1
|
Immunogenicity of Varicella Zoster Virus DNA Vaccines Encoding Glycoprotein E and Immediate Early Protein 63 in Mice. Viruses 2022; 14:v14061214. [PMID: 35746685 PMCID: PMC9230688 DOI: 10.3390/v14061214] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/15/2022] [Revised: 05/30/2022] [Accepted: 05/31/2022] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Herpes zoster (HZ) is caused by the reactivation of latent varicella-zoster virus (VZV) from the sensory ganglia due to aging or immunosuppression. Glycoprotein E (gE) is a widely used vaccine antigen for specific humoral and cellular immune responses. Immediate early protein 63 (IE63) is expressed during latency, suggesting that it is a potential antigen against HZ reactivation. In this study, HZ DNA vaccines encoding gE, IE63, IE63-2A-gE (where 2A is a self-cleaving sequence), or IE63-linker-gE were developed and investigated for immunogenicity in mice. The results showed that each HZ DNA vaccine induced VZV-specific antibody production. The neutralizing antibody titer elicited by IE63-2A-gE was comparable to that elicited by gE or live attenuated HZ vaccine (LAV). IE63-2A-gE-induced gE or IE63-specific INF-γ+ T cell frequencies in splenocytes were comparable to those of LAV. Furthermore, IE63-2A-gE, gE, or IE63 led to a significant increase in IFN-γ (IE63 stimulation) and IL-2 (gE stimulation) secretion compared to LAV, showing a Th1-biased immune response. Moreover, IE63-2A-gE and gE induced cytotoxic activity of CD8+ T cells compared to that of LAV. This study elucidates that the IE63-2A-gE DNA vaccine can induce both humoral and cell-mediated immune responses, which provides a candidate for the development of an HZ vaccine.
Collapse
|
2
|
Bubak AN, Como CN, Hassell JE, Mescher T, Frietze SE, Niemeyer CS, Cohrs RJ, Nagel MA. Targeted RNA Sequencing of VZV-Infected Brain Vascular Adventitial Fibroblasts Indicates That Amyloid May Be Involved in VZV Vasculopathy. NEUROLOGY-NEUROIMMUNOLOGY & NEUROINFLAMMATION 2021; 9:9/1/e1103. [PMID: 34759019 PMCID: PMC8587729 DOI: 10.1212/nxi.0000000000001103] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/07/2021] [Accepted: 09/09/2021] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES Compared with stroke controls, patients with varicella zoster virus (VZV) vasculopathy have increased amyloid in CSF, along with increased amylin (islet amyloid polypeptide [IAPP]) and anti-VZV antibodies. Thus, we examined the gene expression profiles of VZV-infected primary human brain vascular adventitial fibroblasts (HBVAFs), one of the initial arterial cells infected in VZV vasculopathy, to determine whether they are a potential source of amyloid that can disrupt vasculature and potentiate inflammation. METHODS Mock- and VZV-infected quiescent HBVAFs were harvested at 3 days postinfection. Targeted RNA sequencing of the whole-human transcriptome (BioSpyder Technologies, TempO-Seq) was conducted followed by gene set enrichment and pathway analysis. Selected pathways unique to VZV-infected cells were confirmed by enzyme-linked immunoassays, migration assays, and immunofluorescence analysis (IFA) that included antibodies against amylin and amyloid-beta, as well as amyloid staining by Thioflavin-T. RESULTS Compared with mock, VZV-infected HBVAFs had significantly enriched gene expression pathways involved in vascular remodeling and vascular diseases; confirmatory studies showed secretion of matrix metalloproteinase-3 and -10, as well increased migration of infected cells and uninfected cells when exposed to conditioned media from VZV-infected cells. In addition, significantly enriched pathways involved in amyloid-associated diseases (diabetes mellitus, amyloidosis, and Alzheimer disease), tauopathy, and progressive neurologic disorder were identified; predicted upstream regulators included amyloid precursor protein, apolipoprotein E, microtubule-associated protein tau, presenilin 1, and IAPP. Confirmatory IFA showed that VZV-infected HBVAFs contained amyloidogenic peptides (amyloid-beta and amylin) and intracellular amyloid. DISCUSSION Gene expression profiles and pathway enrichment analysis of VZV-infected HBVAFs, as well as phenotypic studies, reveal features of pathologic vascular remodeling (e.g., increased cell migration and changes in the extracellular matrix) that can contribute to cerebrovascular disease. Furthermore, the discovery of amyloid-associated transcriptional pathways and intracellular amyloid deposition in HBVAFs raise the possibility that VZV vasculopathy is an amyloid disease. Amyloid deposition may contribute to cell death and loss of vascular wall integrity, as well as potentiate chronic inflammation in VZV vasculopathy, with disease severity and recurrence determined by the host's ability to clear virus infection and amyloid deposition and by the coexistence of other amyloid-associated diseases (i.e., Alzheimer disease and diabetes mellitus).
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Andrew N Bubak
- From the Department of Neurology (A.N.B., C.N.C., J.E.H., T.M., C.S.N., R.J.C., M.A.N.), University of Colorado; Department of Medical Laboratory Sciences (S.E.F.), University of Vermont, Burlington, VT; Department of Immununology & Microbiology (R.J.C.), University of Colorado; and Department of Ophthalmology (M.A.N.), University of Colorado, Aurora, CO
| | - Christina N Como
- From the Department of Neurology (A.N.B., C.N.C., J.E.H., T.M., C.S.N., R.J.C., M.A.N.), University of Colorado; Department of Medical Laboratory Sciences (S.E.F.), University of Vermont, Burlington, VT; Department of Immununology & Microbiology (R.J.C.), University of Colorado; and Department of Ophthalmology (M.A.N.), University of Colorado, Aurora, CO
| | - James E Hassell
- From the Department of Neurology (A.N.B., C.N.C., J.E.H., T.M., C.S.N., R.J.C., M.A.N.), University of Colorado; Department of Medical Laboratory Sciences (S.E.F.), University of Vermont, Burlington, VT; Department of Immununology & Microbiology (R.J.C.), University of Colorado; and Department of Ophthalmology (M.A.N.), University of Colorado, Aurora, CO
| | - Teresa Mescher
- From the Department of Neurology (A.N.B., C.N.C., J.E.H., T.M., C.S.N., R.J.C., M.A.N.), University of Colorado; Department of Medical Laboratory Sciences (S.E.F.), University of Vermont, Burlington, VT; Department of Immununology & Microbiology (R.J.C.), University of Colorado; and Department of Ophthalmology (M.A.N.), University of Colorado, Aurora, CO
| | - Seth E Frietze
- From the Department of Neurology (A.N.B., C.N.C., J.E.H., T.M., C.S.N., R.J.C., M.A.N.), University of Colorado; Department of Medical Laboratory Sciences (S.E.F.), University of Vermont, Burlington, VT; Department of Immununology & Microbiology (R.J.C.), University of Colorado; and Department of Ophthalmology (M.A.N.), University of Colorado, Aurora, CO
| | - Christy S Niemeyer
- From the Department of Neurology (A.N.B., C.N.C., J.E.H., T.M., C.S.N., R.J.C., M.A.N.), University of Colorado; Department of Medical Laboratory Sciences (S.E.F.), University of Vermont, Burlington, VT; Department of Immununology & Microbiology (R.J.C.), University of Colorado; and Department of Ophthalmology (M.A.N.), University of Colorado, Aurora, CO
| | - Randall J Cohrs
- From the Department of Neurology (A.N.B., C.N.C., J.E.H., T.M., C.S.N., R.J.C., M.A.N.), University of Colorado; Department of Medical Laboratory Sciences (S.E.F.), University of Vermont, Burlington, VT; Department of Immununology & Microbiology (R.J.C.), University of Colorado; and Department of Ophthalmology (M.A.N.), University of Colorado, Aurora, CO
| | - Maria A Nagel
- From the Department of Neurology (A.N.B., C.N.C., J.E.H., T.M., C.S.N., R.J.C., M.A.N.), University of Colorado; Department of Medical Laboratory Sciences (S.E.F.), University of Vermont, Burlington, VT; Department of Immununology & Microbiology (R.J.C.), University of Colorado; and Department of Ophthalmology (M.A.N.), University of Colorado, Aurora, CO.
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Histopathological Analysis of Adrenal Glands after Simian Varicella Virus Infection. Viruses 2021; 13:v13071245. [PMID: 34206909 PMCID: PMC8310062 DOI: 10.3390/v13071245] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/24/2021] [Revised: 06/15/2021] [Accepted: 06/17/2021] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Latent varicella zoster virus (VZV) has been detected in human adrenal glands, raising the possibility of virus-induced adrenal damage and dysfunction during primary infection or reactivation. Rare cases of bilateral adrenal hemorrhage and insufficiency associated with VZV reactivation have been reported. Since there is no animal model for VZV infection of adrenal glands, we obtained adrenal glands from two non-human primates (NHPs) that spontaneously developed varicella from primary simian varicella virus (SVV) infection, the NHP VZV homolog. Histological and immunohistochemical analysis revealed SVV antigen and DNA in the adrenal medulla and cortex of both animals. Adrenal glands were observed to have Cowdry A inclusion bodies, cellular necrosis, multiple areas of hemorrhage, and varying amounts of polymorphonuclear cells. No specific association of SVV antigen with βIII-tubulin-positive nerve fibers was found. Overall, we found that SVV can productively infect NHP adrenal glands, and is associated with inflammation, hemorrhage, and cell death. These findings suggest that further studies are warranted to examine the contribution of VZV infection to human adrenal disease. This study also suggests that VZV infection may present itself as acute adrenal dysfunction with “long-hauler” symptoms of fatigue, weakness, myalgias/arthralgias, and hypotension.
Collapse
|
4
|
Wu Y, Yang Q, Wang M, Chen S, Jia R, Yang Q, Zhu D, Liu M, Zhao X, Zhang S, Huang J, Ou X, Mao S, Gao Q, Sun D, Tian B, Cheng A. Multifaceted Roles of ICP22/ORF63 Proteins in the Life Cycle of Human Herpesviruses. Front Microbiol 2021; 12:668461. [PMID: 34163446 PMCID: PMC8215345 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2021.668461] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/16/2021] [Accepted: 05/05/2021] [Indexed: 01/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Herpesviruses are extremely successful parasites that have evolved over millions of years to develop a variety of mechanisms to coexist with their hosts and to maintain host-to-host transmission and lifelong infection by regulating their life cycles. The life cycle of herpesviruses consists of two phases: lytic infection and latent infection. During lytic infection, active replication and the production of numerous progeny virions occur. Subsequent suppression of the host immune response leads to a lifetime latent infection of the host. During latent infection, the viral genome remains in an inactive state in the host cell to avoid host immune surveillance, but the virus can be reactivated and reenter the lytic cycle. The balance between these two phases of the herpesvirus life cycle is controlled by broad interactions among numerous viral and cellular factors. ICP22/ORF63 proteins are among these factors and are involved in transcription, nuclear budding, latency establishment, and reactivation. In this review, we summarized the various roles and complex mechanisms by which ICP22/ORF63 proteins regulate the life cycle of human herpesviruses and the complex relationships among host and viral factors. Elucidating the role and mechanism of ICP22/ORF63 in virus-host interactions will deepen our understanding of the viral life cycle. In addition, it will also help us to understand the pathogenesis of herpesvirus infections and provide new strategies for combating these infections.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ying Wu
- Institute of Preventive Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, China
- Avian Disease Research Center, College of Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, China
- Key Laboratory of Animal Disease and Human Health of Sichuan Province, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, China
| | - Qiqi Yang
- Institute of Preventive Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, China
- Avian Disease Research Center, College of Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, China
- Key Laboratory of Animal Disease and Human Health of Sichuan Province, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, China
| | - Mingshu Wang
- Institute of Preventive Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, China
- Avian Disease Research Center, College of Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, China
- Key Laboratory of Animal Disease and Human Health of Sichuan Province, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, China
| | - Shun Chen
- Institute of Preventive Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, China
- Avian Disease Research Center, College of Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, China
- Key Laboratory of Animal Disease and Human Health of Sichuan Province, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, China
| | - Renyong Jia
- Institute of Preventive Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, China
- Avian Disease Research Center, College of Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, China
- Key Laboratory of Animal Disease and Human Health of Sichuan Province, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, China
| | - Qiao Yang
- Institute of Preventive Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, China
- Avian Disease Research Center, College of Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, China
- Key Laboratory of Animal Disease and Human Health of Sichuan Province, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, China
| | - Dekang Zhu
- Avian Disease Research Center, College of Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, China
- Key Laboratory of Animal Disease and Human Health of Sichuan Province, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, China
| | - Mafeng Liu
- Institute of Preventive Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, China
- Avian Disease Research Center, College of Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, China
- Key Laboratory of Animal Disease and Human Health of Sichuan Province, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, China
| | - Xinxin Zhao
- Institute of Preventive Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, China
- Avian Disease Research Center, College of Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, China
- Key Laboratory of Animal Disease and Human Health of Sichuan Province, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, China
| | - Shaqiu Zhang
- Institute of Preventive Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, China
- Avian Disease Research Center, College of Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, China
- Key Laboratory of Animal Disease and Human Health of Sichuan Province, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, China
| | - Juan Huang
- Institute of Preventive Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, China
- Avian Disease Research Center, College of Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, China
- Key Laboratory of Animal Disease and Human Health of Sichuan Province, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, China
| | - Xumin Ou
- Institute of Preventive Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, China
- Avian Disease Research Center, College of Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, China
- Key Laboratory of Animal Disease and Human Health of Sichuan Province, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, China
| | - Sai Mao
- Institute of Preventive Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, China
- Avian Disease Research Center, College of Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, China
- Key Laboratory of Animal Disease and Human Health of Sichuan Province, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, China
| | - Qun Gao
- Institute of Preventive Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, China
- Avian Disease Research Center, College of Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, China
- Key Laboratory of Animal Disease and Human Health of Sichuan Province, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, China
| | - Di Sun
- Institute of Preventive Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, China
- Avian Disease Research Center, College of Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, China
- Key Laboratory of Animal Disease and Human Health of Sichuan Province, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, China
| | - Bin Tian
- Institute of Preventive Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, China
- Avian Disease Research Center, College of Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, China
- Key Laboratory of Animal Disease and Human Health of Sichuan Province, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, China
| | - Anchun Cheng
- Institute of Preventive Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, China
- Avian Disease Research Center, College of Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, China
- Key Laboratory of Animal Disease and Human Health of Sichuan Province, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, China
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Abstract
Purpose of review Varicella zoster virus (VZV) is a highly contagious, neurotropic alpha herpes virus that causes varicella (chickenpox). VZV establishes lifelong latency in the sensory ganglia from which it can reactivate to induce herpes zoster (HZ), a painful disease that primarily affects older individuals and those who are immune-suppressed. Given that VZV infection is highly specific to humans, developing a reliable in vivo model that recapitulates the hallmarks of VZV infection has been challenging. Simian Varicella Virus (SVV) infection in nonhuman primates reproduces the cardinal features of VZV infections in humans and allows the study of varicella virus pathogenesis in the natural host. In this review, we summarize our current knowledge about genomic and virion structure of varicelloviruses as well as viral pathogenesis and antiviral immune responses during acute infection, latency and reactivation. We also examine the immune evasion mechanisms developed by varicelloviruses to escape the host immune responses and the current vaccines available for protecting individuals against chickenpox and herpes zoster. Recent findings Data from recent studies suggest that infected T cells are important for viral dissemination to the cutaneous sites of infection as well as site of latency and that a viral latency-associated transcript might play a role in the transition from lytic infection to latency and then reactivation. Summary Recent studies have provided exciting insights into mechanisms of varicelloviruses pathogenesis such as the critical role of T cells in VZV/SVV dissemination from the respiratory mucosa to the skin and the sensory ganglia; the ability of VZV/SVV to interfere with host defense; and the identification of VLT transcripts in latently infected ganglia. However, our understanding of these phenomena remains poorly understood. Therefore, it is critical that we continue to investigate host-pathogen interactions during varicelloviruses infection. These studies will lead to a deeper understanding of VZV biology as well as novel aspects of cell biology.
Collapse
|
6
|
Comparing Gene Expression in the Parabrachial and Amygdala of Diestrus and Proestrus Female Rats after Orofacial Varicella Zoster Injection. Int J Mol Sci 2020; 21:ijms21165749. [PMID: 32796585 PMCID: PMC7461146 DOI: 10.3390/ijms21165749] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2020] [Revised: 08/05/2020] [Accepted: 08/09/2020] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
The orofacial pain pathway projects to the parabrachial and amygdala, and sex steroids have been shown to affect neuronal activity in these regions. GABA positive cells in the amygdala are influenced by sex steroid metabolites to affect pain, and sex steroids have been shown to alter the expression of genes in the parabrachial, changing neuronal excitability. Mechanisms by which sex steroids affect amygdala and parabrachial signaling are unclear. The expression of genes in the parabrachial and amygdala in diestrus (low estradiol) and proestrus (high estradiol) female rats were evaluated in this study. First, varicella zoster virus was injected into the whisker pad of female rats to induce a pain response. Second, gene expression was quantitated using RNA-seq one week after injection. Genes that had the greatest change in expression and known to function in pain signaling were selected for the quantitation of protein content. Protein expression of four genes in the parabrachial and seven genes in the amygdala were quantitated by ELISA. In the parabrachial, neurexin 3 (Nrnx3) was elevated at proestrus. Nrnx3 has a role in AMPA receptor and GABA signaling. Neuronatin (Nnat) and protein phosphatase, Mg2+/Mn2+ dependent 1E (Ppm1e) were elevated in the parabrachial of diestrus animals both genes having a role in pain signaling. Epoxide hydroxylase (Ephx2) was elevated in the parabrachial at proestrus and the vitamin D receptor (Vdr) was elevated in the amygdala. Ephx2 antagonists and vitamin D have been used to treat neuropathic pain. In conclusion, sex steroids regulate genes in the parabrachial and amygdala that might result in the greater pain response observed during diestrus.
Collapse
|
7
|
Bubak AN, Como CN, Coughlan CM, Johnson NR, Hassell JE, Mescher T, Niemeyer CS, Mahalingam R, Cohrs RJ, Boyd TD, Potter H, Russ HA, Nagel MA. Varicella-Zoster Virus Infection of Primary Human Spinal Astrocytes Produces Intracellular Amylin, Amyloid-β, and an Amyloidogenic Extracellular Environment. J Infect Dis 2020; 221:1088-1097. [PMID: 31665341 PMCID: PMC7075411 DOI: 10.1093/infdis/jiz560] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/29/2019] [Accepted: 10/23/2019] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Herpes zoster is linked to amyloid-associated diseases, including dementia, macular degeneration, and diabetes mellitus, in epidemiological studies. Thus, we examined whether varicella-zoster virus (VZV)-infected cells produce amyloid. METHODS Production of intracellular amyloidogenic proteins (amylin, amyloid precursor protein [APP], and amyloid-β [Aβ]) and amyloid, as well as extracellular amylin, Aβ, and amyloid, was compared between mock- and VZV-infected quiescent primary human spinal astrocytes (qHA-sps). The ability of supernatant from infected cells to induce amylin or Aβ42 aggregation was quantitated. Finally, the amyloidogenic activity of viral peptides was examined. RESULTS VZV-infected qHA-sps, but not mock-infected qHA-sps, contained intracellular amylin, APP, and/or Aβ, and amyloid. No differences in extracellular amylin, Aβ40, or Aβ42 were detected, yet only supernatant from VZV-infected cells induced amylin aggregation and, to a lesser extent, Aβ42 aggregation into amyloid fibrils. VZV glycoprotein B (gB) peptides assembled into fibrils and catalyzed amylin and Aβ42 aggregation. CONCLUSIONS VZV-infected qHA-sps produced intracellular amyloid and their extracellular environment promoted aggregation of cellular peptides into amyloid fibrils that may be due, in part, to VZV gB peptides. These findings suggest that together with host and other environmental factors, VZV infection may increase the toxic amyloid burden and contribute to amyloid-associated disease progression.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Andrew N Bubak
- Department of Neurology, University of Colorado School of Medicine, Aurora, Colorado, USA
| | - Christina N Como
- Department of Neurology, University of Colorado School of Medicine, Aurora, Colorado, USA
| | - Christina M Coughlan
- Department of Neurology, University of Colorado School of Medicine, Aurora, Colorado, USA
- Rocky Mountain Alzheimer’s Disease Center, University of Colorado School of Medicine, Aurora, Colorado, USA
- Linda Crnic Institute for Down Syndrome Research, University of Colorado School of Medicine, Aurora, Colorado, USA
| | - Noah R Johnson
- Department of Neurology, University of Colorado School of Medicine, Aurora, Colorado, USA
- Rocky Mountain Alzheimer’s Disease Center, University of Colorado School of Medicine, Aurora, Colorado, USA
- Linda Crnic Institute for Down Syndrome Research, University of Colorado School of Medicine, Aurora, Colorado, USA
| | - James E Hassell
- Department of Neurology, University of Colorado School of Medicine, Aurora, Colorado, USA
| | - Teresa Mescher
- Department of Neurology, University of Colorado School of Medicine, Aurora, Colorado, USA
| | - Christy S Niemeyer
- Department of Neurology, University of Colorado School of Medicine, Aurora, Colorado, USA
| | - Ravi Mahalingam
- Department of Neurology, University of Colorado School of Medicine, Aurora, Colorado, USA
| | - Randall J Cohrs
- Department of Neurology, University of Colorado School of Medicine, Aurora, Colorado, USA
- Department of Immunology and Microbiology, University of Colorado School of Medicine, Aurora, Colorado, USA
| | - Timothy D Boyd
- Department of Neurology, University of Colorado School of Medicine, Aurora, Colorado, USA
- Rocky Mountain Alzheimer’s Disease Center, University of Colorado School of Medicine, Aurora, Colorado, USA
- Linda Crnic Institute for Down Syndrome Research, University of Colorado School of Medicine, Aurora, Colorado, USA
| | - Huntington Potter
- Department of Neurology, University of Colorado School of Medicine, Aurora, Colorado, USA
- Rocky Mountain Alzheimer’s Disease Center, University of Colorado School of Medicine, Aurora, Colorado, USA
- Linda Crnic Institute for Down Syndrome Research, University of Colorado School of Medicine, Aurora, Colorado, USA
| | - Holger A Russ
- Barbara Davis Center for Diabetes, University of Colorado School of Medicine, Aurora, Colorado, USA
| | - Maria A Nagel
- Department of Neurology, University of Colorado School of Medicine, Aurora, Colorado, USA
- Department of Ophthalmology, University of Colorado School of Medicine, Aurora, Colorado, USA
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Kennedy PG, Graner MW, Gunaydin D, Bowlin J, Pointon T, Yu X. Varicella-Zoster Virus infected human neurons are resistant to apoptosis. J Neurovirol 2020; 26:330-337. [PMID: 32125664 DOI: 10.1007/s13365-020-00831-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/27/2019] [Revised: 12/13/2019] [Accepted: 02/03/2020] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
Varicella-zoster virus (VZV) is a pathogenic human herpesvirus that causes varicella (chickenpox) as a primary infection following which it becomes latent in ganglionic neurons. Following viral reactivation many years later VZV causes herpes zoster (shingles) as well as a variety of other neurological syndromes. The molecular mechanisms of the conversion of the virus from a lytic to a latent state in ganglia are not well understood. In order to gain insights into the neuron-virus interaction, we studied virus-induced apoptosis in cultures of both highly pure terminally differentiated human neurons and human fetal lung fibroblasts (HFL). It was found that (a) VZV DNA did not accumulate in infected human neurons; (b) VZV transcripts were present at lower levels at all days studied post-infection in neurons; (c) Western blot analysis showed less VZV IE 63 and very little detectable VZV gE proteins in infected neurons compared with HFL; (d) lower levels of the apoptotic marker cleaved Caspase-3 protein were detected in VZV-infected neurons compared with HFL, and higher levels of the known anti-apoptotic proteins Bcl2, Bcl-XL and also the mitochondrial MT-CO2 protein were found in VZV-infected neurons compared with uninfected cells; and (e) both the MT-CO2 protein and VZV IE 63-encoded protein were detected in infected neurons by dual immunofluorescence. These findings showed that neurons are resistant to VZV-induced apoptosis, which may have relevance to the switching of VZV from a lytic to latent ganglionic neuronal infection.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Peter Ge Kennedy
- Institute of Infection, Immunity and Inflammation, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, UK
| | - Michael W Graner
- Department of Neurosurgery, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, CO, USA
| | - Dicle Gunaydin
- Department of Neurology, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, CO, USA
| | - Jackie Bowlin
- Department of Neurology, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, CO, USA
| | - Tiffany Pointon
- Department of Neurology, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, CO, USA
| | - Xiaoli Yu
- Department of Neurosurgery, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, CO, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
9
|
Weidner-Glunde M, Kruminis-Kaszkiel E, Savanagouder M. Herpesviral Latency-Common Themes. Pathogens 2020; 9:E125. [PMID: 32075270 PMCID: PMC7167855 DOI: 10.3390/pathogens9020125] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/22/2020] [Revised: 02/09/2020] [Accepted: 02/14/2020] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Latency establishment is the hallmark feature of herpesviruses, a group of viruses, of which nine are known to infect humans. They have co-evolved alongside their hosts, and mastered manipulation of cellular pathways and tweaking various processes to their advantage. As a result, they are very well adapted to persistence. The members of the three subfamilies belonging to the family Herpesviridae differ with regard to cell tropism, target cells for the latent reservoir, and characteristics of the infection. The mechanisms governing the latent state also seem quite different. Our knowledge about latency is most complete for the gammaherpesviruses due to previously missing adequate latency models for the alpha and beta-herpesviruses. Nevertheless, with advances in cell biology and the availability of appropriate cell-culture and animal models, the common features of the latency in the different subfamilies began to emerge. Three criteria have been set forth to define latency and differentiate it from persistent or abortive infection: 1) persistence of the viral genome, 2) limited viral gene expression with no viral particle production, and 3) the ability to reactivate to a lytic cycle. This review discusses these criteria for each of the subfamilies and highlights the common strategies adopted by herpesviruses to establish latency.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Magdalena Weidner-Glunde
- Department of Reproductive Immunology and Pathology, Institute of Animal Reproduction and Food Research of Polish Academy of Sciences, Tuwima Str. 10, 10-748 Olsztyn, Poland; (E.K.-K.); (M.S.)
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
10
|
Jones D, Como CN, Jing L, Blackmon A, Neff CP, Krueger O, Bubak AN, Palmer BE, Koelle DM, Nagel MA. Varicella zoster virus productively infects human peripheral blood mononuclear cells to modulate expression of immunoinhibitory proteins and blocking PD-L1 enhances virus-specific CD8+ T cell effector function. PLoS Pathog 2019; 15:e1007650. [PMID: 30870532 PMCID: PMC6435197 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1007650] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/17/2018] [Revised: 03/26/2019] [Accepted: 02/20/2019] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Varicella zoster virus (VZV) is a lymphotropic alpha-herpesvirinae subfamily member that produces varicella on primary infection and causes zoster, vascular disease and vision loss upon reactivation from latency. VZV-infected peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) disseminate virus to distal organs to produce clinical disease. To assess immune evasion strategies elicited by VZV that may contribute to dissemination of infection, human PBMCs and VZV-specific CD8+ T cells (V-CD8+) were mock- or VZV-infected and analyzed for immunoinhibitory protein PD-1, PD-L1, PD-L2, CTLA-4, LAG-3 and TIM-3 expression using flow cytometry. All VZV-infected PBMCs (monocytes, NK, NKT, B cells, CD4+ and CD8+ T cells) and V-CD8+ showed significant elevations in PD-L1 expression compared to uninfected cells. VZV induced PD-L2 expression in B cells and V-CD8+. Only VZV-infected CD8+ T cells, NKT cells and V-CD8+ upregulated PD-1 expression, the immunoinhibitory receptor for PD-L1/PD-L2. VZV induced CTLA-4 expression only in V-CD8+ and no significant changes in LAG-3 or TIM-3 expression were observed in V-CD8+ or PBMC T cells. To test whether PD-L1, PD-L2 or CTLA-4 regulates V-CD8+ effector function, autologous PBMCs were VZV-infected and co-cultured with V-CD8+ cells in the presence of blocking antibodies against PD-L1, PD-L2 or CTLA-4; ELISAs revealed significant elevations in IFNγ only upon blocking of PD-L1. Together, these results identified additional immune cells that are permissive to VZV infection (monocytes, B cells and NKT cells); along with a novel mechanism for inhibiting CD8+ T cell effector function through induction of PD-L1 expression.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Dallas Jones
- Department of Neurology, University of Colorado School of Medicine, Aurora, Colorado, United States of America
| | - Christina N. Como
- Department of Neurology, University of Colorado School of Medicine, Aurora, Colorado, United States of America
| | - Lichen Jing
- Department of Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, United States of America
| | - Anna Blackmon
- Department of Neurology, University of Colorado School of Medicine, Aurora, Colorado, United States of America
| | - Charles Preston Neff
- Department of Medicine, Division of Allergy and Clinical Immunology, University of Colorado School of Medicine, Aurora, Colorado, United States of America
| | - Owen Krueger
- Department of Medicine, Division of Allergy and Clinical Immunology, University of Colorado School of Medicine, Aurora, Colorado, United States of America
| | - Andrew N. Bubak
- Department of Neurology, University of Colorado School of Medicine, Aurora, Colorado, United States of America
| | - Brent E. Palmer
- Department of Medicine, Division of Allergy and Clinical Immunology, University of Colorado School of Medicine, Aurora, Colorado, United States of America
| | - David M. Koelle
- Department of Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, United States of America
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, United States of America
- Department of Global Health, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, United States of America
- Vaccine and Infectious Disease Division, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Center, Seattle, Washington, United States of America
- Benaroya Research Institute, Seattle, Washington, United States of America
- Department of Ophthalmology, University of Colorado School of Medicine, Aurora, Colorado, United States of America
| | - Maria A. Nagel
- Department of Neurology, University of Colorado School of Medicine, Aurora, Colorado, United States of America
- Department of Ophthalmology, University of Colorado School of Medicine, Aurora, Colorado, United States of America
| |
Collapse
|
11
|
Baird NL, Zhu S, Pearce CM, Viejo-Borbolla A. Current In Vitro Models to Study Varicella Zoster Virus Latency and Reactivation. Viruses 2019; 11:v11020103. [PMID: 30691086 PMCID: PMC6409813 DOI: 10.3390/v11020103] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/27/2018] [Revised: 01/16/2019] [Accepted: 01/23/2019] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Varicella zoster virus (VZV) is a highly prevalent human pathogen that causes varicella (chicken pox) during primary infection and establishes latency in peripheral neurons. Symptomatic reactivation often presents as zoster (shingles), but it has also been linked to life-threatening diseases such as encephalitis, vasculopathy and meningitis. Zoster may be followed by postherpetic neuralgia, neuropathic pain lasting after resolution of the rash. The mechanisms of varicella zoster virus (VZV) latency and reactivation are not well characterized. This is in part due to the human-specific nature of VZV that precludes the use of most animal and animal-derived neuronal models. Recently, in vitro models of VZV latency and reactivation using human neurons derived from stem cells have been established facilitating an understanding of the mechanisms leading to VZV latency and reactivation. From the models, c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK), phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3K) and nerve growth factor (NGF) have all been implicated as potential modulators of VZV latency/reactivation. Additionally, it was shown that the vaccine-strain of VZV is impaired for reactivation. These models may also aid in the generation of prophylactic and therapeutic strategies to treat VZV-associated pathologies. This review summarizes and analyzes the current human neuronal models used to study VZV latency and reactivation, and provides some strategies for their improvement.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Nicholas L Baird
- Department of Neurology, University of Colorado School of Medicine, Aurora, CO 80045, USA.
| | - Shuyong Zhu
- Institute of Virology, Hannover Medical School, 30625 Hannover, Germany.
| | - Catherine M Pearce
- Department of Neurology, University of Colorado School of Medicine, Aurora, CO 80045, USA.
| | | |
Collapse
|
12
|
Paul A, Tang TH, Ng SK. Interferon Regulatory Factor 9 Structure and Regulation. Front Immunol 2018; 9:1831. [PMID: 30147694 PMCID: PMC6095977 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2018.01831] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/14/2018] [Accepted: 07/25/2018] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Interferon regulatory factor 9 (IRF9) is an integral transcription factor in mediating the type I interferon antiviral response, as part of the interferon-stimulated gene factor 3. However, the role of IRF9 in many important non-communicable diseases has just begun to emerge. The duality of IRF9’s role in conferring protection but at the same time exacerbates diseases is certainly puzzling. The regulation of IRF9 during these conditions is not well understood. The high homology of IRF9 DNA-binding domain to other IRFs, as well as the recently resolved IRF9 IRF-associated domain structure can provide the necessary insights for progressive inroads on understanding the regulatory mechanism of IRF9. This review sought to outline the structural basis of IRF9 that guides its regulation and interaction in antiviral immunity and other diseases.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Alvin Paul
- Advanced Medical and Dental Institute, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Penang, Malaysia
| | - Thean Hock Tang
- Advanced Medical and Dental Institute, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Penang, Malaysia
| | - Siew Kit Ng
- Advanced Medical and Dental Institute, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Penang, Malaysia
| |
Collapse
|
13
|
Depledge DP, Sadaoka T, Ouwendijk WJD. Molecular Aspects of Varicella-Zoster Virus Latency. Viruses 2018; 10:v10070349. [PMID: 29958408 PMCID: PMC6070824 DOI: 10.3390/v10070349] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2018] [Revised: 06/19/2018] [Accepted: 06/27/2018] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Primary varicella-zoster virus (VZV) infection causes varicella (chickenpox) and the establishment of a lifelong latent infection in ganglionic neurons. VZV reactivates in about one-third of infected individuals to cause herpes zoster, often accompanied by neurological complications. The restricted host range of VZV and, until recently, a lack of suitable in vitro models have seriously hampered molecular studies of VZV latency. Nevertheless, recent technological advances facilitated a series of exciting studies that resulted in the discovery of a VZV latency-associated transcript (VLT) and provide novel insights into our understanding of VZV latency and factors that may initiate reactivation. Deducing the function(s) of VLT and the molecular mechanisms involved should now be considered a priority to improve our understanding of factors that govern VZV latency and reactivation. In this review, we summarize the implications of recent discoveries in the VZV latency field from both a virus and host perspective and provide a roadmap for future studies.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Daniel P Depledge
- Department of Microbiology, New York University School of Medicine, New York, NY 10016, USA.
| | - Tomohiko Sadaoka
- Division of Clinical Virology, Center for Infectious Diseases, Kobe University Graduate School of Medicine, 7-5-1 Kusunoki-cho, Chuo-ku, Kobe 650-0017, Japan.
| | - Werner J D Ouwendijk
- Department of Viroscience, Erasmus Medical Centre, 3015 CN Rotterdam, The Netherlands.
| |
Collapse
|
14
|
Stinson C, Deng M, Yee MB, Bellinger LL, Kinchington PR, Kramer PR. Sex differences underlying orofacial varicella zoster associated pain in rats. BMC Neurol 2017; 17:95. [PMID: 28514943 PMCID: PMC5436469 DOI: 10.1186/s12883-017-0882-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/21/2016] [Accepted: 05/09/2017] [Indexed: 01/25/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Most people are initially infected with varicella zoster virus (VZV) at a young age and this infection results in chickenpox. VZV then becomes latent and reactivates later in life resulting in herpes zoster (HZ) or "shingles". Often VZV infects neurons of the trigeminal ganglia to cause ocular problems, orofacial disease and occasionally a chronic pain condition termed post-herpetic neuralgia (PHN). To date, no model has been developed to study orofacial pain related to varicella zoster. Importantly, the incidence of zoster associated pain and PHN is known to be higher in women, although reasons for this sex difference remain unclear. Prior to this work, no animal model was available to study these sex-differences. Our goal was to develop an orofacial animal model for zoster associated pain which could be utilized to study the mechanisms contributing to this sex difference. METHODS To develop this model VZV was injected into the whisker pad of rats resulting in IE62 protein expression in the trigeminal ganglia; IE62 is an immediate early gene in the VZV replication program. RESULTS Similar to PHN patients, rats showed retraction of neurites after VZV infection. Treatment of rats with gabapentin, an agent often used to combat PHN, ameliorated the pain response after whisker pad injection. Aversive behavior was significantly greater for up to 7 weeks in VZV injected rats over control inoculated rats. Sex differences were also seen such that ovariectomized and intact female rats given the lower dose of VZV showed a longer affective response than male rats. The phase of the estrous cycle also affected the aversive response suggesting a role for sex steroids in modulating VZV pain. CONCLUSIONS These results suggest that this rat model can be utilized to study the mechanisms of 1) orofacial zoster associated pain and 2) the sex differences underlying zoster associated pain.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Crystal Stinson
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Texas A&M University College of Dentistry, 3302 Gaston Avenue, Dallas, TX 75246 USA
| | - Mohong Deng
- Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery, The State Key Laboratory Breeding Base of Basic Science of Stomatology & Key Laboratory of Oral Biomedicine Ministry of Education, School & Hospital of Stomatology, Wuhan University, Wuhan, People’s Republic of China
| | - Michael B Yee
- Dept Ophthalmology and of Molecular Microbiology and Genetics, 203 Lothrop St., Pittsburgh, PA 15213 USA
| | - Larry L. Bellinger
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Texas A&M University College of Dentistry, 3302 Gaston Avenue, Dallas, TX 75246 USA
| | - Paul R. Kinchington
- Dept Ophthalmology and of Molecular Microbiology and Genetics, 203 Lothrop St., Pittsburgh, PA 15213 USA
| | - Phillip R. Kramer
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Texas A&M University College of Dentistry, 3302 Gaston Avenue, Dallas, TX 75246 USA
| |
Collapse
|
15
|
Keller AC, Badani H, McClatchey PM, Baird NL, Bowlin JL, Bouchard R, Perng GC, Reusch JEB, Kaufer BB, Gilden D, Shahzad A, Kennedy PGE, Cohrs RJ. Varicella zoster virus infection of human fetal lung cells alters mitochondrial morphology. J Neurovirol 2016; 22:674-682. [PMID: 27245593 DOI: 10.1007/s13365-016-0457-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/21/2016] [Revised: 04/20/2016] [Accepted: 05/09/2016] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Varicella zoster virus (VZV) is a ubiquitous alphaherpesvirus that establishes latency in ganglionic neurons throughout the neuraxis after primary infection. Here, we show that VZV infection induces a time-dependent significant change in mitochondrial morphology, an important indicator of cellular health, since mitochondria are involved in essential cellular functions. VZV immediate-early protein 63 (IE63) was detected in mitochondria-rich cellular fractions extracted from infected human fetal lung fibroblasts (HFL) by Western blotting. IE63 interacted with cytochrome c oxidase in bacterial 2-hybrid analyses. Confocal microscopy of VZV-infected HFL cells at multiple times after infection revealed the presence of IE63 in the nucleus, mitochondria, and cytoplasm. Our data provide the first evidence that VZV infection induces alterations in mitochondrial morphology, including fragmentation, which may be involved in cellular damage and/or death during virus infection.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Amy C Keller
- Division of Endocrinology, University of Colorado School of Medicine, Aurora, 80045, CO, USA
| | - Hussain Badani
- Department of Neurology, University of Colorado School of Medicine, 12700 E. 19th Avenue, Box B182, Aurora, 80045, CO, USA
| | - P Mason McClatchey
- Division of Endocrinology, University of Colorado School of Medicine, Aurora, 80045, CO, USA
| | - Nicholas L Baird
- Department of Neurology, University of Colorado School of Medicine, 12700 E. 19th Avenue, Box B182, Aurora, 80045, CO, USA
| | - Jacqueline L Bowlin
- Department of Neurology, University of Colorado School of Medicine, 12700 E. 19th Avenue, Box B182, Aurora, 80045, CO, USA
| | - Ron Bouchard
- Department of Medicine, Denver VA Medical Center, Denver, 80220, CO, USA
| | - Guey-Chuen Perng
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, College of Medicine, and Center of Infectious Disease and Signaling Research, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan, Taiwan
| | - Jane E B Reusch
- Division of Endocrinology, University of Colorado School of Medicine, Aurora, 80045, CO, USA.,Department of Medicine, Denver VA Medical Center, Denver, 80220, CO, USA
| | | | - Don Gilden
- Department of Neurology, University of Colorado School of Medicine, 12700 E. 19th Avenue, Box B182, Aurora, 80045, CO, USA.,Department of Immunology and Microbiology, University of Colorado School of Medicine, Aurora, 80045, CO, USA
| | - Aamir Shahzad
- Department of Biomolecular Structural Chemistry, Max F. Perutz Laboratories, University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Peter G E Kennedy
- Glasgow University Department of Neurology, Institute of Neurological Sciences, Queen Elizabeth University Hospital, Glasgow, Scotland, UK
| | - Randall J Cohrs
- Department of Neurology, University of Colorado School of Medicine, 12700 E. 19th Avenue, Box B182, Aurora, 80045, CO, USA. .,Department of Immunology and Microbiology, University of Colorado School of Medicine, Aurora, 80045, CO, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
16
|
Sauerbrei A. Varicella-zoster virus infections - antiviral therapy and diagnosis. GMS INFECTIOUS DISEASES 2016; 4:Doc01. [PMID: 30671315 PMCID: PMC6301744 DOI: 10.3205/id000019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Varicella-zoster virus is an important human pathogen that causes varicella after primary infection and zoster after recurrence. Following primary infection, the virus remains latently for life in dorsal root and cranial nerve ganglia. Varicella and zoster are worldwide widespread diseases and may be associated with significant complications. This manuscript presents a short overview about the fundamental knowledge including the most important clinical signs, the capabilities for antiviral treatment and the spectrum of methods for laboratory diagnosis.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Andreas Sauerbrei
- Institute of Virology and Antiviral Therapy, German Consulting Laboratory for HSV and VZV, Jena University Hospital, Friedrich-Schiller University, Jena, Germany,*To whom correspondence should be addressed: Andreas Sauerbrei, Institute of Virology and Antiviral Therapy, Jena University Hospital, Hans-Knoell-Strasse 2, 07745 Jena, Germany, Phone: +49-3641-9395700, Fax: +49-3641-9395702, E-mail:
| |
Collapse
|
17
|
Sauerbrei A. Diagnosis, antiviral therapy, and prophylaxis of varicella-zoster virus infections. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis 2016; 35:723-34. [PMID: 26873382 DOI: 10.1007/s10096-016-2605-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/09/2015] [Accepted: 02/05/2016] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
Varicella-zoster virus (VZV), an important member of the Herpesviridae family, is the etiological agent of varicella as primary infection and zoster as recurrence. An outstanding feature is the lifelong viral latency in dorsal root and cranial nerve ganglia. Both varicella and zoster are worldwide widespread diseases that may be associated with significant complications. However, there is a broad spectrum of laboratory methods to diagnose VZV infections. In contrast to many other viral infections, antiviral treatment of VZV infections and their prevention by vaccination or passive immunoprophylaxis are well established in medical practice. The present manuscript provides an overview about the basic knowledge of VZV infections, their laboratory diagnosis, antiviral therapy, and the prevention procedures, especially in Germany.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- A Sauerbrei
- Institute of Virology and Antiviral Therapy, German Consulting Laboratory for HSV and VZV, Jena University Hospital, Friedrich-Schiller University, Hans-Knoell-Strasse 2, Jena, Germany.
| |
Collapse
|
18
|
Varicella Viruses Inhibit Interferon-Stimulated JAK-STAT Signaling through Multiple Mechanisms. PLoS Pathog 2015; 11:e1004901. [PMID: 25973608 PMCID: PMC4431795 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1004901] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/22/2014] [Accepted: 04/21/2015] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Varicella zoster virus (VZV) causes chickenpox in humans and, subsequently, establishes latency in the sensory ganglia from where it reactivates to cause herpes zoster. Infection of rhesus macaques with simian varicella virus (SVV) recapitulates VZV pathogenesis in humans thus representing a suitable animal model for VZV infection. While the type I interferon (IFN) response has been shown to affect VZV replication, the virus employs counter mechanisms to prevent the induction of anti-viral IFN stimulated genes (ISG). Here, we demonstrate that SVV inhibits type I IFN-activated signal transduction via the JAK-STAT pathway. SVV-infected rhesus fibroblasts were refractory to IFN stimulation displaying reduced protein levels of IRF9 and lacking STAT2 phosphorylation. Since previous work implicated involvement of the VZV immediate early gene product ORF63 in preventing ISG-induction we studied the role of SVV ORF63 in generating resistance to IFN treatment. Interestingly, SVV ORF63 did not affect STAT2 phosphorylation but caused IRF9 degradation in a proteasome-dependent manner, suggesting that SVV employs multiple mechanisms to counteract the effect of IFN. Control of SVV ORF63 protein levels via fusion to a dihydrofolate reductase (DHFR)-degradation domain additionally confirmed its requirement for viral replication. Our results also show a prominent reduction of IRF9 and inhibition of STAT2 phosphorylation in VZV-infected cells. In addition, cells expressing VZV ORF63 blocked IFN-stimulation and displayed reduced levels of the IRF9 protein. Taken together, our data suggest that varicella ORF63 prevents ISG-induction both directly via IRF9 degradation and indirectly via transcriptional control of viral proteins that interfere with STAT2 phosphorylation. SVV and VZV thus encode multiple viral gene products that tightly control IFN-induced anti-viral responses. In this manuscript we demonstrate that the immediate early protein ORF63 encoded by varicella zoster virus (VZV) and simian varicella virus (SVV) interferes with interferon type I-mediated activation of JAK-STAT signaling and thereby inhibits the expression of interferon stimulated genes. ORF63 blocks this pathway by degrading IRF9, which plays a central role in JAK-STAT signaling. In addition, both viruses code for immune evasion mechanisms affecting the JAK-STAT pathway upstream of IRF9, which results in the inhibition of STAT2 phosphorylation. By fusing a degradation domain derived from dihydrofolate reductase (DHFR) to ORF63 we further demonstrate that this protein is essential for SVV growth and gene expression, indicating that ORF63 also affects IFN-signaling indirectly by regulating the expression of other immune evasion genes.
Collapse
|
19
|
Kennedy PGE, Rovnak J, Badani H, Cohrs RJ. A comparison of herpes simplex virus type 1 and varicella-zoster virus latency and reactivation. J Gen Virol 2015; 96:1581-602. [PMID: 25794504 DOI: 10.1099/vir.0.000128] [Citation(s) in RCA: 92] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1; human herpesvirus 1) and varicella-zoster virus (VZV; human herpesvirus 3) are human neurotropic alphaherpesviruses that cause lifelong infections in ganglia. Following primary infection and establishment of latency, HSV-1 reactivation typically results in herpes labialis (cold sores), but can occur frequently elsewhere on the body at the site of primary infection (e.g. whitlow), particularly at the genitals. Rarely, HSV-1 reactivation can cause encephalitis; however, a third of the cases of HSV-1 encephalitis are associated with HSV-1 primary infection. Primary VZV infection causes varicella (chickenpox) following which latent virus may reactivate decades later to produce herpes zoster (shingles), as well as an increasingly recognized number of subacute, acute and chronic neurological conditions. Following primary infection, both viruses establish a latent infection in neuronal cells in human peripheral ganglia. However, the detailed mechanisms of viral latency and reactivation have yet to be unravelled. In both cases latent viral DNA exists in an 'end-less' state where the ends of the virus genome are joined to form structures consistent with unit length episomes and concatemers, from which viral gene transcription is restricted. In latently infected ganglia, the most abundantly detected HSV-1 RNAs are the spliced products originating from the primary latency associated transcript (LAT). This primary LAT is an 8.3 kb unstable transcript from which two stable (1.5 and 2.0 kb) introns are spliced. Transcripts mapping to 12 VZV genes have been detected in human ganglia removed at autopsy; however, it is difficult to ascribe these as transcripts present during latent infection as early-stage virus reactivation may have transpired in the post-mortem time period in the ganglia. Nonetheless, low-level transcription of VZV ORF63 has been repeatedly detected in multiple ganglia removed as close to death as possible. There is increasing evidence that HSV-1 and VZV latency is epigenetically regulated. In vitro models that permit pathway analysis and identification of both epigenetic modulations and global transcriptional mechanisms of HSV-1 and VZV latency hold much promise for our future understanding in this complex area. This review summarizes the molecular biology of HSV-1 and VZV latency and reactivation, and also presents future directions for study.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Peter G E Kennedy
- 1Institute of Infection, Immunity and Inflammation, University of Glasgow, Garscube Campus, Glasgow G61 1QH, UK
| | - Joel Rovnak
- 2Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Pathology, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO 80521, USA
| | - Hussain Badani
- 3Department of Neurology, University of Colorado Medical School, Aurora, CO 80045, USA
| | - Randall J Cohrs
- 3Department of Neurology, University of Colorado Medical School, Aurora, CO 80045, USA 4Department of Microbiology, University of Colorado Medical School, Aurora, CO 80045, USA
| |
Collapse
|
20
|
Gan L, Wang M, Chen JJ, Gershon MD, Gershon AA. Infected peripheral blood mononuclear cells transmit latent varicella zoster virus infection to the guinea pig enteric nervous system. J Neurovirol 2014; 20:442-56. [PMID: 24965252 PMCID: PMC4206585 DOI: 10.1007/s13365-014-0259-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/27/2014] [Revised: 05/02/2014] [Accepted: 05/15/2014] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Latent wild-type (WT) and vaccine (vOka) varicella zoster virus (VZV) are found in the human enteric nervous system (ENS). VZV also infects guinea pig enteric neurons in vitro, establishes latency and can be reactivated. We therefore determined whether lymphocytes infected in vitro with VZV secrete infectious virions and can transfer infection in vivo to the ENS of recipient guinea pigs. T lymphocytes (CD3-immunoreactive) were preferentially infected following co-culture of guinea pig or human peripheral blood mononuclear cells with VZV-infected HELF. VZV proliferated in the infected T cells and expressed immediate early and late VZV genes. Electron microscopy confirmed that VZV-infected T cells produced encapsulated virions. Extracellular virus, however, was pleomorphic, suggesting degradation occurred prior to release, which was confirmed by the failure of VZV-infected T cells to secrete infectious virions. Intravenous injection of WT- or vOka-infected PBMCs, nevertheless, transmitted VZV to recipient animals (guinea pig > human lymphocytes). Two days post-inoculation, lung and liver, but not gut, contained DNA and transcripts encoding ORFs 4, 40, 66 and 67. Twenty-eight days after infection, gut contained DNA and transcripts encoding ORFs 4 and 66 but neither DNA nor transcripts could any longer be found in lung or liver. In situ hybridization revealed VZV DNA in enteric neurons, which also expressed ORF63p (but not ORF68p) immunoreactivity. Observations suggest that VZV infects T cells, which can transfer VZV to and establish latency in enteric neurons in vivo. Guinea pigs may be useful for studies of VZV pathogenesis in the ENS.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Lin Gan
- Department of Microbiology, Anhui Medical University, Hefei, 230032, China
| | - Mingli Wang
- Department of Microbiology, Anhui Medical University, Hefei, 230032, China
| | - Jason J. Chen
- Department of Microbiology, Anhui Medical University, Hefei, 230032, China
- Department of Pathology and Cell Biology, College of Physicians and Surgeons, Columbia University, New York, NY, 10032, USA
| | - Michael D. Gershon
- Department of Pathology and Cell Biology, College of Physicians and Surgeons, Columbia University, New York, NY, 10032, USA
| | - Anne A. Gershon
- Department of Pediatrics, College of Physicians and Surgeons, Columbia University, New York, NY, 10032, USA
| |
Collapse
|
21
|
Steain M, Sutherland JP, Rodriguez M, Cunningham AL, Slobedman B, Abendroth A. Analysis of T cell responses during active varicella-zoster virus reactivation in human ganglia. J Virol 2014; 88:2704-16. [PMID: 24352459 PMCID: PMC3958057 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.03445-13] [Citation(s) in RCA: 77] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/20/2013] [Accepted: 12/11/2013] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
UNLABELLED Varicella-zoster virus (VZV) is responsible for both varicella (chickenpox) and herpes zoster (shingles). During varicella, the virus establishes latency within the sensory ganglia and can reactivate to cause herpes zoster, but the immune responses that occur in ganglia during herpes zoster have not previously been defined. We examined ganglia obtained from individuals who, at the time of death, had active herpes zoster. Ganglia innervating the site of the cutaneous herpes zoster rash showed evidence of necrosis, secondary to vasculitis, or localized hemorrhage. Despite this, there was limited evidence of VZV antigen expression, although a large inflammatory infiltrate was observed. Characterization of the infiltrating T cells showed a large number of infiltrating CD4(+) T cells and cytolytic CD8(+) T cells. Many of the infiltrating T cells were closely associated with neurons within the reactivated ganglia, yet there was little evidence of T cell-induced neuronal apoptosis. Notably, an upregulation in the expression of major histocompatibility complex class I (MHC-I) and MHC-II molecules was observed on satellite glial cells, implying these cells play an active role in directing the immune response during herpes zoster. This is the first detailed characterization of the interaction between T cells and neuronal cells within ganglia obtained from patients suffering herpes zoster at the time of death and provides evidence that CD4(+) and cytolytic CD8(+) T cell responses play an important role in controlling VZV replication in ganglia during active herpes zoster. IMPORTANCE VZV is responsible for both varicella (chickenpox) and herpes zoster (shingles). During varicella, the virus establishes a life-long dormant infection within the sensory ganglia and can reawaken to cause herpes zoster, but the immune responses that occur in ganglia during herpes zoster have not previously been defined. We examined ganglia obtained from individuals who, at the time of death, had active herpes zoster. We found that specific T cell subsets are likely to play an important role in controlling VZV replication in ganglia during active herpes zoster.
Collapse
MESH Headings
- Adolescent
- Adult
- Aged
- Aged, 80 and over
- Antigens, Viral/immunology
- Antigens, Viral/metabolism
- Caspase 3/metabolism
- Child
- Female
- Ganglia, Sensory/immunology
- Ganglia, Sensory/metabolism
- Ganglia, Sensory/pathology
- Ganglia, Sensory/virology
- Herpes Zoster/immunology
- Herpesvirus 3, Human/physiology
- Histocompatibility Antigens Class I/immunology
- Histocompatibility Antigens Class I/metabolism
- Histocompatibility Antigens Class II/immunology
- Histocompatibility Antigens Class II/metabolism
- Humans
- Male
- Middle Aged
- Neurons/immunology
- Neurons/pathology
- Neurons/virology
- T-Lymphocyte Subsets/immunology
- T-Lymphocyte Subsets/metabolism
- T-Lymphocytes, Cytotoxic/immunology
- T-Lymphocytes, Cytotoxic/metabolism
- Virus Activation/immunology
- Young Adult
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Megan Steain
- Discipline of Infectious Diseases and Immunology, The University of Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
- Centre for Virus Research, Westmead Millennium Institute, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Jeremy P. Sutherland
- Discipline of Infectious Diseases and Immunology, The University of Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
- Centre for Virus Research, Westmead Millennium Institute, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Michael Rodriguez
- Department of Forensic Medicine, NSW Health Pathology, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Anthony L. Cunningham
- Centre for Virus Research, Westmead Millennium Institute, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Barry Slobedman
- Discipline of Infectious Diseases and Immunology, The University of Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
- Centre for Virus Research, Westmead Millennium Institute, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Allison Abendroth
- Discipline of Infectious Diseases and Immunology, The University of Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
- Centre for Virus Research, Westmead Millennium Institute, New South Wales, Australia
| |
Collapse
|
22
|
Zerboni L, Sen N, Oliver SL, Arvin AM. Molecular mechanisms of varicella zoster virus pathogenesis. Nat Rev Microbiol 2014; 12:197-210. [PMID: 24509782 PMCID: PMC4066823 DOI: 10.1038/nrmicro3215] [Citation(s) in RCA: 276] [Impact Index Per Article: 27.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Varicella zoster virus (VZV) is the causative agent of varicella (chickenpox) and zoster (shingles). Investigating VZV pathogenesis is challenging as VZV is a human-specific virus and infection does not occur, or is highly restricted, in other species. However, the use of human tissue xenografts in mice with severe combined immunodeficiency (SCID) enables the analysis of VZV infection in differentiated human cells in their typical tissue microenvironment. Xenografts of human skin, dorsal root ganglia or foetal thymus that contains T cells can be infected with mutant viruses or in the presence of inhibitors of viral or cellular functions to assess the molecular mechanisms of VZV-host interactions. In this Review, we discuss how these models have improved our understanding of VZV pathogenesis.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Leigh Zerboni
- Departments of Pediatrics and of Microbiology & Immunology, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, California 94305, USA
| | - Nandini Sen
- Departments of Pediatrics and of Microbiology & Immunology, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, California 94305, USA
| | - Stefan L Oliver
- Departments of Pediatrics and of Microbiology & Immunology, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, California 94305, USA
| | - Ann M Arvin
- Departments of Pediatrics and of Microbiology & Immunology, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, California 94305, USA
| |
Collapse
|
23
|
T cells increase before zoster and PD-1 expression increases at the time of zoster in immunosuppressed nonhuman primates latently infected with simian varicella virus. J Neurovirol 2014; 20:309-13. [PMID: 24549971 DOI: 10.1007/s13365-014-0237-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/10/2013] [Accepted: 01/17/2014] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
Like varicella zoster virus in humans, simian varicella virus (SVV) becomes latent in ganglionic neurons along the entire neuraxis and reactivates in immunosuppressed monkeys. Five rhesus macaques were inoculated with SVV; 142 days later (latency), four monkeys were immunosuppressed, and T cells were analyzed for naïve, memory, and effector phenotypes and expression of programmed death receptor-1 (PD-1; T cell exhaustion). All T cell subsets decreased during immunosuppression and except for CD8 effectors, peaked 2 weeks before zoster. Compared to before immunosuppression, PD-1 expression increased at reactivation. Increased T cells before zoster is likely due to virus reactivation.
Collapse
|
24
|
Affiliation(s)
- Don Gilden
- Department of Neurology, University of Colorado School of Medicine, Aurora, CO, USA; Department of Microbiology, University of Colorado School of Medicine, Aurora, CO, USA.
| | - Maria A Nagel
- Department of Neurology, University of Colorado School of Medicine, Aurora, CO, USA
| | - Randall J Cohrs
- Department of Neurology, University of Colorado School of Medicine, Aurora, CO, USA
| |
Collapse
|
25
|
Goodwin TJ, McCarthy M, Osterrieder N, Cohrs RJ, Kaufer BB. Three-dimensional normal human neural progenitor tissue-like assemblies: a model of persistent varicella-zoster virus infection. PLoS Pathog 2013; 9:e1003512. [PMID: 23935496 PMCID: PMC3731237 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1003512] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/03/2013] [Accepted: 06/03/2013] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Varicella-zoster virus (VZV) is a neurotropic human alphaherpesvirus that causes varicella upon primary infection, establishes latency in multiple ganglionic neurons, and can reactivate to cause zoster. Live attenuated VZV vaccines are available; however, they can also establish latent infections and reactivate. Studies of VZV latency have been limited to the analyses of human ganglia removed at autopsy, as the virus is strictly a human pathogen. Recently, terminally differentiated human neurons have received much attention as a means to study the interaction between VZV and human neurons; however, the short life-span of these cells in culture has limited their application. Herein, we describe the construction of a model of normal human neural progenitor cells (NHNP) in tissue-like assemblies (TLAs), which can be successfully maintained for at least 180 days in three-dimensional (3D) culture, and exhibit an expression profile similar to that of human trigeminal ganglia. Infection of NHNP TLAs with cell-free VZV resulted in a persistent infection that was maintained for three months, during which the virus genome remained stable. Immediate-early, early and late VZV genes were transcribed, and low-levels of infectious VZV were recurrently detected in the culture supernatant. Our data suggest that NHNP TLAs are an effective system to investigate long-term interactions of VZV with complex assemblies of human neuronal cells. Varicella-zoster virus (VZV), the alphaherpesvirus that typically causes childhood chickenpox and shingles in adults, becomes latent in neurons, thus remaining in the body for a lifetime. Unfortunately, few models are available to study the establishment of VZV latency since the virus infects only humans and establishes persistent infections and latency only in neurons, a slowly proliferating, short-lived cell in culture. We have successfully maintained normal human neural progenitor cells (NHNP) in tissue-like assemblies (TLAs) in 3-dimensional (3D) cultures for up to 6 months. The 3D NHNP TLAs show some characteristics as those found in the human trigeminal ganglia, the site of VZV latency. NHNP TLAs infected with VZV remain viable for 3 months during which time VZV DNA replicates and remains genetically stable, virus genes are transcribed, and infectious VZV is sporadically released. The ability to maintain VZV infected NHNP cells in culture for extended times provides the unique opportunity to study the molecular interactions between this important human pathogen and neuronal tissue to an extent previously unattainable.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Thomas J. Goodwin
- Disease Modeling/Tissue Analogues Laboratory, NASA Johnson Space Center, Houston, Texas, United States of America
- * E-mail: (TJG); (RJC); (BBK)
| | - Maureen McCarthy
- Disease Modeling/Tissue Analogues Laboratory, NASA Johnson Space Center, Houston, Texas, United States of America
| | | | - Randall J. Cohrs
- Department of Neurology, University of Colorado School of Medicine, Aurora, Colorado, United States of America
- * E-mail: (TJG); (RJC); (BBK)
| | - Benedikt B. Kaufer
- Institut für Virologie, Freie Universität Berlin, Berlin, Germany
- * E-mail: (TJG); (RJC); (BBK)
| |
Collapse
|
26
|
Haberthur K, Messaoudi I. Animal models of varicella zoster virus infection. Pathogens 2013; 2:364-82. [PMID: 25437040 PMCID: PMC4235715 DOI: 10.3390/pathogens2020364] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/05/2013] [Revised: 04/16/2013] [Accepted: 05/01/2013] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Primary infection with varicella zoster virus (VZV) results in varicella (chickenpox) followed by the establishment of latency in sensory ganglia. Declining T cell immunity due to aging or immune suppressive treatments can lead to VZV reactivation and the development of herpes zoster (HZ, shingles). HZ is often associated with significant morbidity and occasionally mortality in elderly and immune compromised patients. There are currently two FDA-approved vaccines for the prevention of VZV: Varivax® (for varicella) and Zostavax® (for HZ). Both vaccines contain the live-attenuated Oka strain of VZV. Although highly immunogenic, a two-dose regimen is required to achieve a 99% seroconversion rate. Zostavax vaccination reduces the incidence of HZ by 51% within a 3-year period, but a significant reduction in vaccine-induced immunity is observed within the first year after vaccination. Developing more efficacious vaccines and therapeutics requires a better understanding of the host response to VZV. These studies have been hampered by the scarcity of animal models that recapitulate all aspects of VZV infections in humans. In this review, we describe different animal models of VZV infection as well as an alternative animal model that leverages the infection of Old World macaques with the highly related simian varicella virus (SVV) and discuss their contributions to our understanding of pathogenesis and immunity during VZV infection.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Kristen Haberthur
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Immunology, Oregon Health and Science University, Portland, OR 97239, USA.
| | - Ilhem Messaoudi
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Immunology, Oregon Health and Science University, Portland, OR 97239, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
27
|
|
28
|
Yu X, Seitz S, Pointon T, Bowlin JL, Cohrs RJ, Jonjić S, Haas J, Wellish M, Gilden D. Varicella zoster virus infection of highly pure terminally differentiated human neurons. J Neurovirol 2012; 19:75-81. [PMID: 23233078 DOI: 10.1007/s13365-012-0142-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/06/2012] [Revised: 11/15/2012] [Accepted: 11/18/2012] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
In vitro analyses of varicella zoster virus (VZV) reactivation from latency in human ganglia have been hampered by the inability to isolate virus by explantation or cocultivation techniques. Furthermore, attempts to study interaction of VZV with neurons in experimentally infected ganglion cells in vitro have been impaired by the presence of nonneuronal cells, which become productively infected and destroy the cultures. We have developed an in vitro model of VZV infection in which highly pure (>95 %) terminally differentiated human neurons derived from pluripotent stem cells were infected with VZV. At 2 weeks post-infection, infected neurons appeared healthy compared to VZV-infected human fetal lung fibroblasts (HFLs), which developed a cytopathic effect (CPE) within 1 week. Tissue culture medium from VZV-infected neurons did not produce a CPE in uninfected HFLs and did not contain PCR-amplifiable VZV DNA, but cocultivation of infected neurons with uninfected HFLs did produce a CPE. The nonproductively infected neurons contained multiple regions of the VZV genome, as well as transcripts and proteins corresponding to VZV immediate-early, early, and late genes. No markers of the apoptotic caspase cascade were detected in healthy-appearing VZV-infected neurons. VZV infection of highly pure terminally differentiated human neurons provides a unique in vitro system to study the VZV-neuronal relationship and the potential to investigate mechanisms of VZV reactivation.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Xiaoli Yu
- Department of Neurology, University of Colorado Denver School of Medicine, 12700 E. 19th Avenue, Mail Stop B182, Aurora, CO 80045, USA
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
29
|
Human anti-varicella-zoster virus (VZV) recombinant monoclonal antibody produced after Zostavax immunization recognizes the gH/gL complex and neutralizes VZV infection. J Virol 2012; 87:415-21. [PMID: 23077312 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.02561-12] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Varicella-zoster virus (VZV) is a ubiquitous, highly cell-associated, and exclusively human neurotropic alphaherpesvirus. VZV infection is initiated by membrane fusion, an event dependent in part on VZV glycoproteins gH and gL. Consistent with its location on the virus envelope, the gH/gL complex is a target of neutralizing antibodies produced after virus infection. One week after immunizing a 59-year-old VZV-seropositive man with Zostavax, we sorted his circulating blood plasma blasts and amplified expressed immunoglobulin variable domain sequences by single-cell PCR. Sequence analysis identified two plasma blast clones, one of which was used to construct a recombinant monoclonal antibody (rec-RC IgG). The rec-RC IgG colocalized with VZV gE on the membranes of VZV-infected cells and neutralized VZV infection in tissue culture. Mass spectrometric analysis of proteins immunoprecipitated by rec-RC IgG identified both VZV gH and gL. Transfection experiments showed that rec-RC IgG recognized a VZV gH/gL protein complex but not individual gH or gL proteins. Overall, our recombinant monoclonal anti-VZV antibody effectively neutralizes VZV and recognizes a conformational epitope within the VZV gH/L protein complex. An unlimited supply of this antibody provides the opportunity to analyze membrane fusion events that follow virus attachment and to identify multiple epitopes on VZV-specific proteins.
Collapse
|
30
|
Kinchington PR, Leger AJS, Guedon JMG, Hendricks RL. Herpes simplex virus and varicella zoster virus, the house guests who never leave. HERPESVIRIDAE 2012; 3:5. [PMID: 22691604 PMCID: PMC3541251 DOI: 10.1186/2042-4280-3-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/16/2011] [Accepted: 05/12/2012] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Human alphaherpesviruses including herpes simplex viruses (HSV-1, HSV-2) and varicella zoster virus (VZV) establish persistent latent infection in sensory neurons for the life of the host. All three viruses have the potential to reactivate causing recurrent disease. Regardless of the homology between the different virus strains, the three viruses are characterized by varying pathologies. This review will highlight the differences in infection pattern, immune response, and pathogenesis associated with HSV-1 and VZV.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Paul R Kinchington
- Department of Ophthalmology, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA, USA.
| | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
31
|
Immunohistochemical detection of intra-neuronal VZV proteins in snap-frozen human ganglia is confounded by antibodies directed against blood group A1-associated antigens. J Neurovirol 2012; 18:172-80. [PMID: 22544677 DOI: 10.1007/s13365-012-0095-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/20/2012] [Revised: 03/15/2012] [Accepted: 03/21/2012] [Indexed: 01/23/2023]
Abstract
Varicella-zoster virus (VZV) causes chickenpox, establishes latency in trigeminal (TG) and dorsal root ganglia (DRG), and can lead to herpes zoster upon reactivation. The VZV proteome expressed during latency remains ill-defined, and previous studies have shown discordant data on the spectrum and expression pattern of VZV proteins and transcripts in latently infected human ganglia. Recently, Zerboni and colleagues have provided new insight into this discrepancy (Zerboni et al. in J Virol 86:578-583, 2012). They showed that VZV-specific ascites-derived monoclonal antibody (mAb) preparations contain endogenous antibodies directed against blood group A1 proteins, resulting in false-positive intra-neuronal VZV staining in formalin-fixed human DRG. The aim of the present study was to confirm and extend this phenomenon to snap-frozen TG (n=30) and DRG (n=9) specimens of blood group genotyped donors (n=30). The number of immunohistochemically stained neurons was higher with mAb directed to immediate early protein 62 (IE62) compared with IE63. The IE63 mAb-positive neurons always co-stained for IE62 but not vice versa. The mAb staining was confined to distinct large intra-neuronal vacuoles and restricted to A1(POS) donors. Anti-VZV mAb staining in neurons, but not in VZV-infected cell monolayers, was obliterated after mAb adsorption against blood group A1 erythrocytes. The data presented demonstrate that neuronal VZV protein expression detected by ascites-derived mAb in snap-frozen TG and DRG of blood group A1(POS) donors can be misinterpreted due to the presence of endogenous antibodies directed against blood group A1-associated antigens present in ascites-derived VZV-specific mAb preparations.
Collapse
|
32
|
Recombinant monoclonal antibody recognizes a unique epitope on varicella-zoster virus immediate-early 63 protein. J Virol 2012; 86:6345-9. [PMID: 22438547 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.06814-11] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/18/2023] Open
Abstract
We previously constructed a recombinant monoclonal antibody (rec-MAb 63P4) that detects immediate-early protein IE63 encoded by varicella-zoster virus (VZV) in the cytoplasm of productively infected cells. Here, we used ORF63 truncation mutants to map the rec-MAb 63P4 binding epitope to amino acids 141 to 150 of VZV IE63, a region not shared with other widely used anti-IE63 antibodies, and found that the recombinant antibody does not bind to the simian IE63 counterpart.
Collapse
|
33
|
Zerboni L, Arvin A. Investigation of varicella-zoster virus neurotropism and neurovirulence using SCID mouse-human DRG xenografts. J Neurovirol 2011; 17:570-7. [PMID: 22161683 DOI: 10.1007/s13365-011-0066-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/29/2011] [Revised: 11/11/2011] [Accepted: 11/20/2011] [Indexed: 10/14/2022]
Abstract
Varicella-zoster virus (VZV) is a medically important human alphaherpesvirus. Investigating pathogenic mechanisms that contribute to VZV neurovirulence are made difficult by a marked host restriction. Our approach to investigating VZV neurotropism and neurovirulence has been to develop a mouse-human xenograft model in which human dorsal root ganglia (DRG) are maintained in severe compromised immunodeficient (SCID) mice. In this review, we will describe our key findings using this model in which we have demonstrated that VZV infection of SCID DRG xenograft results in rapid and efficient spread, enabled by satellite cell infection and polykaryon formation, which facilitates robust viral replication and release of infectious virus. In neurons that persist following this acute replicative phase, VZV genomes are present at low frequency with limited gene transcription and no protein synthesis, a state that resembles VZV latency in the natural human host. VZV glycoprotein I and interaction between glycoprotein I and glycoprotein E are critical for neurovirulence. Our work demonstrates that the DRG model can reveal characteristics about VZV replication and long-term persistence of latent VZV genomes in human neuronal tissues, in vivo, in an experimental system that may contribute to our knowledge of VZV neuropathogenesis.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Leigh Zerboni
- Department of Pediatrics, Stanford University School of Medicine, 300 Pasteur Dr., Stanford, CA 94305, USA.
| | | |
Collapse
|
34
|
Apparent expression of varicella-zoster virus proteins in latency resulting from reactivity of murine and rabbit antibodies with human blood group a determinants in sensory neurons. J Virol 2011; 86:578-83. [PMID: 22013055 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.05950-11] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Analyses of varicella-zoster virus (VZV) protein expression during latency have been discordant, with rare to many positive neurons detected. We show that ascites-derived murine and rabbit antibodies specific for VZV proteins in vitro contain endogenous antibodies that react with human blood type A antigens in neurons. Apparent VZV neuronal staining and blood type A were strongly associated (by a χ² test, α = 0.0003). Adsorption of ascites-derived monoclonal antibodies or antiserum with type A erythrocytes or the use of in vitro-derived VZV monoclonal antibodies eliminated apparent VZV staining. Animal-derived antibodies must be screened for anti-blood type A reactivity to avoid misidentification of viral proteins in the neurons of the 30 to 40% of individuals who are blood type A.
Collapse
|
35
|
Abstract
Varicella zoster virus (VZV) is one of eight members of the Herpesviridae family for which humans are the primary host; it causes two distinct diseases, varicella (chickenpox) and zoster (shingles). Varicella results from primary infection, during which the virus establishes latency in sensory neurons, a characteristic of all members of the Alphaherpesvirinae subfamily. Zoster is caused by reactivation of latent virus, which typically occurs when cellular immunity is impaired. VZV is the first human herpesvirus for which a vaccine has been licensed. The vaccine preparation, v-Oka, is a live-attenuated virus stock produced by the classic method of tissue culture passage in animal and human cell lines. Over 90 million doses of the vaccine have been administered in countries worldwide, including the USA, where varicella morbidity and mortality has declined dramatically. Over the last decade, several laboratories have been committed to investigating the mechanism by which the Oka vaccine is attenuated. Mutations have accumulated across the genome of the vaccine during the attenuation process; however, studies of the contribution of these changes to vaccine attenuation have been hampered by the lack of a suitable animal model of VZV disease and by the heterogeneity that exists among the viral population within the vaccine preparation. Notwithstanding, a wealth of data has been generated using various laboratory methodologies. Studies of the vaccine virus in human xenografts implanted in severe combined immunodeficiency-hu mice, have enabled analyses of the replication dynamics of the vaccine in dorsal root ganglia, T lymphocytes and skin. In vitro assays have been used to investigate the effect of vaccine mutations on viral gene expression and sequence analysis of vaccine rash viruses has permitted investigations into spread of the vaccine virus in a human host. We present here a review of what has been learned thus far about the molecular and phenotypic characteristics of the Oka vaccine.
Collapse
MESH Headings
- Animals
- Chickenpox/immunology
- Chickenpox/prevention & control
- Chickenpox/virology
- Chickenpox Vaccine/administration & dosage
- Chickenpox Vaccine/genetics
- Chickenpox Vaccine/immunology
- Ganglia, Spinal/drug effects
- Ganglia, Spinal/immunology
- Ganglia, Spinal/pathology
- Ganglia, Spinal/virology
- Herpes Zoster/immunology
- Herpes Zoster/prevention & control
- Herpes Zoster/virology
- Herpesvirus 3, Human/drug effects
- Herpesvirus 3, Human/genetics
- Herpesvirus 3, Human/immunology
- Humans
- Immunity, Cellular
- Mice
- Mice, SCID
- Polymorphism, Single Nucleotide
- Sensory Receptor Cells/drug effects
- Sensory Receptor Cells/immunology
- Sensory Receptor Cells/pathology
- Sensory Receptor Cells/virology
- Skin/drug effects
- Skin/immunology
- Skin/pathology
- Skin/virology
- Transplantation, Heterologous/immunology
- Vaccines, Attenuated/administration & dosage
- Vaccines, Attenuated/genetics
- Vaccines, Attenuated/immunology
- Virus Activation/drug effects
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Mark Quinlivan
- Herpesvirus Team and National VZV Laboratory, MMRHLB, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA 30333, USA
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
36
|
Gilden D, Mahalingam R, Nagel MA, Pugazhenthi S, Cohrs RJ. Review: The neurobiology of varicella zoster virus infection. Neuropathol Appl Neurobiol 2011; 37:441-63. [PMID: 21342215 PMCID: PMC3176736 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2990.2011.01167.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 97] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Varicella zoster virus (VZV) is a neurotropic herpesvirus that infects nearly all humans. Primary infection usually causes chickenpox (varicella), after which virus becomes latent in cranial nerve ganglia, dorsal root ganglia and autonomic ganglia along the entire neuraxis. Although VZV cannot be isolated from human ganglia, nucleic acid hybridization and, later, polymerase chain reaction proved that VZV is latent in ganglia. Declining VZV-specific host immunity decades after primary infection allows virus to reactivate spontaneously, resulting in shingles (zoster) characterized by pain and rash restricted to one to three dermatomes. Multiple other serious neurological and ocular disorders also result from VZV reactivation. This review summarizes the current state of knowledge of the clinical and pathological complications of neurological and ocular disease produced by VZV reactivation, molecular aspects of VZV latency, VZV virology and VZV-specific immunity, the role of apoptosis in VZV-induced cell death and the development of an animal model provided by simian varicella virus infection of monkeys.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- D Gilden
- Department of Neurology, University of Colorado School of Medicine, USA.
| | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
37
|
Neutralizing anti-gH antibody of Varicella-zoster virus modulates distribution of gH and induces gene regulation, mimicking latency. J Virol 2011; 85:8172-80. [PMID: 21632752 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.00435-11] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
The anti-glycoprotein H (gH) monoclonal antibody (anti-gH-MAb) that neutralizes varicella-zoster virus (VZV) inhibited cell-to-cell infection, resulting in a single infected cell without apoptosis or necrosis, and the number of infectious cells in cultures treated with anti-gH-MAb declined to undetectable levels in 7 to 10 days. Anti-gH-MAb modulated the wide cytoplasmic distribution of gH colocalized with glycoprotein E (gE) to the cytoplasmic compartment with endoplasmic reticulum (ER) and Golgi markers near the nucleus, while gE retained its cytoplasmic distribution. Thus, the disintegrated distribution of gH and gE caused the loss of cellular infectivity. After 4 weeks of treatment with anti-gH-MAb, no infectious virus was recovered, even after cultivation without anti-gH-MAb for another 8 weeks or various other treatments. Cells were infected with Oka varicella vaccine expressing hepatitis B surface antigen (ROka) and treated with anti-gH-MAb for 4 weeks, and ROka was recovered from the quiescently infected cells by superinfection with the parent Oka vaccine. Among the genes 21, 29, 62, 63, and 66, transcripts of gene 63 were the most frequently detected, and products from the genes 63 and 62, but not gE, were detected mainly in the cytoplasm of quiescently infected cells, in contrast to their nuclear localization in lytically infected cells. The patterns of transcripts and products from the quiescently infected cells were similar to those of latent VZV in human ganglia. Thus, anti-gH-MAb treatment resulted in the antigenic modulation and dormancy of infectivity of VZV. Antigenic modulation by anti-gH-MAb illuminates a new aspect in pathogenesis in VZV infection and the gene regulation of VZV during latency in human ganglia.
Collapse
|
38
|
Abstract
Primary varicella-zoster virus (VZV) infection in humans produces varicella (chickenpox), after which the virus becomes latent in ganglionic neurons. Analysis of the physical state of viral nucleic acid and virus gene expression during latency requires postmortem acquisition of fresh human ganglia. To provide an additional way to study the VZV-host relationship in neurons, we developed an in vitro model of infected differentiated human neural stem cells (NSCs). NSCs were induced to differentiate in culture dishes coated with poly-l-lysine and mouse laminin in the presence of fibroblast growth factor 2 (FGF-2), nerve growth factor (NGF), brain-derived neurotropic factor (BDNF), dibutyryl cyclic AMP, and retinoic acid. Immunostaining with neuronal (MAP2a and β-tubulin), astrocyte (GFAP), and oligodendrocyte (CNPase) markers revealed that differentiated neurons constituted approximately 90% of the cell population. These neurons were maintained in culture for up to 8 weeks. No cytopathic effect (CPE) developed in neurons infected with cell-free VZV (Zostavax vaccine) compared to human fetal lung fibroblasts infected with VZV. Weeks later, VZV DNA virus-specific transcripts (open reading frames [ORFs] 21, 29, 62, and 63) were detected in infected neurons, and dual immunofluorescence staining revealed the presence of VZV IE63 and gE exclusively in healthy-appearing neurons, but not in astrocytes. Neither the tissue culture medium nor a homogenate prepared from VZV-infected neurons produced a CPE in fibroblasts. VZV induced apoptosis in fibroblasts, as shown by activation of caspase 3 and by terminal deoxynucleotidyltransferase-mediated dUTP-biotin nick end labeling (TUNEL) staining, but not in neurons. This model provides a unique in vitro system to study the VZV-neuronal relationship.
Collapse
|
39
|
Simian varicella virus open reading frame 63/70 expression is required for efficient virus replication in culture. J Neurovirol 2011; 17:274-80. [PMID: 21479719 DOI: 10.1007/s13365-011-0025-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/07/2011] [Revised: 03/03/2011] [Accepted: 03/07/2011] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
Simian varicella virus (SVV) open reading frame (ORF) 63, duplicated in the virus genome as ORF 70, is homologous to varicella zoster virus ORF 63/70. Transfection of bacterial artificial chromosome clones containing the wild-type SVV genome and mutants with stop codons in ORF 70, in both ORFs 63 and 70 and the repaired virus DNA sequences into Vero cells produced a cytopathic effect (CPE). The onset of CPE was much slower with the double-mutant transfectants (10 days vs. 3 days) and plaques were smaller. While SVV ORF 63 is not required for replication in culture, its expression leads to robust virus replication.
Collapse
|
40
|
Abstract
Primary infection by varicella zoster virus (VZV) typically results in childhood chickenpox, at which time latency is established in the neurons of the cranial nerve, dorsal root and autonomic ganglia along the entire neuraxis. During latency, the histone-associated virus genome assumes a circular episomal configuration from which transcription is epigenetically regulated. The lack of an animal model in which VZV latency and reactivation can be studied, along with the difficulty in obtaining high-titer cell-free virus, has limited much of our understanding of VZV latency to descriptive studies of ganglia removed at autopsy and analogy to HSV-1, the prototype alphaherpesvirus. However, the lack of miRNA, detectable latency-associated transcript and T-cell surveillance during VZV latency highlight basic differences between the two neurotropic herpesviruses. This article focuses on VZV latency: establishment, maintenance and reactivation. Comparisons are made with HSV-1, with specific attention to differences that make these viruses unique human pathogens.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | - Aamir Shahzad
- Department for Biomolecular Structural Chemistry Max F. Perutz Laboratories, University of Vienna, Austria
| | - Randall J Cohrs
- Author for correspondence: University of Colorado Denver Medical School, Aurora, CO, USA, Tel.: +1 303 742 4325
| |
Collapse
|
41
|
Mahalingam R, Traina-Dorge V, Wellish M, Deharo E, Singletary ML, Ribka EP, Sanford R, Gilden D. Latent simian varicella virus reactivates in monkeys treated with tacrolimus with or without exposure to irradiation. J Neurovirol 2011; 16:342-54. [PMID: 20822371 DOI: 10.3109/13550284.2010.513031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Simian varicella virus (SVV) infection of primates resembles human varicella-zoster virus (VZV) infection. After primary infection, SVV becomes latent in ganglia and reactivates after immunosuppression or social and environmental stress. Herein, natural SVV infection was established in 5 cynomolgus macaques (cynos) and 10 African green (AG) monkeys. Four cynos were treated with the immunosuppressant tacrolimus (80 to 300 μg/kg/day) for 4 months and 1 was untreated (group 1). Four AG monkeys were exposed to a single dose (200 cGy) of x-irradiation (group 2), and 4 other AG monkeys were irradiated and treated with tacrolimus for 4 months (group 3); the remaining 2 AG monkeys were untreated. Zoster rash developed 1 to 2 weeks after tacrolimus treatment in 3 of 4 monkeys in group 1, 6 weeks after irradiation in 1 of 4 monkeys in group 2, and 1 to 2 weeks after irradiation in all 4 monkeys in group 3. All monkeys were euthanized 1 to 4 months after immunosuppression. SVV antigens were detected immunohistochemically in skin biopsies as well as in lungs of most monkeys. Low copy number SVV DNA was detected in ganglia from all three groups of monkeys, including controls. RNA specific for SVV ORFs 61, 63, and 9 was detected in ganglia from one immunosuppressed monkey in group 1. SVV antigens were detected in multiple ganglia from all immunosuppressed monkeys in every group, but not in controls. These results indicate that tacrolimus treatment produced reactivation in more monkeys than irradiation and tacrolimus and irradiation increased the frequency of SVV reactivation as compared to either treatment alone.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ravi Mahalingam
- Department of Neurology, University of Colorado School of Medicine, Aurora, Colorado 80045, USA.
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
42
|
Varicella-zoster virus neurotropism in SCID mouse-human dorsal root ganglia xenografts. Curr Top Microbiol Immunol 2010; 342:255-76. [PMID: 20225014 DOI: 10.1007/82_2009_8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/25/2023]
Abstract
Varicella-zoster virus (VZV) is a neurotropic human alphaherpesvirus and the causative agent of varicella and herpes zoster. VZV reactivation from latency in sensory nerve ganglia is a direct consequence of VZV neurotropism. Investigation of VZV neuropathogenesis by infection of human dorsal root ganglion xenografts in immunocompromised (SCID) mice has provided a novel system in which to examine VZV neurotropism. Experimental infection with recombinant VZV mutants with targeted deletions or mutations of specific genes or regulatory elements provides an opportunity to assess gene candidates that may mediate neurotropism and neurovirulence. The SCID mouse-human DRG xenograft model may aid in the development of clinical strategies in the management of herpes zoster as well as in the development of "second generation" neuroattenuated vaccines.
Collapse
|
43
|
Abstract
Varicella zoster virus (VZV) infection results in the establishment of latency in human sensory neurons. Reactivation of VZV leads to herpes zoster which can be followed by persistent neuropathic pain, termed post-herpetic neuralgia (PHN). Humans are the only natural host for VZV, and the strict species specificity of the virus has restricted the development of an animal model of infection which mimics all phases of disease. In order to elucidate the mechanisms which control the establishment of latency and reactivation as well as the effect of VZV replication on neuronal function, in vitro models of neuronal infection have been developed. Currently these models involve culturing and infecting dissociated human fetal neurons, with or without their supporting cells, an intact explant fetal dorsal root ganglia (DRG) model, neuroblastoma cell lines and rodent neuronal cell models. Each of these models has distinct advantages as well as disadvantages, and all have contributed towards our understanding of VZV neuronal infection. However, as yet none have been able to recapitulate the full virus lifecycle from primary infection to latency through to reactivation. The development of such a model will be a crucial step towards advancing our understanding of the mechanisms involved in VZV replication in neuronal cells, and the design of new therapies to combat VZV-related disease.
Collapse
|
44
|
Kennedy PGE, Cohrs RJ. Varicella-zoster virus human ganglionic latency: a current summary. J Neurovirol 2010; 16:411-8. [PMID: 20874010 DOI: 10.1007/bf03210846] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
Varicella-zoster virus (VZV) is a ubiquitous human herpes virus typically acquired in childhood when it causes varicella (chickenpox), following which the virus establishes a latent infection in trigeminal and dorsal root ganglia that lasts for the life of the individual. VZV subsequently reactivates, spontaneously or after specific triggering factors, to cause herpes zoster (shingles), which may be complicated by postherpetic neuralgia and several other neurological complications including vasculopathy. Our understanding of VZV latency lags behind our knowledge of herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1) latency primarily due to the difficulty in propagating the virus to high titers in a cell-free state, and the lack of a suitable small-animal model for studying virus latency and reactivation. It is now established beyond doubt that latent VZV is predominantly located in human ganglionic neurons. Virus gene transcription during latency is epigenetically regulated, and appears to be restricted to expression of at least six genes, with expression of gene 63 being the hallmark of latency. However, viral gene transcription may be more extensive than previously thought. There is also evidence for several VZV genes being expressed at the protein level, including VZV gene 63-encoded protein, but recent evidence suggests that this may not be a common event. The nature and extent of the chronic inflammatory response in latently infected ganglia is also of current interest. There remain several questions concerning the VZV latency process that still need to be resolved unambiguously and it is likely that this will require the use of newly developed molecular technologies, such as GeXPS multiplex polymerase chain reaction (PCR) for virus transcriptional analysis and ChIP-seq to study the epigenetic of latent virus genome ( Liu et al, 2010 , BMC Biol 8: 56).
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Peter G E Kennedy
- Department of Neurology, Glasgow University, Southern General Hospital, Glasgow, Scotland, UK.
| | | |
Collapse
|
45
|
Effect of time delay after necropsy on analysis of simian varicella-zoster virus expression in latently infected ganglia of rhesus macaques. J Virol 2010; 84:12454-7. [PMID: 20861271 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.01792-10] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/11/2023] Open
Abstract
Studies of varicella-zoster virus gene expression during latency require the acquisition of human ganglia at autopsy. Concerns have been raised that the virus might reactivate immediately after death. Because features of varicella-zoster virus latency are similar in primate and human ganglia, we examined virus gene expression in tissues either processed immediately or kept at 4°C for 30 h before necropsy of two monkeys inoculated with simian varicella-zoster virus and euthanized 117 days later. Virus transcription and the detection of open reading frame (ORF) 63 protein in the cytoplasm of neurons were comparable. Thus, a 30-h delay after death did not affect varicella-zoster virus expression in latently infected ganglia.
Collapse
|
46
|
Gowrishankar K, Steain M, Cunningham AL, Rodriguez M, Blumbergs P, Slobedman B, Abendroth A. Characterization of the host immune response in human Ganglia after herpes zoster. J Virol 2010; 84:8861-70. [PMID: 20573825 PMCID: PMC2919016 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.01020-10] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/11/2010] [Accepted: 06/14/2010] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Varicella-zoster virus (VZV) causes varicella (chicken pox) and establishes latency in ganglia, from where it reactivates to cause herpes zoster (shingles), which is often followed by postherpetic neuralgia (PHN), causing severe neuropathic pain that can last for years after the rash. Despite the major impact of herpes zoster and PHN on quality of life, the nature and kinetics of the virus-immune cell interactions that result in ganglion damage have not been defined. We obtained rare material consisting of seven sensory ganglia from three donors who had suffered from herpes zoster between 1 and 4.5 months before death but who had not died from herpes zoster. We performed immunostaining to investigate the site of VZV infection and to phenotype immune cells in these ganglia. VZV antigen was localized almost exclusively to neurons, and in at least one case it persisted long after resolution of the rash. The large immune infiltrate consisted of noncytolytic CD8(+) T cells, with lesser numbers of CD4(+) T cells, B cells, NK cells, and macrophages and no dendritic cells. VZV antigen-positive neurons did not express detectable major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class I, nor did CD8(+) T cells surround infected neurons, suggesting that mechanisms of immune control may not be dependent on direct contact. This is the first report defining the nature of the immune response in ganglia following herpes zoster and provides evidence for persistence of non-latency-associated viral antigen and inflammation beyond rash resolution.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Kavitha Gowrishankar
- Centre for Virus Research, Westmead Millennium Institute, Department of Infectious Diseases and Immunology, University of Sydney, Sydney, Australia, Department of Forensic Medicine, Sydney South West Area Health Service, Sydney, Australia, Department of Pathology, Institute of Medical and Veterinary Science, Adelaide, Australia
| | - Megan Steain
- Centre for Virus Research, Westmead Millennium Institute, Department of Infectious Diseases and Immunology, University of Sydney, Sydney, Australia, Department of Forensic Medicine, Sydney South West Area Health Service, Sydney, Australia, Department of Pathology, Institute of Medical and Veterinary Science, Adelaide, Australia
| | - Anthony L. Cunningham
- Centre for Virus Research, Westmead Millennium Institute, Department of Infectious Diseases and Immunology, University of Sydney, Sydney, Australia, Department of Forensic Medicine, Sydney South West Area Health Service, Sydney, Australia, Department of Pathology, Institute of Medical and Veterinary Science, Adelaide, Australia
| | - Michael Rodriguez
- Centre for Virus Research, Westmead Millennium Institute, Department of Infectious Diseases and Immunology, University of Sydney, Sydney, Australia, Department of Forensic Medicine, Sydney South West Area Health Service, Sydney, Australia, Department of Pathology, Institute of Medical and Veterinary Science, Adelaide, Australia
| | - Peter Blumbergs
- Centre for Virus Research, Westmead Millennium Institute, Department of Infectious Diseases and Immunology, University of Sydney, Sydney, Australia, Department of Forensic Medicine, Sydney South West Area Health Service, Sydney, Australia, Department of Pathology, Institute of Medical and Veterinary Science, Adelaide, Australia
| | - Barry Slobedman
- Centre for Virus Research, Westmead Millennium Institute, Department of Infectious Diseases and Immunology, University of Sydney, Sydney, Australia, Department of Forensic Medicine, Sydney South West Area Health Service, Sydney, Australia, Department of Pathology, Institute of Medical and Veterinary Science, Adelaide, Australia
| | - Allison Abendroth
- Centre for Virus Research, Westmead Millennium Institute, Department of Infectious Diseases and Immunology, University of Sydney, Sydney, Australia, Department of Forensic Medicine, Sydney South West Area Health Service, Sydney, Australia, Department of Pathology, Institute of Medical and Veterinary Science, Adelaide, Australia
| |
Collapse
|
47
|
Expression of varicella-zoster virus immediate-early regulatory protein IE63 in neurons of latently infected human sensory ganglia. J Virol 2010; 84:3421-30. [PMID: 20106930 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.02416-09] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Varicella-zoster virus (VZV) causes varicella and establishes latency in sensory nerve ganglia, but the characteristics of VZV latency are not well defined. Immunohistochemical detection of the VZV immediate-early 63 (IE63) protein in ganglion neurons has been described, but there are significant discrepancies in estimates of the frequency of IE63-positive neurons, varying from a rare event to abundant expression. We examined IE63 expression in cadaver ganglia using a high-potency rabbit anti-IE63 antibody and corresponding preimmune serum. Using standard immunohistochemical techniques, we evaluated 10 ganglia that contained VZV DNA from seven individuals. These experiments showed that neuronal pigments were a confounding variable; however, by examining sections coded to prevent investigator bias and applying statistical analysis, we determined that IE63 protein, if present, is in a very small proportion of neurons (<2.8%). To refine estimates of IE63 protein abundance, we modified our protocol by incorporating a biological stain to exclude the pigment signal and evaluated 27 ganglia from 18 individuals. We identified IE63 protein in neurons within only one ganglion, in which VZV glycoprotein E and an immune cell infiltrate were also demonstrated. Antigen preservation was shown by detection of neuronal synaptophysin. These data provide evidence that the expression of IE63 protein, which has been referred to as a latency-associated protein, is rare. Refining estimates of VZV protein expression in neurons is important for developing a hypothesis about the mechanisms by which VZV latency may be maintained.
Collapse
|
48
|
Mueller NH, Walters MS, Marcus RA, Graf LL, Prenni J, Gilden D, Silverstein SJ, Cohrs RJ. Identification of phosphorylated residues on varicella-zoster virus immediate-early protein ORF63. J Gen Virol 2010; 91:1133-7. [PMID: 20089801 DOI: 10.1099/vir.0.019067-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Efficient replication of varicella-zoster virus (VZV) in cell culture requires expression of protein encoded by VZV open reading frame 63 (ORF63p). Two-dimensional gel analysis demonstrates that ORF63p is extensively modified. Mass spectroscopy analysis of ORF63p isolated from transiently transfected HEK 293 and stably transfected MeWo cells identified 10 phosphorylated residues. In VZV-infected MeWo cells, only six phosphorylated residues were detected. This report identifies phosphorylation of two previously uncharacterized residues (Ser5 and Ser31) in ORF63p extracted from cells infected with VZV or transfected with an ORF63p expression plasmid. Computational analysis of ORF63p for known kinase substrates did not identify Ser5 or Ser31 as candidate phosphorylation sites, suggesting that either atypical recognition sequences or novel cellular kinases are involved in ORF63p post-translational modification.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Niklaus H Mueller
- Department of Neurology, University of Colorado Denver School of Medicine, Denver, USA
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
49
|
Abstract
Because varicella zoster virus (VZV) is an exclusively human pathogen, the development of an animal model is necessary to study pathogenesis, latency, and reactivation. The pathological, virological, and immunological features of simian varicella virus (SVV) infection in nonhuman primates are similar to those of VZV infection in humans. Both natural infection of cynomolgus and African green monkeys as well as intrabronchial inoculation of rhesus macaques with SVV provide the most useful models to study viral and immunological aspects of latency and the host immune response. Experimental immunosuppression of monkeys latently infected with SVV results in zoster, thus providing a new model system to study how the loss of adaptive immunity modulates virus reactivation.
Collapse
|
50
|
Abstract
Inoculation of rodents with varicella-zoster virus (VZV) results in a latent infection in dorsal root ganglia with expression of at least five of the six VZV transcripts and one of the viral proteins that are reported to be expressed during latency in human ganglia. Rats develop allodynia and hyperalgesia in the limb distal to the site of injection and the resulting exaggerated withdrawal response to stimuli is reduced by treatment with gabapentin and amitryptyline, but not by antiviral therapy. Inoculation of rats with VZV mutants show that most viral genes are dispensable for latency, but that some genes (e.g., ORF4, 29, and ORF63) that are expressed during latency are important for the establishment of latency in rodents, but not for infection of rodent ganglia. The rodent model for VZV latency allows one to study ganglia removed immediately after death, avoiding the possibility of reactivation, and helps to identify VZV genes required for latency.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jeffrey I Cohen
- Laboratory of Clinical Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA.
| |
Collapse
|