronal cell loss, we estimated the number of toluidine blue-positive cells in different brain regions after PTZ kindling and hypothermia exposure in comparison to different normothermic and hypothermic controls. To obtain hypothermic conditions over a period of up to about 3 h, 30 min after PTZ application the animals were treated with 5 mg/kg chlorpromazine (CP) and 25 min later exposed to 15 degrees C cold water for 5 min. Under these conditions the rectal and the striatal temperature were reduced up to a maximum of 5 degrees C. The additional injection of CP did not influence the development of PTZ kindling. Animals treated with PTZ/CP and exposed to hypothermia did not reach the criterion for kindling. Furthermore, this group of animals did not demonstrate any learning deficit. Forty-eight hours after the last kindling application the number of toluidine blue-stained cells was decreased in the investigated brain regions (hippocampal CA1 and CA3 sector, hilus, and cingular cortex) of kindled rats. Hypothermia protected from cell damage in the hippocampal CA3 sector and in the hilus. Results suggest that the inhibiting effect of hypothermia on the development of kindling and the following learning deficit possibly resulted from the suppression of cell damage in distinct brain structures on PTZ-kindled rats.

Compensatory change in EAAC1 glutamate transporter in rat hippocampus CA1 region during kindling epileptogenesis

Functional and molecular changes in glutamate transporters during kindling epileptogenesis were investigated in hippocampus CA1-region of rats. In control animals total glutamate transporter activity was indicated by the stimulatory effect of the high-affinity transporter blocker L-trans-pyrrolidine-2,4-dicarboxylate on extracellular glutamate and aspartate concentrations, as measured by in vivo microdialysis. This blocker-induced elevation was absent already early during epileptogenesis. CA1 levels of the glutamate transporter subtypes GLAST and GLT-1, analyzed by quantitative immunoblotting, did not change during kindling epileptogenesis. However, the 60% decrease in EAAC-1 level observed in age-matched controls was fully compensated for in kindled animals 4-5 weeks after the last generalized seizure. These results indicate a compensatory change of the neuronal EAAC-1 glutamate transporter in CA1 region during kindling epileptogenesis, which may be the consequence of a decrease in total transporter activity.

Effect of depth electrode implantation with or without subsequent kindling on GABA turnover in various rat brain regions

Kindling is a chronic model of epilepsy characterized by a progressive increase in response to the same regularly applied electrical stimulus. The biological basis of the kindling phenomenon requires to be determined, but several studies indicate that impairment of GABAergic inhibition may be involved. In the present experiments, GABA turnover was determined in vivo by the GABA aminotransferase (GABA-T) inhibition method in 13 brain regions in three groups of rats: (1) a group which was kindled via electrical stimulation of intra-amygdala electrodes and was sacrificed 36 days after the last fully kindled seizure for neurochemical determinations; (2) a group of implanted but non-stimulated rats (sham control group) in which neurochemical measurements were done at the same time after electrode implantation as in the kindled group; and (3) a group of non-implanted, naive control rats. Regional GABA levels were determined after vehicle injection as well as 30 and 90 min after administration of aminooxyacetic acid (AOAA) at a dose which completely inhibits GABA-T. Compared to naive controls, prolonged electrode implantation in the amygdala induced a significant reduction of AOAA-induced GABA accumulation in amygdala, hippocampus, piriform cortex, olfactory bulb, frontal cortex, striatum, hypothalamus, tectum, and cerebellar cortex. In view of the GABA hypothesis of kindling, reduced GABA turnover in response to electrode implantation would suggest that the implantation per se exerts a pro-kindling effect, which was recently demonstrated in rats with intraamygdala electrodes. However, amygdala kindling itself appeared to antagonize the effect of electrode implantation in most regions. Thus, although, compared to naive controls, the predominant change in kindled rats was a decrease in GABA turnover, this decrease was less marked than in sham controls. In thalamus and brainstem kindling markedly increased GABA turnover above the levels determined in both naive and sham controls, possibly in response to impaired postsynaptic GABAergic function. The data indicate that both electrode implantation and kindling significantly alter regional GABA turnover, which might contribute to the pathophysiology of the kindling phenomenon. Furthermore, the data substantiate that the choice of adequate controls is critical in neurochemical and functional studies on the kindling phenomenon.

Glutamate receptors and transporters in genetic and acquired models of epilepsy

Glutamate, the principal excitatory neurotransmitter in the brain, acts on three families of ionotropic receptor--AMPA (alpha-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-isoxazole-4-propionic acid), kainate and NMDA (N-methyl-D-aspartate) receptors and three families of metabotropic receptor (Group I: mGlu1 and mGlu5; Group II: mGlu2 and mGlu3; Group III: mGlu4, mGlu6, mGlu7 and mGlu8). Glutamate is removed from the synaptic cleft and the extracellular space by Na+-dependent transporters (GLAST/EAAT1, GLT/EAAT2, EAAC/EAAT3, EAAT4, EAAT5). In rodents, genetic manipulations relating to the expression or function of glutamate receptor proteins can induce epilepsy syndromes or raise seizure threshold. Decreased expression of glutamate transporters (EAAC knockdown, GLT knockout) can lead to seizures. In acquired epilepsy syndromes, a wide variety of changes in receptors and transporters have been described. Electrically-induced kindling in the rat is associated with functional potentiation of NMDA receptor-mediated responses at various limbic sites. Group I metabotropic responses are enhanced in the amygdala. To date, no genetic epilepsy in man has been identified in which the primary genetic defect involves glutamate receptors or transporters. Changes are found in some acquired syndromes, including enhanced NMDA receptor responses in dentate granule cells in patients with hippocampal sclerosis.

Differential roles in the neuronal network for audiogenic seizures are observed among the inferior colliculus subnuclei and the amygdala

The inferior colliculus (IC) is established as the initiation site within the neuronal network for audiogenic seizures (AGS), but the relative importance of the IC subnuclei in AGS is controversial. The lateral and basolateral subdivisions of the amygdala are implicated in the expansion of the AGS network that occurs during AGS kindling. However, the role of the amygdala in the AGS network in nonkindled AGS is unknown. NMDA receptors are implicated in modulation of AGS and in neurotransmission in both the IC and amygdala. Therefore, changes in AGS severity in genetically epilepsy-prone rats (GEPR-9s) were examined after bilateral focal microinjection into IC subnuclei or lateral/basolateral subdivisions of the amygdala of a competitive NMDA receptor antagonist, 3-((+)-2-carboxypiperazine-4-yl)propyl-1-phosphonic acid (CPP). Blockade of AGS in IC central nucleus (ICc) and external cortex (ICx) was observed at identical doses of CPP, but these doses were ineffective in IC dorsal cortex (ICd). Microinjection of CPP into the amygdala did not produce significant changes in AGS severity except at doses 20 times those effective in IC. The latter data contrast with the anticonvulsant effects of amygdala microinjections on seizure severity in kindled AGS reported previously. The present data in concord with neuronal recording studies of these nuclei suggest that the ICc is the most critical site in AGS initiation, the ICx in propagation, and that the ICd plays a lesser role in the AGS network. The amygdala does not appear to play a requisite role in the neuronal network for AGS in animals that have not been subjected to AGS kindling.

Glutamate receptors in epilepsy

Glutamatergic synapses play a critical role in all epileptic phenomena. Broadly enhanced activation of post-synaptic glutamate receptors (ionotropic and metabotropic) is proconvulsant. Antagonists of NMDA receptors and AMPA receptors are powerful anticonvulsants in many animal models of epilepsy. A clinical application of pure specific glutamate antagonists has not yet been established. Many different alterations in glutamate receptors or transporters can potentially contribute to epileptogenesis. Several genetic alterations have been shown to be epileptogenic in animal models but no specific mutation relating to glutamatergic function has yet been linked to a human epilepsy syndrome. There is clear evidence for altered NMDA receptor function in acquired epilepsy in animal models and in man. Changes in metabotropic receptor function may also play a key role in epileptogenesis.

3H-L-glutamate binding and 3H-D-aspartate release from hippocampal tissue during the development of pentylenetetrazole kindling in rats

Previous studies have proposed that there is an increase in the density of glutamate binding sites after pentylenetetrazol (PTZ) kindling, whereas the glutamate release is not altered. Little is known about the time course of these changes. Therefore, we studied 3H-L-glutamate binding to hippocampal membranes and K+-stimulated 3H-D-aspartate release from hippocampal slices of rats given PTZ 3, 7, and 13 times up to a fully kindling state. After three PTZ injections, amino acid release from hippocampal tissue slices was significantly enhanced in comparison to controls, whereas 3H-L-glutamate binding was not altered. After seven injections of PTZ, specific glutamate binding to hippocampal membranes tended to increase, and K+-stimulated 3H-D-aspartate release from rat hippocampal slices was normalized. The kindled state characterized by generalized clonic-tonic seizures was reached after 13 PTZ injections, and it was accompanied by an enhancement in the density of glutamate binding sites, whereas the chemically evoked amino acid release remained unchanged. It can be concluded that the amino acid release is increased in the early phase of PTZ kindling development, whereas after completion of kindling, the density of excitatory amino acid binding sites is enhanced.

The effect of 2-amino-3-arsonopropionate and 2-amino-4-arsonobutyrate on the development and maintenance of amygdala kindled seizures

The effects of 2-a-3-arsonopropionate and 2-a-4-arsonobutyrate, the arsono analogues of aspartate and glutamate respectively, on the development of electrically-induced kindling in the amygdala, and on seizures induced in fully kindled rats, were compared to the effects of 3-amino-propylarsonate the arsono analogue of GABA. Intra-amygdaloid micro-injection of 2-a-3-arsonopropionate and 2-a-4-arsonobutyrate (10 nmol in 0.5 microl buffer phosphate) reduced the rate of epileptogenesis without preventing the development of generalized seizure responses, after 14 daily stimulations. In fully electrically kindled animals with stage 5 amygdala-kindled seizures, 3-aminopropy-larsonate (10 nmol/0.5 microl) increased after-discharge threshold (ADT) by 82% (P< or =0.005) without having any effect on mean seizure score or after-discharge duration. Chemical reduction of 3-aminopropylarsonate with glutathione diminished the anti-seizure activity of the drug. 2-a-3-arsonopropionate and 2-a-4-arsonobutyrate the arsono analogues of aspartate and glutamate were not effective when they were micro-injected into the amygdala of fully kindled animals at equivalent doses i.e. (10 nmol/0.5 microl). Higher doses (100 nmol/0.5 microl) of 2-a-3-arsonopropionate the analogue of aspartate increased the generalized seizure threshold by 40% (P < or = 0.025), while 2-a-4-arsonobutyrate was not effective even at high doses.

Amygdala-kindling induces a lasting reduction of GABA-immunoreactive neurons in a discrete area of the ipsilateral piriform cortex

Several lines of evidence indicate a critical role of the piriform cortex (PC) in the kindling model of temporal lobe epilepsy, suggesting that the PC is part of an epileptic network that is pivotal in the genesis of kindling, facilitating, and intensifying the spread of seizures from a focus in amygdala, hippocampus, or other limbic brain regions to cortical and subcortical regions. Kindling of the amygdala has been shown to induce long-lasting changes in synaptic efficacy in the ipsilateral PC comparable to abnormalities seen in epileptic foci, but the neurochemical alterations possibly underlying these functional changes are not known. The possibility that the enhanced excitability of the PC in response to kindling is related to a reduction of GABAergic neurotransmission prompted us to examine if a lasting reduction in GABA-immunoreactive PC neurons is detectable after kindling of the basolateral amygdala (BLA) in rats. Furthermore, GABA immunoreactivity was determined in the BLA in order to investigate whether GABAergic neurons decrease in focal tissue, as previously suggested by neurochemical and immunocytochemical studies in amygdala-kindled rats. Three groups of age-matched rats were used: (1) a group of rats that was kindled via electrical stimulation by a bipolar electrode implanted in the right BLA, (2) a group of BLA-implanted but nonstimulated rats, and (3) a group of non-implanted, naive control rats. The kindled rats were sacrificed 40 days after the last fully kindled seizure. The two other groups of rats were sacrificed together with the kindled rats on the same days, and tissues from kindled and control rats were treated concurrently throughout the immunohistochemical analysis. GABA neurons were stained by a monoclonal antibody to GABA. Kindling of the BLA led to a pronounced decrease in the number of GABA immunoreactive neurons in the ipsi- and contralateral BLA at all section levels examined. In the PC, no significant differences between groups were seen in the contralateral hemisphere, while a significant reduction in GABA immunoreactive cells was observed in the transition zone between anterior and posterior PC in the hemisphere ipsilateral to the BLA electrode. The present findings add to the accumulating evidence that the PC is critically involved in kindling-induced epileptogenesis. The data furthermore substantiate that the PC is not a homogeneous structure but that there are differences along the anterior-posterior axis of this region in neurochemical (and most certainly also functional) consequences in response to kindling stimulation from other limbic brain regions.

Reduction of GABA and glutamate transporter messenger RNAs in the severe-seizure genetically epilepsy-prone rat

The genetically epilepsy-prone rat is an animal model of inherited generalised tonic-clonic epilepsy that shows abnormal susceptibility to audiogenic seizures and a lowered threshold to a variety of seizure-inducing stimuli. Recent studies suggest a crucial role for glutamate and GABA transporters in epileptogenesis and seizure propagation. The present study examines the levels of expression of the messenger RNAs encoding the glial and neuronal glutamate transporters, GLT-1 and EAAC-1, and the neuronal GABA transporter, GAT-1, in paired male genetically epileptic-prone rats and Sprague Dawley control rats using the technique of in situ hybridization. In a parallel study, semiquantitative immunoblotting was used to assess GLT-1 and EAAC-1 protein levels in similarly paired animals. Animals were assessed for susceptibility to audiogenic seizures on six occasions, and killed seven days following the last audiogenic stimulus exposure. Rat brains were processed for in situ hybridization with radioactive 35S-labelled oligonucleotide probes (EAAC-1 and GAT-1), 35S-labelled riboprobes (GLT-1), and Fluorescein-labelled riboprobes (GLT-1 and GAT-1) or processed for immunoblotting using subtype-specific antibodies for GLT-1 and EAAC-1. Semiquantitative analyses were carried out on X-ray film autoradiograms in several brain regions for both in situ hybridization and immunoblotting studies. Reductions in GAT-1 messenger RNA were found in genetically epileptic-prone rats in all brain regions examined (-8 to -24% compared to control). Similar reductions in GLT-1 messenger RNA expression levels were seen in cortex, striatum, and CA1 (-8 to -12%) of genetically epileptic-prone rats; the largest reduction observed was in the inferior colliculus (-20%). There was a tendency for a reduced expression of EAAC-1 messenger RNA in most regions of the genetically epileptic-prone rat brain although this reached statistical significance only in the striatum (-12%). In contrast, no significant differences in GLT-1 and EAAC-1 protein between genetically epileptic-prone rats and control animals were observed in any region examined, although there was a tendency to follow the changes seen with the corresponding messenger RNAs. These results show differences in the messenger RNA expression levels of three crucial amino acid transporters. For the two glutamate transporters, GLT-1 and EAAC-1, differences in messenger RNA levels are not reflected or are only partially reflected in the expression of the corresponding proteins.

Specific group II metabotropic glutamate receptor activation inhibits the development of kindled epilepsy in rats

The effects of intracerebral administration of the group II metabotropic glutamate receptor agonist, 2R,4R-APDC, were tested on both the development of amygdaloid kindling and on fully developed stage 5 amygdala kindled seizures. The development of amygdaloid kindling was significantly retarded in 2R,4R-APDC (10 nmol in 0.5 microl) treated animals compared to control animals over a period of 8 days. At a low dose, 2R,4R-APDC (0.1 nmol) caused a 42.5+/-26.6% increase of the generalised seizure threshold in fully kindled animals. As higher doses were administered, however, the changes in generalised seizure threshold were less marked, and even a small decrease in the threshold was seen (-19.6+/-5.36% at 10 nmol). The agonist 2R,4R-APDC inhibited depolarization-induced release of [3H]d-aspartate from cortical synaptosomes with an IC50 value of 0. 29 microM. This effect was maximal at 1 microM, and decreased with dose thereafter. These findings suggest that the selective activation of the group II metabotropic glutamate receptors by agonists such as 2R,4R-APDC may be of therapeutic potential in the treatment of seizure disorders.

NADPH-diaphorase-stained neurons after experimental epilepsy in rats

The aim of this study was to determine the neuronal participation of nitric oxide (NO) in experimental epilepsy. To reach this objective, we established the amount of cells presenting nitric oxide synthase (NOS) and the amygdaline concentrations in the L-arginine-nitric oxide synthesis pathway. A group of fully epileptic rats, induced by the kindling procedure and that had reached at least 10 generalized seizures, was studied. We evaluated behavioral stages, electroencephalographic activities, and histochemical NOS-positive cells and carried out high-pressure liquid chromatography (HPLC) determinations of arginine, citrulline, and glutamic acid. Our results showed that behavioral and electrographic frequency, and duration of epileptic activities, were increased during the kindling process. Image processing system of NOS cells showed two types of intensities in cell stains in hippocampus, caudate-putamen, and amygdala. When we independently counted the two types of NOS stain cells, a selective increase in the number and density of weak-stained cells was observed, while dark-stained cells did not change in the studied structures. Additionally, arginine, citrulline, and glutamic acid concentrations in amygdala increased in kindled animals. The differential and specific increase in the stained cells expressing the nitric oxide synthase, as well as the increase in concentrations of the L-arginine-nitric oxide pathway in amygdala, suggested a relationship with the progressive augmentation in the electrophysiological hyperactivity characteristic of generalized epilepsy.