1
|
Hamzah SN, Avicor SW, Alias Z, Razak SA, Bakhori SKM, Hsieh TC, Syanizam NN, Farouk SA. In Vivo Glutathione S-Transferases Superfamily Proteome Analysis: An Insight into Aedes albopictus Mosquitoes upon Acute Xenobiotic Challenges. INSECTS 2022; 13:1028. [PMID: 36354852 PMCID: PMC9698486 DOI: 10.3390/insects13111028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/20/2022] [Revised: 10/29/2022] [Accepted: 11/01/2022] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
In this study, the induction of glutathione S-transferase (GST) enzymatic activities in Aedes albopictus under 24 h of xenobiotic challenges was investigated. From LCMS analysis, 23 GST isoforms were identified under Delta, Epsilon, Sigma, Zeta, Omega, and Iota classes, together with one GSTX1-1 isoform, in both treated and untreated samples. Using STRING 11.5, the functional enrichment network of Gene Ontology (GO) analysis, the identified peptides were found to be involved in the glutathione metabolic biological process (GO:0006749, p-value: 1.93 × 10−29), and the molecular functions involved are due to glutathione transferase (GO:0016848, p-value: 2.92 × 10−8) aside from carbon-halide lyase activity (GO:004364, p-value: 1.21 × 10−31). The Protein-Protein Interaction (PPI) network (STRING 11.5) showed significant interactions within the GST superfamily and some of the GST classes interacted with other proteins among the input domain of the identified peptides (p-value < 1.0 × 10−16). In TMT labeling for the quantification of peptide abundance, isoforms from Delta (GSTD1-2, GSTD1-3, GSTD1-4) and Epsilon (GSTE3-1, GSTE4-2) were found to be overexpressed (between 1.5-fold and 2-fold changes). In the PPI analysis, 12 common enriched pathways of Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) were found to be intercorrelated with the identified GSTs at PPI enrichment p-value < 1.0 × 10−16. Overall, this study indicates that distinct GST enzymes, which were identified up to their specific protein isoforms, are involved in the metabolic mechanisms underlying xenobiotic stress.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Siti Nasuha Hamzah
- School of Biological Sciences, Universiti Sains Malaysia, George Town 11800, Penang, Malaysia
| | - Silas Wintuma Avicor
- Entomology Division, Cocoa Research Institute of Ghana, New Tafo-Akim P.O. Box 8, Ghana
| | - Zazali Alias
- Institute of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Science, Universiti Malaya, Kuala Lumpur 50603, Malaysia
| | - Sarah Abdul Razak
- Institute of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Science, Universiti Malaya, Kuala Lumpur 50603, Malaysia
| | | | - Ting Chuan Hsieh
- School of Biological Sciences, Universiti Sains Malaysia, George Town 11800, Penang, Malaysia
| | - Nurin Nazifa Syanizam
- School of Biological Sciences, Universiti Sains Malaysia, George Town 11800, Penang, Malaysia
| | - Salinah Abdul Farouk
- School of Biological Sciences, Universiti Sains Malaysia, George Town 11800, Penang, Malaysia
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Daneshian L, Schlachter C, Timmers LFSM, Radford T, Kapingidza B, Dias T, Liese J, Sperotto RA, Grbic V, Grbic M, Chruszcz M. Delta class glutathione S-transferase (TuGSTd01) from the two-spotted spider mite Tetranychus urticae is inhibited by abamectin. PESTICIDE BIOCHEMISTRY AND PHYSIOLOGY 2021; 176:104873. [PMID: 34119218 DOI: 10.1016/j.pestbp.2021.104873] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/06/2020] [Revised: 04/28/2021] [Accepted: 05/03/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
GSTs (Glutathione S-transferases) are known to catalyze the nucleophilic attack of the sulfhydryl group of reduced glutathione (GSH) on electrophilic centers of xenobiotic compounds, including insecticides and acaricides. Genome analyses of the polyphagous spider mite herbivore Tetranychus urticae (two-spotted spider mite) revealed the presence of a set of 32 genes that code for secreted proteins belonging to the GST family of enzymes. To better understand the role of these proteins in T. urticae, we have functionally characterized TuGSTd01. Moreover, we have modeled the structure of the enzyme in apo form, as well as in the form with bound inhibitor. We demonstrated that this protein is a glutathione S-transferase that can conjugate glutathione to 1-chloro-2,4-dinitrobenzene (CDNB). We have tested TuGSTd01 activity with a range of potential substrates such as cinnamic acid, cumene hydroperoxide, and allyl isothiocyanate; however, the enzyme was unable to process these compounds. Using mutagenesis, we showed that putative active site variants S11A, E66A, S67A, and R68A mutants, which were residues predicted to interact directly with GSH, have no measurable activity, and these residues are required for the enzymatic activity of TuGSTd01. There are several reports that associate some T. urticae acaricide resistance with increased activity of GSTs . However, we found that TuGSTd01 is not able to detoxify abamectin; in fact, the acaricide inhibits the enzyme with Ki = 101 μM. Therefore, we suggest that the increased GST activity observed in abamectin resistant T. urticae field populations is a part of the compensatory feedback loop. In this case, the increased production of GSTs and relatively high concentration of GSH in cells allow GSTs to maintain physiological functions despite the presence of the acaricide.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Leily Daneshian
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of South Carolina, Columbia, SC 29208, USA
| | - Caleb Schlachter
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of South Carolina, Columbia, SC 29208, USA
| | | | - Taylor Radford
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of South Carolina, Columbia, SC 29208, USA
| | - Brenda Kapingidza
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of South Carolina, Columbia, SC 29208, USA
| | - Travis Dias
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of South Carolina, Columbia, SC 29208, USA
| | - Jana Liese
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of South Carolina, Columbia, SC 29208, USA
| | - Raul Antonio Sperotto
- Graduate Program in Biotechnology, University of Taquari Valley - Univates, Lajeado, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil
| | - Vojislava Grbic
- Department of Biology, Western University, London, Ontario N6A 5B7, Canada; The University of La Rioja, Logrono, Spain
| | - Miodrag Grbic
- Department of Biology, Western University, London, Ontario N6A 5B7, Canada; The University of La Rioja, Logrono, Spain
| | - Maksymilian Chruszcz
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of South Carolina, Columbia, SC 29208, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Helvecio E, Romão TP, de Carvalho-Leandro D, de Oliveira IF, Cavalcanti AEHD, Reimer L, de Paiva Cavalcanti M, de Oliveira APS, Paiva PMG, Napoleão TH, Wallau GL, de Melo Neto OP, Melo-Santos MAV, Ayres CFJ. Polymorphisms in GSTE2 is associated with temephos resistance in Aedes aegypti. PESTICIDE BIOCHEMISTRY AND PHYSIOLOGY 2020; 165:104464. [PMID: 32359546 DOI: 10.1016/j.pestbp.2019.10.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/09/2019] [Revised: 09/10/2019] [Accepted: 10/13/2019] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
The glutathione S-transferases (GSTs) are enzymes involved in several distinct biological processes. In insects, the GSTs, especially delta and epsilon classes, play a key role in the metabolism of xenobiotics used to control insect populations. Here, we investigated its potential role in temephos resistance, examining the GSTE2 gene from susceptible (RecL) and resistant (RecR) strains of the mosquito Aedes aegypti, vector for several pathogenic arboviruses. Total GST enzymatic activity and the GSTE2 gene expression profile were evaluated, with the GSTE2 cDNA and genomic loci sequenced from both strains. Recombinant GSTE2 and mutants were produced in a heterologous expression system and assayed for enzyme kinetic parameters. These proteins also had their 3D structure predicted through molecular modeling. Our results showed that RecR has a profile of total GST enzymatic activity higher than RecL, with the expression of the GSTE2 gene in resistant larvae increasing six folds. Four exclusive RecR mutations were observed (L111S, I150V, E178A and A198E), which were absent in the laboratory susceptible strains. The enzymatic activity of the recombinant GSTE2 showed different kinetic parameters, with the GSTE2 RecR showing an enhanced ability to metabolize its substrate. The I150V mutation was shown to induce significant changes in catalytic parameters and a 3D modeling of GSTE2 mapped two of the RecR changes (L111S and I150V) near the enzyme's catalytic pocket, also implying an impact on its catalytic activity. Our results reinforce a potential role for GSTE2 in the metabolic resistance phenotype while contributing to the understanding of the molecular basis for the resistance mechanism.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Elisama Helvecio
- Department of Entomology, Instituto Aggeu Magalhães, FIOCRUZ, Recife, PE 50740-465, Brazil
| | - Tatiany Patrícia Romão
- Department of Entomology, Instituto Aggeu Magalhães, FIOCRUZ, Recife, PE 50740-465, Brazil.
| | | | | | | | - Lisa Reimer
- Department of Vector Biology, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, United Kingdom
| | | | | | | | | | - Gabriel Luz Wallau
- Department of Entomology, Instituto Aggeu Magalhães, FIOCRUZ, Recife, PE 50740-465, Brazil
| | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
4
|
Identification and characterization of detoxification genes in two cerambycid beetles, Rhaphuma horsfieldi and Xylotrechus quadripes (Coleoptera: Cerambycidae: Clytini). Comp Biochem Physiol B Biochem Mol Biol 2020; 243-244:110431. [PMID: 32142896 DOI: 10.1016/j.cbpb.2020.110431] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/04/2020] [Revised: 02/22/2020] [Accepted: 02/25/2020] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
The longhorned beetles, Rhaphuma horsfieldi and Xylotrechus quadripes, are two polyphagous insects with larvae feeding on different host plants. In this study, we identified and characterized three gene superfamilies of cytochrome P450s (CYPs), carboxylesterases (COEs) and glutathione-S-transferases (GSTs) involved in the detoxification of endobiotics (e.g., hormones and steroids) and xenobiotics (e.g., insecticides, sex pheromones and plant allelochemicals) through a combination approach of bioinformatics, phylogenetics, expression profiles and genomics. Transcriptome analyses led to the identification of 281 transcripts encoding 135 P450s, 108 COEs and 38 GSTs from the two beetles, coupled with comparative studies of detoxification genes among coleopteran species, suggesting a correlation between host range and the sizes of P450 or COE gene repertoires. The P450s of two beetles were phylogenetically classified into four clades, representing the majority of genes in the CYP3 clan. The COEs from R. horsfieldi and X. quadripes were separately grouped into 11 and 10 clades, and the GST superfamily was assigned into six clades. Expression profiles revealed that the detoxification genes were broadly expressed in various tissues as an implication of functional diversities. Ultimately and more importantly, five alternative splicing events in the Epsilon GSTs, including RhorGSTe7.1/GSTe7.2 and XquaGSTe3.1/GST3.2, were acquired in Coleoptera, in which these genes and their orthologs shared highly conserved gene structure. Our current study has complemented the resources for the detoxification genes in the family Cerambycidae, and allows for functional experiments to identify candidate molecular targets involved in pest resistance to insecticides like organophosphates, organochlorines and pyrethroids.
Collapse
|
5
|
Hamzah SN, Farouk SA, Alias Z. Isoenzymes of Aedes albopictus (Diptera: Culicidae) Glutathione S-transferases: Isolation and expression after acute insecticide treatment. PESTICIDE BIOCHEMISTRY AND PHYSIOLOGY 2019; 153:116-121. [PMID: 30744884 DOI: 10.1016/j.pestbp.2018.11.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/04/2018] [Revised: 11/07/2018] [Accepted: 11/15/2018] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
Glutathione S-transferases (GSTs) from susceptible Aedes albopictus larvae were partially isolated using two different purification strategies (GSTrap™ HP and GSH-agarose affinity columns) and the effects of permethrin and DDT on expression of the GSTs were investigated. Distinct double bands on SDS-PAGE with molecular weights between 20 and 25 kDa were successfully purified using GSTrap™ HP while a single band of 24.5 kDa was purified using GSH-agarose. The isolated GSTs belonged to the Delta, Sigma and Theta GST classes. When exposed to permethrin, one isoform of Theta, four isoforms of Sigma and thirteen isoforms of Delta GSTs showed an increased expression between 1.4-fold and 2.5-fold while DDT treatment resulted in between 1.4-fold and 3.2-fold increased expression in one isoform of Theta, four isoforms of Sigma and eleven isoforms of Delta GSTs (p < .05). This study indicated that GSTrap™ HP was more competent in isolating Ae. albopictus GSTs compared to GSH-agarose and also variable expression of GST isoforms occur in response to different insecticides. This information may be useful for improving insecticide resistance management strategies in aspect of molecular resistant and evolutionary tolerant detoxification enzyme.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Siti Nasuha Hamzah
- School of Biological Sciences, Universiti Sains Malaysia, 11800 Minden, Penang, Malaysia.
| | - Salinah Abdul Farouk
- School of Biological Sciences, Universiti Sains Malaysia, 11800 Minden, Penang, Malaysia
| | - Zazali Alias
- Institute of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Science, University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur 50603, Malaysia
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Li L, Lan M, Lu W, Li Z, Xia T, Zhu J, Ye M, Gao X, Wu G. De novo transcriptomic analysis of the alimentary tract of the tephritid gall fly, Procecidochares utilis. PLoS One 2018; 13:e0201679. [PMID: 30138350 PMCID: PMC6107134 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0201679] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/01/2018] [Accepted: 07/19/2018] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
The tephritid gall fly, Procecidochares utilis, is an important obligate parasitic insect of the malignant weed Eupatorium adenophorum which biosynthesizes toxic secondary metabolites. Insect alimentary tracts secrete several enzymes that are used for detoxification, including cytochrome P450s, glutathione S-transferases, and carboxylesterases. To explore the adaptation of P. utilis to its toxic host plant, E. adenophorum at molecular level, we sequenced the transcriptome of the alimentary tract of P. utilis using Illumina sequencing. Sequencing and de novo assembly yielded 62,443 high-quality contigs with an average length of 604 bp that were further assembled into 45,985 unigenes with an average length of 674 bp and an N50 of 983 bp. Among the unigenes, 30,430 (66.17%) were annotated by alignment against the NCBI non-redundant protein (Nr) database, while 16,700 (36.32%), 16,267 (35.37%), and 11,530 (25.07%) were assigned functions using the Clusters of Orthologous Groups (COG), Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG), and Gene Ontology (GO) databases, respectively. Using the comprehensive transcriptome data set, we manually identified several important gene families likely to be involved in the detoxification of toxic compounds including 21 unigenes within the glutathione S-transferase (GST) family, 22 unigenes within the cytochrome P450 (P450) family, and 16 unigenes within the carboxylesterase (CarE) family. Quantitative PCR was used to verify eight, six, and two genes of GSTs, P450s, and CarEs, respectively, in different P. utilis tissues and at different developmental stages. The detoxification enzyme genes were mainly expressed in the foregut and midgut. Moreover, the unigenes were higher expressed in the larvae, pupae, and 3-day adults, while they were expressed at lower levels in eggs. These transcriptomic data provide a valuable molecular resource for better understanding the function of the P. utilis alimentary canal. These identified genes could be pinpoints to address the molecular mechanisms of P. utilis interacting with toxic plant host.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Lifang Li
- State Key Laboratory for Conservation and Utilization of Bio-Resources in Yunnan, Yunnan Agricultural University, Kunming, China
| | - Mingxian Lan
- State Key Laboratory for Conservation and Utilization of Bio-Resources in Yunnan, Yunnan Agricultural University, Kunming, China
| | - Wufeng Lu
- State Key Laboratory for Conservation and Utilization of Bio-Resources in Yunnan, Yunnan Agricultural University, Kunming, China
| | - Zhaobo Li
- State Key Laboratory for Conservation and Utilization of Bio-Resources in Yunnan, Yunnan Agricultural University, Kunming, China
| | - Tao Xia
- State Key Laboratory for Conservation and Utilization of Bio-Resources in Yunnan, Yunnan Agricultural University, Kunming, China
| | - Jiaying Zhu
- Key Laboratory of Forest Disaster Warning and Control of Yunnan Province, Southwest Forestry University, Kunming, China
| | - Min Ye
- State Key Laboratory for Conservation and Utilization of Bio-Resources in Yunnan, Yunnan Agricultural University, Kunming, China
| | - Xi Gao
- State Key Laboratory for Conservation and Utilization of Bio-Resources in Yunnan, Yunnan Agricultural University, Kunming, China
- * E-mail: (XG); (GW)
| | - Guoxing Wu
- State Key Laboratory for Conservation and Utilization of Bio-Resources in Yunnan, Yunnan Agricultural University, Kunming, China
- * E-mail: (XG); (GW)
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Fossog Tene B, Poupardin R, Costantini C, Awono-Ambene P, Wondji CS, Ranson H, Antonio-Nkondjio C. Resistance to DDT in an urban setting: common mechanisms implicated in both M and S forms of Anopheles gambiae in the city of Yaoundé Cameroon. PLoS One 2013; 8:e61408. [PMID: 23626680 PMCID: PMC3634070 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0061408] [Citation(s) in RCA: 82] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/10/2012] [Accepted: 03/08/2013] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND In the city of Yaoundé in Cameroon malaria is predominately transmitted by the M and S molecular forms of Anopheles gambiae and both are resistant to the pyrethroid insecticides and DDT. Mutations in the target site of these insecticides, present at a high frequency in malaria vectors in this city, contribute to this resistance profile. To identify additional resistance mechanisms, the expression profile of multiple DDT-resistant field populations of M and S molecular forms was compared to laboratory-susceptible populations. METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS The prevalence of DDT resistance was highest in the S form population originating from the cultivated site of Nkolondom (mortality after WHO bioassay = 4%). A high prevalence of DDT resistance was also found in two urban M form populations, Messa from a pristine unpolluted environment (DDT mortality = 54%), and Gare, where the breeding sites are heavily polluted with organic matter (DDT mortality = 38%). Microarray analysis showed that several transcripts coding for detoxification enzymes (P450s, GSTs and UDPGTs) and ABC transporters were upregulated in the three populations. Despite the presence of multiple detoxification genes over expressed in the DDT-resistant subset of these field populations, only three were commonly over expressed in resistant populations from all three environments. Two of these genes, CYP6M2 and GSTD1-6, encode enzymes that have been previously shown to metabolize DDT. CONCLUSION/SIGNIFICANCE Analogous to target site resistance, genes involved in metabolic resistance to DDT are also shared between the M and S forms of An gambiae. Alternative explanations for this occurrence are explored.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Billy Fossog Tene
- Laboratoire de Recherche sur le Paludisme, Organisation de Coordination pour la lutte Contre les Endémies en Afrique Centrale, Yaoundé, Cameroon
- Faculty of Sciences, University of Yaoundé I, Cameroon
| | - Rodolphe Poupardin
- Vector Group Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Liverpool, United Kingdom
| | - Carlo Costantini
- Institut de Recherche pour le Développement, UMR IRD 224 Centre national de la recherche scientifique 5290 Université de Montpellier 1 Université de Montpellier 2, Maladies Infectieuses et Vecteurs Écologie, Génétique, Évolution et Contrôle, Montpellier, France
| | - Parfait Awono-Ambene
- Laboratoire de Recherche sur le Paludisme, Organisation de Coordination pour la lutte Contre les Endémies en Afrique Centrale, Yaoundé, Cameroon
| | - Charles S. Wondji
- Vector Group Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Liverpool, United Kingdom
| | - Hilary Ranson
- Vector Group Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Liverpool, United Kingdom
| | - Christophe Antonio-Nkondjio
- Laboratoire de Recherche sur le Paludisme, Organisation de Coordination pour la lutte Contre les Endémies en Afrique Centrale, Yaoundé, Cameroon
- Vector Group Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Liverpool, United Kingdom
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Identification and characterization of an Apis cerana cerana Delta class glutathione S-transferase gene (AccGSTD) in response to thermal stress. Naturwissenschaften 2012; 100:153-63. [DOI: 10.1007/s00114-012-1006-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/04/2012] [Revised: 11/18/2012] [Accepted: 12/06/2012] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
|
9
|
Zhou WW, Li XW, Quan YH, Cheng J, Zhang CX, Gurr G, Zhu ZR. Identification and expression profiles of nine glutathione S-transferase genes from the important rice phloem sap-sucker and virus vector Laodelphax striatellus (Fallén) (Hemiptera: Delphacidae). PEST MANAGEMENT SCIENCE 2012; 68:1296-1305. [PMID: 22522784 DOI: 10.1002/ps.3297] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/03/2011] [Revised: 12/19/2011] [Accepted: 02/01/2012] [Indexed: 05/27/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Glutathione S-transferases (GSTs) have received considerable attention in insects for their roles in insecticide resistance. Laodelphax striatellus (Fallén) is a serious rice pest. L. striatellus outbreaks occur frequently throughout eastern Asia. A key problem in controlling this pest is its rapid adaptation to numerous insecticides. In this research, nine cDNAs encoding GSTs in L. striatellus were cloned and characterised. RESULTS The cloned GSTs of L. striatellus belonged to six cytosolic classes and a microsomal subgroup. Exposure to sublethal concentrations of each of the six insecticides, DDT, chlorpyrifos, fipronil, imidacloprid, buprofezin and beta-cypermethrin, quickly induced (6 h) up-expression of LsGSTe1. The expression of LsGSTs2 was increased by chlorpyrifos, fipronil and beta-cypermethrin. Furthermore, exposure of L. striatellus to fipronil, imidacloprid, buprofezin and beta-cypermethrin increased the expression of the LsGSTm gene after 24 or 48 h. CONCLUSION This work is the first identification of GST genes from different GST groups in Auchenorrhyncha species and their induction characteristics with insecticide types and time. The elevated expression of GST genes induced by insecticides might be related to the enhanced tolerance of this insect to insecticides and xenobiotics.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Wen-Wu Zhou
- State Key Laboratory of Rice Biology, Key Laboratory of Agricultural Entomology, Ministry of Agriculture, and Institute of Insect Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China
| | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
10
|
Hellestad VJ, Witthuhn BA, Fallon AM. The insect repellent DEET (N,N-diethyl-3-methylbenzamide) increases the synthesis of glutathione S-transferase in cultured mosquito cells. Cell Biol Toxicol 2010; 27:149-57. [PMID: 20963476 DOI: 10.1007/s10565-010-9177-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/06/2010] [Accepted: 10/06/2010] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
DEET (N,N-diethyl-3-methylbenzamide) is the active ingredient used in many commonly used insect repellents, but its mode of action remains poorly understood. Efforts to identify properties that could lead to the development of more effective active ingredients have distinguished among DEET's repellent, deterrent, and insecticidal activities. We used an Aedes albopictus mosquito cell line to evaluate DEET's toxicological properties in the absence of sensory input mediated by the olfactory system. When cells were treated with DEET and labeled with [(35)S]methionine/cysteine, a single 25-kDa protein was induced, relative to other proteins, on SDS-polyacrylamide gels. The 25-kDa band from DEET-treated cells was enriched in peptides corresponding to glutathione S-transferase D10 and/or theta in the Aedes aegypti genome. Consistent with the increased expression of the labeled protein, DEET-treated cells had increased glutathione S-transferase activity, and the radiolabeled band bound to Sepharose 4B containing reduced glutathione. By analyzing partial tryptic digests, we established that DEET induces the homolog of A. aegypti glutathione S-transferase, class theta, corresponding to protein XP_001658009.1 in the NCBI database. This specific effect of DEET at the subcellular level suggests that DEET induces physiological responses that extend beyond recognition by the peripheral olfactory system.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Vanessa J Hellestad
- Department of Entomology, University of Minnesota, 1980 Folwell Ave., St. Paul, MN 55108, USA
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
11
|
Li X, Zhang X, Zhang J, Zhang X, Starkey SR, Zhu KY. Identification and characterization of eleven glutathione S-transferase genes from the aquatic midge Chironomus tentans (Diptera: Chironomidae). INSECT BIOCHEMISTRY AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2009; 39:745-754. [PMID: 19744561 DOI: 10.1016/j.ibmb.2009.08.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/23/2009] [Revised: 08/25/2009] [Accepted: 08/28/2009] [Indexed: 05/28/2023]
Abstract
Eleven cDNAs encoding glutathione S-transferases (GSTs) were sequenced and characterized in Chironomus tentans, an ecologically important aquatic midge. Phylogenetic analysis revealed seven GSTs in three different cytosolic classes including 4 in sigma (CtGSTs1, CtGSTs2, CtGSTs3, CtGSTs4), 2 in delta (CtGSTd1, CtGSTd2), and 1 in omega (CtGSTo1). The remaining four GSTs (CtGSTu1, CtGSTu2, CtGSTu3, CtGSTu4) were unclassified due to their low relatedness to currently known classes of insect GSTs. Reverse-transcription (RT)-PCR analysis of the 11 GST genes showed that CtGSTd1, CtGSTu2, CtGSTu4, CtGSTs1, CtGSTs2, CtGSTs3, CtGSTs4 and CtGSTo1 were expressed in all tissues examined, including salivary glands, hemolymph, midgut, Malpighian tubules, fatbodies and carcass, whereas CtGSTd2 and CtGSTu1 were expressed in a limited number of tissues. CtGSTs1 and CtGSTs4 appeared to be the only two genes, of which expressions can be detected in eggs, whereas all the 11 GST genes showed various expression patterns in the four larval instars. However, expressions of CtGSTd2, CtGSTu1 and CtGSTu2 were not detectable in pupal and adult stages. Real-time quantitative PCR confirmed that the herbicide alachlor increased CtGSTd1, CtGSTs2 and CtGSTs3 gene expression by 2.1-, 2.8- and 4.3-fold, respectively, when fourth-instar midges were exposed to alachlor at 1000 microg/L for 72 h. Such increased gene expressions were associated with 2.2- and 1.8-fold decreases of total GST activities in vivo when CDNB and DCNB were used as substrates, respectively. Further studies showed that 65.5 and 73.5% of GST activities were inhibited in vitro by alachlor at 100 and 1000 microg/L, respectively. Because alachlor has been known as an electrophilic substrate that can be conjugated by glutathione (GSH), rapid in vitro inhibition of GST activities by alachlor suggested that decreased GST activities were likely caused by the depletion of GSH. However, alachlor may regulate different GST genes, as found in other organisms, leading to significantly increased transcriptional levels of CtGSTd1, CtGSTs2 and CtGSTs3 in out of 11 GST genes examined in this study.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Xiuwei Li
- R&D Center of Biorational Pesticides, Northwest A & F University, Shaanxi, China
| | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
12
|
Djouaka RF, Bakare AA, Coulibaly ON, Akogbeto MC, Ranson H, Hemingway J, Strode C. Expression of the cytochrome P450s, CYP6P3 and CYP6M2 are significantly elevated in multiple pyrethroid resistant populations of Anopheles gambiae s.s. from Southern Benin and Nigeria. BMC Genomics 2008; 9:538. [PMID: 19014539 PMCID: PMC2588609 DOI: 10.1186/1471-2164-9-538] [Citation(s) in RCA: 219] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/26/2008] [Accepted: 11/13/2008] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Insecticide resistance in Anopheles mosquitoes is threatening the success of malaria control programmes. This is particularly true in Benin where pyrethroid resistance has been linked to the failure of insecticide treated bed nets. The role of mutations in the insecticide target sites in conferring resistance has been clearly established. In this study, the contribution of other potential resistance mechanisms was investigated in Anopheles gambiae s.s. from a number of localities in Southern Benin and Nigeria. The mosquitoes were sampled from a variety of breeding sites in a preliminary attempt to investigate the role of contamination of mosquito breeding sites in selecting for resistance in adult mosquitoes. Results All mosquitoes sampled belonged to the M form of An. gambiae s.s. There were high levels of permethrin resistance in an agricultural area (Akron) and an urban area (Gbedjromede), low levels of resistance in mosquito samples from an oil contaminated site (Ojoo) and complete susceptibility in the rural Orogun location. The target site mutation kdrW was detected at high levels in two of the populations (Akron f = 0.86 and Gbedjromede f = 0.84) but was not detected in Ojoo or Orogun. Microarray analysis using the Anopheles gambiae detox chip identified two P450s, CYP6P3 and CYP6M2 up regulated in all three populations, the former was expressed at particularly high levels in the Akron (12.4-fold) and Ojoo (7.4-fold) populations compared to the susceptible population. Additional detoxification and redox genes were also over expressed in one or more populations including two cuticular pre-cursor genes which were elevated in two of the three resistant populations. Conclusion Multiple resistance mechanisms incurred in the different breeding sites contribute to resistance to permethrin in Benin. The cytochrome P450 genes, CYP6P3 and CYP6M2 are upregulated in all three resistant populations analysed. Several additional potential resistance mechanisms were also identified that warrant further investigation. Metabolic genes were over expressed irrespective of the presence of kdr, the latter resistance mechanism being absent in one resistant population. The discovery that mosquitoes collected from different types of breeding sites display differing profiles of metabolic genes at the adult stage may reflect the influence of a range of xenobiotics on selecting for resistance in mosquitoes.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Rousseau F Djouaka
- International Institute of Tropical Agriculture, Cotonou, 08BP0932, Benin.
| | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
13
|
Liebau E, Höppner J, Mühlmeister M, Burmeister C, Lüersen K, Perbandt M, Schmetz C, Büttner D, Brattig N. The secretory omega-class glutathione transferase OvGST3 from the human pathogenic parasite Onchocerca volvulus. FEBS J 2008; 275:3438-53. [PMID: 18537826 DOI: 10.1111/j.1742-4658.2008.06494.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
Abstract
Onchocerciasis or river blindness, caused by the filarial nematode Onchocerca volvulus, is the second leading cause of blindness due to infectious diseases. The protective role of the omega-class glutathione transferase 3 from O. volvulus (OvGST3) against intracellular and environmental reactive oxygen species has been described previously. In the present study, we continue our investigation of the highly stress-responsive OvGST3. Alternative splicing of two exons and one intron retention generates five different transcript isoforms that possess a spliced leader at their 5'-end, indicating that the mechanism of mature mRNA production involves alternative-, cis- and trans-splicing processes. Interestingly, the first two exons of the ovgst3 gene encode a signal peptide before sequence identity to other omega-class glutathione transferases begins. Only the recombinant expression of the isoform that encodes the longest deduced amino acid sequence (OvGST3/5) was successful, with the purified enzyme displaying modest thiol oxidoreductase activity. Significant IgG1 and IgG4 responses against recombinantly expressed OvGST3/5 were detected in sera from patients with the generalized as well as the chronic hyperreactive form of onchocerciasis, indicating exposure of the secreted protein to the human host's immune system and its immunogenicity. Immunohistological localization studies performed at light and electron microscopy levels support the extracellular localization of the protein. Intensive labeling of the OvGST3 was observed in the egg shell at the morula stage of the embryo, indicating extremely defined, stage-specific expression for a short transient period only.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Eva Liebau
- Institute of Animal Physiology, University of Münster, Münster, Germany.
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
14
|
Beck ET, Blair CD, Black WC, Beaty BJ, Blitvich BJ. Alternative splicing generates multiple transcripts of the inhibitor of apoptosis protein 1 in Aedes and Culex spp. mosquitoes. INSECT BIOCHEMISTRY AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2007; 37:1222-1233. [PMID: 17916508 PMCID: PMC2065863 DOI: 10.1016/j.ibmb.2007.07.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2006] [Revised: 07/16/2007] [Accepted: 07/20/2007] [Indexed: 05/25/2023]
Abstract
We determined the sequences of cDNA encoding Inhibitor of Apoptosis Protein 1 (IAP1) homologues from Aedes triseriatus, Aedes albopictus, Aedes aegypti, Culex pipiens and Culex tarsalis. The cDNAs encode translation products that share > or = 84% sequence similarity. The IAP1 mRNA of each mosquito species exists as 3-5 distinct variants due to the presence of heterogeneous sequences at the distal end of their 5'UTRs. Partial genomic sequencing upstream of the 5' end of the Ae. triseriatus IAP1 gene, and analysis of the Ae. aegypti genomic sequence, suggest that these mRNA variants are generated by alternative splicing. Each IAP1 mRNA variant from Ae. triseriatus and Cx. pipiens was detected by RT-PCR in all mosquito life-stages and adult tissues examined, and the relative concentration of each Ae. triseriatus IAP mRNA variant in various tissues was determined.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Eric T Beck
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Pathology, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO 80523-1692, USA
| | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
15
|
Lumjuan N, Stevenson BJ, Prapanthadara LA, Somboon P, Brophy PM, Loftus BJ, Severson DW, Ranson H. The Aedes aegypti glutathione transferase family. INSECT BIOCHEMISTRY AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2007; 37:1026-35. [PMID: 17785190 DOI: 10.1016/j.ibmb.2007.05.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/16/2006] [Revised: 05/17/2007] [Accepted: 05/23/2007] [Indexed: 05/17/2023]
Abstract
In this report, we describe the glutathione transferase (GST) gene family in the dengue vector Aedes aegypti and suggest a novel role for a new class of mosquito GSTs. Twenty-six GST genes are present in Ae. aegypti, two of which are alternatively spliced to give a total of 29 transcripts for cytosolic GSTs. The six classes identified in other insect species are all represented and, as in Anopheles gambiae, the majority of the mosquito GSTs belong to the insect-specific Delta and Epsilon classes with eight members each. Sixteen secure 1:1 orthologs were identified between GSTs in Ae. aegypti and An. gambiae, but only four of these have recognisable orthologs in Drosophila melanogaster. Three mosquito-specific GSTs were identified which did not belong to any previously recognised GST classes. One of these, GSTx2, has been previously implicated in conferring 1,1,1-trichloro-2,2-bis-(p-chlorophenyl)ethane (DDT) resistance in Ae. aegypti from South America. However, we found no evidence for increased levels of this GST protein in DDT/pyrethroid-resistant populations from Thailand. Furthermore, we show that the recombinant GSTX2-2 protein is unable to metabolise DDT. Interestingly, GSTX2-2 showed an affinity for hematin, and this, together with the restricted distribution of this class to haematophagous insects, may indicate a role for these enzymes in protecting mosquitoes against heme toxicity during blood feeding.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Nongkran Lumjuan
- Vector Group, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Pembroke Palace, Liverpool L3 5QA, UK
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
16
|
Piromjitpong J, Wongsantichon J, Ketterman A. Differences in the subunit interface residues of alternatively spliced glutathione transferases affects catalytic and structural functions. Biochem J 2007; 401:635-44. [PMID: 16938097 PMCID: PMC1770856 DOI: 10.1042/bj20060603] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
GSTs (glutathione transferases) are multifunctional widespread enzymes. Currently there are 13 identified classes within this family. Previously most structural characterization has been reported for mammalian Alpha, Mu and Pi class GSTs. In the present study we characterize two enzymes from the insect-specific Delta class, adGSTD3-3 and adGSTD4-4. These two proteins are alternatively spliced products from the same gene and have very similar tertiary structures. Several major contributions to the dimer interface area can be separated into three regions: conserved electrostatic interactions in region 1, hydrophobic interactions in region 2 and an ionic network in region 3. The four amino acid side chains studied in region 1 interact with each other as a planar rectangle. These interactions are highly conserved among the GST classes, Delta, Sigma and Theta. The hydrophobic residues in region 2 are not only subunit interface residues but also active site residues. Overall these three regions provide important contributions to stabilization and folding of the protein. In addition, decreases in yield as well as catalytic activity changes, suggest that the mutations in these regions can disrupt the active site conformation which decreases binding affinity, alters kinetic constants and alters substrate specificity. Several of these residues have only a slight effect on the initial folding of each subunit but have more influence on the dimerization process as well as impacting upon appropriate active site conformation. The results also suggest that even splicing products from the same gene may have specific features in the subunit interface area that would preclude heterodimerization.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Juthamart Piromjitpong
- Institute of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Mahidol University, Salaya Campus, Nakhon Pathom 73170, Thailand
| | - Jantana Wongsantichon
- Institute of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Mahidol University, Salaya Campus, Nakhon Pathom 73170, Thailand
| | - Albert J. Ketterman
- Institute of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Mahidol University, Salaya Campus, Nakhon Pathom 73170, Thailand
- To whom correspondence should be addressed (email )
| |
Collapse
|
17
|
Mittapalli O, Neal JJ, Shukle RH. Tissue and life stage specificity of glutathione S-transferase expression in the Hessian fly, Mayetiola destructor: implications for resistance to host allelochemicals. JOURNAL OF INSECT SCIENCE (ONLINE) 2007; 7:1-13. [PMID: 20307234 PMCID: PMC2999413 DOI: 10.1673/031.007.2001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/13/2023]
Abstract
Two new Delta and Sigma glutathione S-transferases (GSTs) in the Hessian fly, Mayetiola destructor (Diptera: Cecidomyiidae), were characterized and transcription profiles described. The deduced amino acid sequences for the two M. destructor Delta GSTs (MdesGST-1 and MdesGST-3) showed high similarity with other insect Delta GSTs including the conserved catalytic serine residue. The deduced amino acid sequence for the M. destructor Sigma GST (MdesGST-2) showed high similarity with other insect Sigma GSTs including the conserved glutathione and substrate binding sites. Quantitative tissue expression analysis showed that mRNA levels for MdesGST-1 were predominant in fat body, whereas for MdesGST-2 and MdesGST-3 expression was predominant in the midgut. Temporal expression during development showed peak mRNA levels for MdesGST-1 during larval development, but in the pupal stage for MdesGST-2. MdesGST-3 showed a constitutive expression pattern throughout development. M. destructor feeds on wheat, and expression analysis after feeding indicated that mRNA levels for MdesGST-1 were significantly higher in incompatible interactions in which larvae fed on resistant wheat, while MdesGST-3 was significantly higher in compatible interactions when larvae fed on susceptible wheat. MdesGST-2 showed an equivalent expression pattern during both interactions. These results suggest that the M. destructor Delta GSTs are important in detoxifying wheat allelochemicals during feeding, while Sigma GST participates in metabolism of endogenous substrates.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Omprakash Mittapalli
- Department of Entomology, Purdue University, West Lafayette, USA
- Correspondence: , ,
| | - Jonathan J. Neal
- Department of Entomology, Purdue University, West Lafayette, USA
- Correspondence: , ,
| | - Richard H. Shukle
- Department of Entomology, Purdue University, West Lafayette, USA
- USDA-ARS, Department of Entomology, Purdue University, West Lafayette, USA
- Correspondence: , ,
| |
Collapse
|
18
|
Djadid ND, Barjesteh H, Raeisi A, Hassanzahi A, Zakeri S. Identification, sequence analysis, and comparative study on GSTe2 insecticide resistance gene in three main world malaria vectors: Anopheles stephensi, Anopheles culicifacies, and Anopheles fluviatilis. JOURNAL OF MEDICAL ENTOMOLOGY 2006; 43:1171-7. [PMID: 17162949 DOI: 10.1603/0022-2585(2006)43[1171:isaacs]2.0.co;2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/12/2023]
Abstract
Glutathione S-transferases (GSTs) are soluble dimeric proteins that are involved in the metabolism, detoxification, and excretion of a large number of endogenous and exogenous compounds such as insecticides from the cell. In the current study, field specimens of Anopheles stephensi Liston, Anopheles fluviatilis James, and Anopheles culicifacies Giles collected from Sistan and Baluchistan province in Iran and subjected to World Health Organization susceptibility test. Only An. stephensi was resistant to 4% DDT. DNA extraction and rDNA-ITS2-polymerase chain reaction (PCR) for correct species identification, followed by amplification of GSTe2 gene, including exon I and II and full sequence of intron I, identified a 500-bp fragment in these three species. These fragments were purified and sequenced from both ends. The comparison of coding sequence of GSTe2 gene between these species and with Anopheles gambiae Giles showed 82 to 86% similarity at nucleic acid levels and identified nucleotide polymorphisms within An. culicifacies and An. stephensi populations. Species-specific differences have been detected in intron I of GSTe2 gene. This is in concordance with the previous studies and confirmed the conserved nature of intron sequence in GSTe2 gene of each species, probably useful as a molecular marker for species-specific identification. Phylogenetic analysis based on rDNA-ITS2, and coding (exon I and II) and noncoding sequences of GSTe2, showed the systematic relatedness between Iranian malaria vectors and the possibility of using these sequences in both differentiation of Anopheles species and defining their evolutionary relationship with the only available GSTe2 sequence of An. gambiae. These data may be useful for implementation and evaluation of malaria control programs in aspects of population genetics and molecular resistance.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Navid Dinparast Djadid
- Malaria Research Group, Biotechnology Department, Pasteur Institute of Iran, Tehran, Iran.
| | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
19
|
Strode C, Steen K, Ortelli F, Ranson H. Differential expression of the detoxification genes in the different life stages of the malaria vector Anopheles gambiae. INSECT MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2006; 15:523-30. [PMID: 16907839 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2583.2006.00667.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/11/2023]
Abstract
The diverse habitats and diets encountered during the life cycle of an Anopheles mosquito have necessitated the development of extensive families of detoxification enzymes. Expansion of the three detoxification enzyme families (cytochrome P450s, carboxylesterases and glutathione transfereases), has occurred in mosquitoes compared with Drosophila, however, very little is known regarding the developmental expression of theses genes. Using a custom made microarray we determined the expression profile of the detoxification genes in adults, larvae and pupae of the malaria vector A. gambiae. The expression of approximately one quarter of these genes was developmentally regulated. The expression profile of each of these genes and the information this data provides on putative functions of the mosquito detoxification enzymes is discussed.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- C Strode
- Vector Research Group, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Liverpool, UK.
| | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
20
|
Frova C. Glutathione transferases in the genomics era: new insights and perspectives. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2006; 23:149-69. [PMID: 16839810 DOI: 10.1016/j.bioeng.2006.05.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 315] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/09/2006] [Revised: 05/12/2006] [Accepted: 05/12/2006] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
In the last decade the tumultuous development of "omics" greatly improved our ability to understand protein structure, function and evolution, and to define their roles and networks in complex biological processes. This fast accumulating knowledge holds great potential for biotechnological applications, from the development of biomolecules with novel properties of industrial and medical importance, to the creation of transgenic organisms with new, favorable characteristics. This review focuses on glutathione transferases (GSTs), an ancient protein superfamily with multiple roles in all eukaryotic organisms, and attempts to give an overview of the new insights and perspectives provided by omics into the biology of these proteins. Among the aspects considered are the redefinition of GST subfamilies, their evolution in connection with structurally related families, present and future biotechnological outcomes.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Carla Frova
- Department of Biomolecular Sciences and Biotechnology, University of Milano, Via Celoria 26, 20133 Milano, Italy.
| |
Collapse
|
21
|
Ding Y, Hawkes N, Meredith J, Eggleston P, Hemingway J, Ranson H. Characterization of the promoters of Epsilon glutathione transferases in the mosquito Anopheles gambiae and their response to oxidative stress. Biochem J 2006; 387:879-88. [PMID: 15631620 PMCID: PMC1135021 DOI: 10.1042/bj20041850] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Epsilon class GSTs (glutathione transferases) are expressed at higher levels in Anopheles gambiae mosquitoes that are resistant to DDT [1,1,1-trichloro-2,2-bis-(p-chlorophenyl)ethane] than in insecticide-susceptible individuals. At least one of the eight Epsilon GSTs in this species, GSTe2, efficiently metabolizes DDT to DDE [1,1-dichloro-2,2-bis-(p-chlorophenyl)ethane]. In the present study, we investigated the factors regulating expression of this class of GSTs. The activity of the promoter regions of GSTe2 and GSTe3 were compared between resistant and susceptible strains by transfecting recombinant reporter constructs into an A. gambiae cell line. The GSTe2 promoter from the resistant strain exhibited 2.8-fold higher activity than that of the susceptible strain. Six polymorphic sites were identified in the 352 bp sequence immediately upstream of GSTe2. Among these, a 2 bp adenosine indel (insertion/deletion) was found to have the greatest effect on determining promoter activity. The activity of the GSTe3 promoter was elevated to a lesser degree in the DDT-resistant strain (1.3-fold). The role of putative transcription-factor-binding sites in controlling promoter activity was investigated by sequentially deleting the promoter constructs. Several putative transcription-factor-binding sites that are responsive to oxidative stress were present within the core promoters of these GSTs, hence the effect of H2O2 exposure on the transcription of the Epsilon GSTs was investigated. In the DDT-resistant strain, expression of GSTe1, GSTe2 and GSTe3 was significantly increased by a 1-h exposure to H2O2, whereas, in the susceptible strain, only GSTe3 expression responded to this treatment.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Yunchuan Ding
- *Vector Research Group, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Liverpool L3 5QA, U.K
| | - Nicola Hawkes
- *Vector Research Group, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Liverpool L3 5QA, U.K
| | - Janet Meredith
- †Centre for Applied Entomology and Parasitology, School of Life Sciences, Keele University, Keele ST5 5BG, U.K
| | - Paul Eggleston
- †Centre for Applied Entomology and Parasitology, School of Life Sciences, Keele University, Keele ST5 5BG, U.K
| | - Janet Hemingway
- *Vector Research Group, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Liverpool L3 5QA, U.K
| | - Hilary Ranson
- *Vector Research Group, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Liverpool L3 5QA, U.K
- To whom correspondence should be addressed (email )
| |
Collapse
|
22
|
Mannervik B, Board PG, Hayes JD, Listowsky I, Pearson WR. Nomenclature for mammalian soluble glutathione transferases. Methods Enzymol 2006; 401:1-8. [PMID: 16399376 DOI: 10.1016/s0076-6879(05)01001-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 238] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
The nomenclature for human soluble glutathione transferases (GSTs) is extended to include new members of the GST superfamily that have been discovered, sequenced, and shown to be expressed. The GST nomenclature is based on primary structure similarities and the division of GSTs into classes of more closely related sequences. The classes are designated by the names of the Greek letters: Alpha, Mu, Pi, etc., abbreviated in Roman capitals: A, M, P, and so on. (The Greek characters should not be used.) Class members are distinguished by Arabic numerals and the native dimeric protein structures are named according to their subunit composition (e.g., GST A1-2 is the enzyme composed of subunits 1 and 2 in the Alpha class). Soluble GSTs from other mammalian species can be classified in the same manner as the human enzymes, and this chapter presents the application of the nomenclature to the rat and mouse GSTs.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Bengt Mannervik
- Department of Biochemistry, Uppsala University Biomedical Center, Sweden
| | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
23
|
Udomsinprasert R, Pongjaroenkit S, Wongsantichon J, Oakley A, Prapanthadara LA, Wilce M, Ketterman A. Identification, characterization and structure of a new Delta class glutathione transferase isoenzyme. Biochem J 2005; 388:763-71. [PMID: 15717864 PMCID: PMC1183455 DOI: 10.1042/bj20042015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
The insect GST (glutathione transferase) supergene family encodes a varied group of proteins belonging to at least six individual classes. Interest in insect GSTs has focused on their role in conferring insecticide resistance. Previously from the mosquito malaria vector Anopheles dirus, two genes encoding five Delta class GSTs have been characterized for structural as well as enzyme activities. We have obtained a new Delta class GST gene and isoenzyme from A. dirus, which we name adGSTD5-5. The adGSTD5-5 isoenzyme was identified and was only detectably expressed in A. dirus adult females. A putative promoter analysis suggests that this GST has an involvement in oogenesis. The enzyme displayed little activity for classical GST substrates, although it possessed the greatest activity for DDT [1,1,1-trichloro-2,2-bis-(p-chlorophenyl)ethane] observed for Delta GSTs. However, GST activity was inhibited or enhanced in the presence of various fatty acids, suggesting that the enzyme may be modulated by fatty acids. We obtained a crystal structure for adGSTD5-5 and compared it with other Delta GSTs, which showed that adGSTD5-5 possesses an elongated and more polar active-site topology.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Rungrutai Udomsinprasert
- *Institute of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Mahidol University, Salaya Campus, 25/25 Putthamonthol Road 4, Salaya, Nakon Pathom 73170, Thailand
| | | | - Jantana Wongsantichon
- *Institute of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Mahidol University, Salaya Campus, 25/25 Putthamonthol Road 4, Salaya, Nakon Pathom 73170, Thailand
| | - Aaron J. Oakley
- ‡Department of Pharmacology/Crystallography Centre, University of Western Australia, Crawley 6009, Australia
| | - La-aied Prapanthadara
- §Research Institute for Health Sciences, Chiangmai University, Chiangmai 50200, Thailand
| | - Matthew C. J. Wilce
- ‡Department of Pharmacology/Crystallography Centre, University of Western Australia, Crawley 6009, Australia
| | - Albert J. Ketterman
- *Institute of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Mahidol University, Salaya Campus, 25/25 Putthamonthol Road 4, Salaya, Nakon Pathom 73170, Thailand
- To whom correspondence should be addressed (email )
| |
Collapse
|
24
|
Enayati AA, Ranson H, Hemingway J. Insect glutathione transferases and insecticide resistance. INSECT MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2005; 14:3-8. [PMID: 15663770 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2583.2004.00529.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 575] [Impact Index Per Article: 30.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
Glutathione transferases (GSTs) are a diverse family of enzymes found ubiquitously in aerobic organisms. They play a central role in the detoxification of both endogenous and xenobiotic compounds and are also involved in intracellular transport, biosynthesis of hormones and protection against oxidative stress. Interest in insect GSTs has primarily focused on their role in insecticide resistance. GSTs can metabolize insecticides by facilitating their reductive dehydrochlorination or by conjugation reactions with reduced glutathione, to produce water-soluble metabolites that are more readily excreted. In addition, they contribute to the removal of toxic oxygen free radical species produced through the action of pesticides. Annotation of the Anopheles gambiae and Drosophila melanogaster genomes has revealed the full extent of this enzyme family in insects. This mini review describes the insect GST enzyme family, focusing specifically on their role in conferring insecticide resistance.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- A A Enayati
- School of Public Health, Mazandaran University of Medical Sciences, Sari, Iran
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
25
|
Abstract
The glutathione transferases (glutathione S-transferases, GSTs) are a diverse family of enzymes involved in a wide range of biological processes, many of which involve the conjugation of the tripeptide glutathione to an electrophilic substrate. Relatively little is known about the endogenous substrates of mosquito GSTs, and most studies have focused on their role in insecticide metabolism, because elevated levels of GST activity have been associated with resistance to all the major classes of insecticides. In addition, there is growing interest in the role of this enzyme family in maintaining the redox status of the mosquito cell, particularly in relation to vectorial capacity. Most GSTs are cytosolic dimeric proteins, although a smaller class of microsomal GSTs exists in insects, mammals, and plants. Each GST subunit has a G site that binds glutathione and a substrate-binding site or H site. There are more than 30 GST genes in mosquitoes. Additional diversity is contributed by alternative splicing to produce GSTs with differing substrate specificities. In this review, we first discuss the diversity of insect GST enzymes and their mode of action before focusing on the various functions that have been attributed to specific mosquito GSTs.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Hilary Ranson
- Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Liverpool, United Kingdom
| | | |
Collapse
|
26
|
Abstract
This chapter discusses the alternative splicing of glutathione S-transferase proteins, including current investigations of enzymatic, nonenzymatic functions, as well as structural differences between the alternatively spliced products. The data demonstrate that the different GST splice forms possess different properties, both in their catalytic function and in the effects of their protein-protein interactions.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jantana Wongsantichon
- Institute of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Mahidol University, Slaya, Nakhon Pathom, Thailand
| | | |
Collapse
|
27
|
Hemingway J, Hawkes NJ, McCarroll L, Ranson H. The molecular basis of insecticide resistance in mosquitoes. INSECT BIOCHEMISTRY AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2004; 34:653-65. [PMID: 15242706 DOI: 10.1016/j.ibmb.2004.03.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 624] [Impact Index Per Article: 31.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/08/2004] [Accepted: 03/18/2004] [Indexed: 05/09/2023]
Abstract
Insecticide resistance is an inherited characteristic involving changes in one or more insect gene. The molecular basis of these changes are only now being fully determined, aided by the availability of the Drosophila melanogaster and Anopheles gambiae genome sequences. This paper reviews what is currently known about insecticide resistance conferred by metabolic or target site changes in mosquitoes.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Janet Hemingway
- Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Pembroke Place, Liverpool L3 5QA, UK.
| | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
28
|
Ding Y, Ortelli F, Rossiter LC, Hemingway J, Ranson H. The Anopheles gambiae glutathione transferase supergene family: annotation, phylogeny and expression profiles. BMC Genomics 2003; 4:35. [PMID: 12914673 PMCID: PMC194574 DOI: 10.1186/1471-2164-4-35] [Citation(s) in RCA: 185] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/11/2003] [Accepted: 08/13/2003] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Twenty-eight genes putatively encoding cytosolic glutathione transferases have been identified in the Anopheles gambiae genome. We manually annotated these genes and then confirmed the annotation by sequencing of A. gambiae cDNAs. Phylogenetic analysis with the 37 putative GST genes from Drosophila and representative GSTs from other taxa was undertaken to develop a nomenclature for insect GSTs. The epsilon class of insect GSTs has previously been implicated in conferring insecticide resistance in several insect species. We compared the expression level of all members of this GST class in two strains of A. gambiae to determine whether epsilon GST expression is correlated with insecticide resistance status. RESULTS Two A. gambiae GSTs are alternatively spliced resulting in a maximum number of 32 transcripts encoding cytosolic GSTs. We detected cDNAs for 31 of these in adult mosquitoes. There are at least six different classes of GSTs in insects but 20 of the A. gambiae GSTs belong to the two insect specific classes, delta and epsilon. Members of these two GST classes are clustered on chromosome arms 2L and 3R respectively. Two members of the GST supergene family are intronless. Amongst the remainder, there are 13 unique introns positions but within the epsilon and delta class, there is considerable conservation of intron positions. Five of the eight epsilon GSTs are overexpressed in a DDT resistant strain of A. gambiae. CONCLUSIONS The GST supergene family in A. gambiae is extensive and regulation of transcription of these genes is complex. Expression profiling of the epsilon class supports earlier predictions that this class is important in conferring insecticide resistance.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Yunchuan Ding
- Vector Research Group, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Liverpool L3 5QA, UK
| | - Federica Ortelli
- Vector Research Group, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Liverpool L3 5QA, UK
- Present Address: Dipartimento di Medicina Sperimentale e Scienze Biochimiche, Università degli Studi di Perugia, Perugia, 06122 Italy
| | - Louise C Rossiter
- Vector Research Group, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Liverpool L3 5QA, UK
- Present Address: Australian Cotton Research Institute, Narrabri NSW 2390 Australia
| | - Janet Hemingway
- Vector Research Group, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Liverpool L3 5QA, UK
| | - Hilary Ranson
- Vector Research Group, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Liverpool L3 5QA, UK
| |
Collapse
|
29
|
Wongsantichon J, Harnnoi T, Ketterman AJ. A sensitive core region in the structure of glutathione S-transferases. Biochem J 2003; 373:759-65. [PMID: 12708968 PMCID: PMC1223525 DOI: 10.1042/bj20030394] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/12/2003] [Revised: 04/11/2003] [Accepted: 04/23/2003] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
A variant form of an Anopheles dirus glutathione S-transferase (GST), designated AdGSTD4-4, possesses a single amino acid change of leucine to arginine (Leu-103-Arg). Although residue 103 is outside of the active site, it has major effects on enzymic properties. To investigate these structural effects, site-directed mutagenesis was used to generate mutants by changing the non-polar leucine to alanine, glutamate, isoleucine, methionine, asparagine, or tyrosine. All of the recombinant GSTs showed approximately the same expression level at 25 degrees C. Several of the mutants lacked glutathione (GSH)-binding affinity but were purified by S-hexyl-GSH-based affinity chromatography. However the protein yields (70-fold lower), as well as the GST activity (100-fold lower), of Leu-103-Tyr and Leu-103-Arg purifications were surprisingly low and precluded the performance of kinetic experiments. Size-exclusion chromatography showed that both GSTs Leu-103-Tyr and Leu-103-Arg formed dimers. Using 1-chloro-2,4-dinitrobenzene (CDNB) and GSH substrates to determine kinetic constants it was demonstrated that the other Leu-103 mutants possessed a greater K (m) towards GSH and a differing K (m) towards CDNB. The V (max) ranged from 44.7 to 87.0 micromol/min per mg (wild-type, 44.7 micromol/min per mg). Substrate-specificity studies showed different selectivity properties for each mutant. The structural residue Leu-103 affects the active site through H-bond and van-der-Waal contacts with six active-site residues in the GSH binding site. Changes in this interior core residue appear to disrupt internal packing, which affects active-site residues as well as residues at the subunit-subunit interface. Finally, the data suggest that Leu-103 is noteworthy as a sensitive residue in the GST structure that modulates enzyme activity as well as stability.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jantana Wongsantichon
- Institute of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Mahidol University, Salaya Campus, Nakhon Pathom 73170, Thailand
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
30
|
Kampkötter A, Volkmann TE, de Castro SH, Leiers B, Klotz LO, Johnson TE, Link CD, Henkle-Dührsen K. Functional analysis of the glutathione S-transferase 3 from Onchocerca volvulus (Ov-GST-3): a parasite GST confers increased resistance to oxidative stress in Caenorhabditis elegans. J Mol Biol 2003; 325:25-37. [PMID: 12473450 DOI: 10.1016/s0022-2836(02)01174-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
This study examined the genomic organisation of the coding region of the glutathione S-transferase 3 (Ov-GST-3) from the human parasitic nematode Onchocerca volvulus; alternative splicing leads to three different transcripts (Ov-GST-3/1; Ov-GST-3/2 and Ov-GST-3/3). Since the expression of Ov-GST-3 is inducible by oxidative stress, it is assumed that it is involved in the defense against reactive oxygen species (ROS) resulting from cellular metabolism. Furthermore, we suggest that Ov-GST-3 plays an important role in the protection of the parasite against ROS derived from the host's immune system. To experimentally investigate these speculations, we generated Caenorhabditis elegans lines transgenic for Ov-GST-3 (AK1) and examined their resistance to artificially generated ROS. The AK1 worms (extrachromosomal and integrated lines) were found to be much more resistant to internal (juglone) and external (hypoxanthine/xanthine oxidase) oxidative stress than wild-type C.elegans worms. RNA interference experiments targeted to the Ov-GST-3 transcripts resulted in decreased resistance, confirming that this effect is due to the transgenic expression of Ov-GST-3. These results clearly demonstrate that the Ov-GST-3 gene confers an increased resistance to oxidative stress. This study also shows the applicability of C.elegans as a model organism for the functional characterization of genes from (parasitic) nematode species which are not accessible to genetic manipulations.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Andreas Kampkötter
- Institut für Genetik, Heinrich-Heine-Universitat, Universitätsstrasse 1, 40225 Dusseldorf, Germany.
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
31
|
Ranson H, Claudianos C, Ortelli F, Abgrall C, Hemingway J, Sharakhova MV, Unger MF, Collins FH, Feyereisen R. Evolution of supergene families associated with insecticide resistance. Science 2002; 298:179-81. [PMID: 12364796 DOI: 10.1126/science.1076781] [Citation(s) in RCA: 412] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
The emergence of insecticide resistance in the mosquito poses a serious threat to the efficacy of many malaria control programs. We have searched the Anopheles gambiae genome for members of the three major enzyme families- the carboxylesterases, glutathione transferases, and cytochrome P450s-that are primarily responsible for metabolic resistance to insecticides. A comparative genomic analysis with Drosophila melanogaster reveals that a considerable expansion of these supergene families has occurred in the mosquito. Low gene orthology and little chromosomal synteny paradoxically contrast the easily identified orthologous groups of genes presumably seeded by common ancestors. In A. gambiae, the independent expansion of paralogous genes is mainly a consequence of the formation of clusters among locally duplicated genes. These expansions may reflect the functional diversification of supergene families consistent with major differences in the life history and ecology of these organisms. These data provide a basis for identifying the resistance-associated enzymes within these families. This will enable the resistance status of mosquitoes, flies, and possibly other holometabolous insects to be monitored. The analyses also provide the means for identifying previously unknown molecules involved in fundamental biological processes such as development.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Hilary Ranson
- Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Pembroke Place, Liverpool L3 5QA, UK
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
32
|
Abdel-Banat BMA, Koga D. Alternative splicing of the primary transcript generates heterogeneity within the products of the gene for Bombyx mori chitinase. J Biol Chem 2002; 277:30524-34. [PMID: 12045191 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m112422200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
The gene of chitinase in the silkworm, Bombyx mori, generates four mRNA products by alternative splicing. Nucleotide sequences of the entire gene for chitinase and respective cDNAs demonstrate that the pre-mRNA undergoes alternative splicing at both the 5' and 3' regions. At the 5' region, the pre-mRNA experienced differential splicing through two alternative 5'-intron consensus splicing sites. These products differ in the last amino acid of the signal peptide and the first amino acid of the mature N-terminal sequences: one with Cys(20)-Ala(21) and the other with Ser(20)-Asp(21). The product with Cys(20)-Ala(21) residues is one amino acid larger than the other with Ser(20)-Asp(21). At the 3' region the pre-mRNA of the chitinase gene undergoes alternative splicing in three different fashions. It is spliced either through retaining or excluding the upstream 121-bp direct repeat found at the 3' region of the coding sequences or through retaining or excluding of an insertion of 9 bp in a combinatorial manner. Retention or exclusion of the upstream 121-bp direct repeat results in a protein with a deduced amino acid sequence similar in size to the one retaining both direct repeats. However, exclusion of the insert of the 9 bp from the mRNA results in a protein with 22 extra amino acids. All of the mRNA products appear to be generated from a single gene as demonstrated by testing the 3' region of the genomic DNA and variant chitinase mRNA products. B. mori chitinase expression in the fifth instar larvae epidermal tissues appears to be developmentally regulated, but the phenomenon of alternative splicing of the pre-mRNA is not stage-dependent. Furthermore, the four mRNA products showed chitinase activity when expressed in Escherichia coli, which demonstrates the role of the alternative splicing process in generating multiple isoforms of the silkworm's chitinase.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Babiker M A Abdel-Banat
- Laboratory of Biochemistry, Department of Biological Science, Faculty of Agriculture, Yamaguchi University, Yamaguchi 753-8515, Japan
| | | |
Collapse
|
33
|
Wagner U, Edwards R, Dixon DP, Mauch F. Probing the diversity of the Arabidopsis glutathione S-transferase gene family. PLANT MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2002; 49:515-32. [PMID: 12090627 DOI: 10.1023/a:1015557300450] [Citation(s) in RCA: 331] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/20/2023]
Abstract
Glutathione S-transferases (GSTs) appear to be ubiquitous in plants and have defined roles in herbicide detoxification. In contrast, little is known about their roles in normal plant physiology and during responses to biotic and abiotic stress. Forty-seven members of the GST super-family were identified in the Arabidopsis genome, grouped into four classes, with amino acid sequence identity between classes being below 25%. The two small zeta (GSTZ) and theta (GSTT) classes have related GSTs in animals while the large phi (GSTF) and tau (GSTU) classes are plant specific. As a first step to functionally characterize this diverse super-family, 10 cDNAs representing all GST classes were cloned by RT-PCR and used to study AtGST expression in response to treatment with phytohormones, herbicides, oxidative stress and inoculation with virulent and avirulent strains of the downy mildew pathogen Peronospora parasitica. The abundance of transcripts encoding AtGSTF9, AtGSTF10, AtGSTU5, AtGSTU13 and AtGSTT1 were unaffected by any of the treatments. In contrast, AtGSTF6 was upregulated by all treatments while AtGSTF2, AtGSTF8, AtGSTU19 and AtGSTZ1 each showed a selective spectrum of inducibility to the different stresses indicating that regulation of gene expression in this super-family is controlled by multiple mechanisms. The respective cDNAs were over expressed in E. coli. All GSTs except AtGSTF10 formed soluble proteins which catalysed a specific range of glutathione conjugation or glutathione peroxidase activities. Our results give further insights into the complex regulation and enzymic functions of this plant gene super-family.
Collapse
MESH Headings
- 2,4-Dichlorophenoxyacetic Acid/pharmacology
- Acetates/pharmacology
- Amino Acid Sequence
- Arabidopsis/enzymology
- Arabidopsis/genetics
- Arabidopsis/microbiology
- Blotting, Northern
- Cloning, Molecular
- Cyclopentanes/pharmacology
- DNA, Complementary/chemistry
- DNA, Complementary/genetics
- Escherichia coli/genetics
- Ethylenes/pharmacology
- Gene Expression Regulation, Enzymologic/drug effects
- Gene Expression Regulation, Plant/drug effects
- Genetic Variation
- Glutathione Transferase/genetics
- Glutathione Transferase/metabolism
- Hydrogen Peroxide/pharmacology
- Isoenzymes/genetics
- Isoenzymes/metabolism
- Molecular Sequence Data
- Multigene Family/genetics
- Oomycetes/growth & development
- Oxylipins
- Phylogeny
- Plant Growth Regulators/pharmacology
- RNA, Messenger/drug effects
- RNA, Messenger/genetics
- RNA, Messenger/metabolism
- Recombinant Proteins/metabolism
- Salicylic Acid/pharmacology
- Sequence Alignment
- Sequence Analysis, DNA
- Sequence Homology, Amino Acid
- Substrate Specificity
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ulrich Wagner
- Department of Biology, University of Fribourg, Pérolles, Switzerland
| | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
34
|
Sheehan D, Meade G, Foley VM, Dowd CA. Structure, function and evolution of glutathione transferases: implications for classification of non-mammalian members of an ancient enzyme superfamily. Biochem J 2001; 360:1-16. [PMID: 11695986 PMCID: PMC1222196 DOI: 10.1042/0264-6021:3600001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 744] [Impact Index Per Article: 32.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
Abstract
The glutathione transferases (GSTs; also known as glutathione S-transferases) are major phase II detoxification enzymes found mainly in the cytosol. In addition to their role in catalysing the conjugation of electrophilic substrates to glutathione (GSH), these enzymes also carry out a range of other functions. They have peroxidase and isomerase activities, they can inhibit the Jun N-terminal kinase (thus protecting cells against H(2)O(2)-induced cell death), and they are able to bind non-catalytically a wide range of endogenous and exogenous ligands. Cytosolic GSTs of mammals have been particularly well characterized, and were originally classified into Alpha, Mu, Pi and Theta classes on the basis of a combination of criteria such as substrate/inhibitor specificity, primary and tertiary structure similarities and immunological identity. Non-mammalian GSTs have been much less well characterized, but have provided a disproportionately large number of three-dimensional structures, thus extending our structure-function knowledge of the superfamily as a whole. Moreover, several novel classes identified in non-mammalian species have been subsequently identified in mammals, sometimes carrying out functions not previously associated with GSTs. These studies have revealed that the GSTs comprise a widespread and highly versatile superfamily which show similarities to non-GST stress-related proteins. Independent classification systems have arisen for groups of organisms such as plants and insects. This review surveys the classification of GSTs in non-mammalian sources, such as bacteria, fungi, plants, insects and helminths, and attempts to relate them to the more mainstream classification system for mammalian enzymes. The implications of this classification with regard to the evolution of GSTs are discussed.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- D Sheehan
- Department of Biochemistry, University College Cork, Lee Maltings, Prospect Row, Mardyke, Cork, Ireland.
| | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
35
|
Ranson H, Rossiter L, Ortelli F, Jensen B, Wang X, Roth CW, Collins FH, Hemingway J. Identification of a novel class of insect glutathione S-transferases involved in resistance to DDT in the malaria vector Anopheles gambiae. Biochem J 2001; 359:295-304. [PMID: 11583575 PMCID: PMC1222147 DOI: 10.1042/0264-6021:3590295] [Citation(s) in RCA: 195] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
The sequence and cytological location of five Anopheles gambiae glutathione S-transferase (GST) genes are described. Three of these genes, aggst1-8, aggst1-9 and aggst1-10, belong to the insect class I family and are located on chromosome 2R, in close proximity to previously described members of this gene family. The remaining two genes, aggst3-1 and aggst3-2, have a low sequence similarity to either of the two previously recognized classes of insect GSTs and this prompted a re-evaluation of the classification of insect GST enzymes. We provide evidence for seven possible classes of insect protein with GST-like subunits. Four of these contain sequences with significant similarities to mammalian GSTs. The largest novel insect GST class, class III, contains functional GST enzymes including two of the A. gambiae GSTs described in this report and GSTs from Drosophila melanogaster, Musca domestica, Manduca sexta and Plutella xylostella. The genes encoding the class III GST of A. gambiae map to a region of the genome on chromosome 3R that contains a major DDT [1,1,1-trichloro-2,2-bis-(p-chlorophenyl)ethane] resistance gene, suggesting that this gene family is involved in GST-based resistance in this important malaria vector. In further support of their role in resistance, we show that the mRNA levels of aggst3-2 are approx. 5-fold higher in a DDT resistant strain than in the susceptible strain and demonstrate that recombinant AgGST3-2 has very high DDT dehydrochlorinase activity.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- H Ranson
- School of Biosciences, Main College, Cardiff University, PO Box 915, Cardiff CF10 3TL, Wales, UK.
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
36
|
Kim HG, Park KN, Cho YW, Park EH, Fuchs JA, Lim CJ. Characterization and regulation of glutathione S-transferase gene from Schizosaccharomyces pombe. BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA 2001; 1520:179-85. [PMID: 11513961 DOI: 10.1016/s0167-4781(01)00265-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
A glutathione S-transferase (GST) gene has been cloned from Schizosaccharomyces pombe for the first time. The nucleotide sequence determined was found to contain 2030 base pairs including an open reading frame of 229 amino acids that would encode a protein of a molecular mass of 27017 Da. The cloned GST gene was expressed and was found to function in S. pombe, Saccharomyces cerevisiae, and Escherichia coli. The plasmid pGT207 encoding the S. pombe GST gene appeared to be able to accelerate the growth of a wild type S. pombe culture. In a culture of S. pombe containing plasmid pGT207, the growth was inhibited less by mercuric chloride than in a culture with vector alone. The 1088 bp region upstream from the GST gene as well as the region encoding the N-terminal 14 amino acids was transferred into the promoterless beta-galactosidase gene of plasmid YEp357R to yield the fusion plasmid pYSH2000. beta-Galactosidase synthesis was induced by cadmium chloride, mercuric chloride, hydrogen peroxide, and menadione. It was also induced by high temperature. These results suggest that the cloned S. pombe GST gene is involved in the oxidative stress response.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- H G Kim
- Division of Life Sciences, College of Natural Sciences, Kangwon National University, Chuncheon, South Korea
| | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
37
|
Jirajaroenrat K, Pongjaroenkit S, Krittanai C, Prapanthadara L, Ketterman AJ. Heterologous expression and characterization of alternatively spliced glutathione S-transferases from a single Anopheles gene. INSECT BIOCHEMISTRY AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2001; 31:867-875. [PMID: 11439246 DOI: 10.1016/s0965-1748(01)00032-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/23/2023]
Abstract
Three cDNA sequences of glutathione S-transferase (GST), adgst1-2, adgst1-3 and adgst1-4, which are alternatively spliced products of the adgst1AS1 gene, were obtained from fourth instar larvae of Anopheles dirus mosquito by reverse transcriptase PCR reactions. The nucleotide sequences of these three cDNAs share >67% identity and the translated amino acid sequences share 61-64% identity. A comparison of the An. dirus to the An. gambiae enzymes shows that adGST1-2 versus agGST1-4, adGST1-3 versus agGST1-5 and adGST1-4 versus agGST1-3 have 85, 92 and 85% amino acid sequence identity, respectively, which confirms that orthologous isoenzymes occur across anopheline species. These three proteins were expressed at high levels, approximately 15-20 mg from 200 ml of E. coli culture. The recombinant enzymes were purified by affinity chromatography on an S-hexylglutathione agarose column. The subunit sizes of adGST1-2, adGST1-3 and adGST1-4 are 24.3, 23.9 and 25.1 kDa. The recombinant enzymes have high activities with 1-chloro-2,4-dinitrobenzene (CDNB), detectable activity with 1,2-dichloro-4-nitrobenzene but markedly low activity with ethacrynic acid and p-nitrophenethyl bromide. adGST1-3 was shown to be the most active enzyme from the kinetic studies. Permethrin inhibition of CDNB activity, at varying concentrations of CDNB, was significantly different, being uncompetitive for adGST1-2, noncompetitive for adGST1-3 and competitive for adGST1-4. In contrast, permethrin inhibition with varying glutathione concentrations was noncompetitive for all three GSTs. Despite the enzymes being splicing products of the same gene and sharing identical sequence in the N-terminal 45 amino acids, these GSTs show distinct substrate specificities, kinetic properties and inhibition properties modulated by the differences in the C-terminus.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- K Jirajaroenrat
- Institute of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Mahidol University, Salaya Campus, 73170, Nakorn Pathom, Thailand
| | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
38
|
Vontas JG, Small GJ, Hemingway J. Glutathione S-transferases as antioxidant defence agents confer pyrethroid resistance in Nilaparvata lugens. Biochem J 2001; 357:65-72. [PMID: 11415437 PMCID: PMC1221929 DOI: 10.1042/0264-6021:3570065] [Citation(s) in RCA: 193] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Selection of a laboratory colony of the brown planthopper Nilaparvata lugens with the pyrethroids permethrin and lambda-cyhalothrin increased its resistance to both insecticides. Biochemical analysis and synergistic studies with metabolic inhibitors indicated that elevated glutathione S-transferases (GSTs) with a predominant peroxidase activity conferred resistance to both pyrethroids, whereas esterases conferred part of the resistance to permethrin. Purified esterases hydrolysed permethrin at a slow rate, but incubation of either pyrethroid or their primary metabolites with partially purified GSTs had no effect on the metabolic profile. Although GSTs were sensitive to inhibition by both pyrethroids, they did not serve as binding proteins, as previously hypothesized [Grant and Matsumura (1988) Insect Biochem. 18, 615-622]. We demonstrate that pyrethroids, in addition to their neurotoxic effect, induce oxidative stress and lipid peroxidation in insects. Pyrethroid exposure induced lipid peroxides, protein oxidation and depleted reduced glutathione. Elevated GSTs in the resistant strains attenuated the pyrethroid-induced lipid peroxidation and reduced mortality, whereas their in vivo inhibition eliminated their protective role. We therefore hypothesize that the main role of elevated GSTs in conferring resistance in N. lugens is through protecting tissues from oxidative damage. Our study extends the GSTs' range of efficacy to pyrethroid insecticides and possibly explains the role of elevated GSTs in other pyrethroid-resistant insects.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- J G Vontas
- School of Biosciences, Cardiff University, Main College, Museum Avenue, P.O. Box 915, Cardiff CF10 3TL, Wales, UK.
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
39
|
Pongjaroenkit S, Jirajaroenrat K, Boonchauy C, Chanama U, Leetachewa S, Prapanthadara L, Ketterman AJ. Genomic organization and putative promoters of highly conserved glutathione S-transferases originating by alternative splicing in Anopheles dirus. INSECT BIOCHEMISTRY AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2001; 31:75-85. [PMID: 11102837 DOI: 10.1016/s0965-1748(00)00107-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/23/2023]
Abstract
The genomic DNA of a GST class I alternative splicing gene has been characterized from Anopheles dirus, a Thai malaria vector. This gene organization is highly conserved in An. dirus and Anopheles gambiae (aggst1alpha), with >80% nucleotide identity in the coding region. Their gene organization contains six exons for four mature GST transcripts, which share exon 1 and exon 2 but vary between four different exon 3 sequences (exon 3A-3D). The deduced amino acid sequence of the GST transcripts from these two genes also shows very high conservation, with 85-93% identity for each orthologous gene. Two putative promoters and possible regulatory elements were predicted by a combination of the TSSW and MatInspector programs. The Ad214 promoter is proposed to be involved in developmental stage regulation. The Ad2112 promoter would appear to respond to intra- or extracellular stimuli. These two Anopheline species appear to have diverged in the distant past based on gene neighbors and phylogenetic data, yet these GST genes are still conserved. Therefore it is highly probable that this GST gene organization has one or more important roles.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- S Pongjaroenkit
- Institute of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Mahidol University, Salaya Campus, 73170, Nakorn Pathom, Thailand
| | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
40
|
Hemingway J. The molecular basis of two contrasting metabolic mechanisms of insecticide resistance. INSECT BIOCHEMISTRY AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2000; 30:1009-15. [PMID: 10989287 DOI: 10.1016/s0965-1748(00)00079-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 97] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/09/2023]
Abstract
The esterase-based insecticide resistance mechanisms characterised to date predominantly involve elevation of activity through gene amplification allowing increased levels of insecticide sequestration, or point mutations within the esterase structural genes which change their substrate specificity. The amplified esterases are subject to various types of gene regulation in different insect species. In contrast, elevation of glutathione S-transferase activity involves upregulation of multiple enzymes belonging to one or more glutathione S-transferase classes or more rarely upregulation of a single enzyme. There is no evidence of insecticide resistance associated with gene amplification in this enzyme class. The biochemical and molecular basis of these two metabolically-based insecticide resistance mechanisms is reviewed.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- J Hemingway
- Cardiff School of Biosciences, Cardiff University, PO Box 915, CF1 3TL, Cardiff, UK
| |
Collapse
|
41
|
Hemingway J, Ranson H. Insecticide resistance in insect vectors of human disease. ANNUAL REVIEW OF ENTOMOLOGY 2000; 45:371-91. [PMID: 10761582 DOI: 10.1146/annurev.ento.45.1.371] [Citation(s) in RCA: 841] [Impact Index Per Article: 35.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/08/2023]
Abstract
Insecticide resistance is an increasing problem in many insect vectors of disease. Our knowledge of the basic mechanisms underlying resistance to commonly used insecticides is well established. Molecular techniques have recently allowed us to start and dissect most of these mechanisms at the DNA level. The next major challenge will be to use this molecular understanding of resistance to develop novel strategies with which we can truly manage resistance. State-of-the-art information on resistance in insect vectors of disease is reviewed in this context.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- J Hemingway
- School of Biosciences, University of Wales Cardiff
| | | |
Collapse
|
42
|
Hemingway J, Hawkes N, Prapanthadara L, Jayawardenal KG, Ranson H. The role of gene splicing, gene amplification and regulation in mosquito insecticide resistance. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 1998; 353:1695-9. [PMID: 10021769 PMCID: PMC1692393 DOI: 10.1098/rstb.1998.0320] [Citation(s) in RCA: 73] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
The primary routes of insecticide resistance in all insects are alterations in the insecticide target sites or changes in the rate at which the insecticide is detoxified. Three enzyme systems, glutathione S-transferases, esterases and monooxygenases, are involved in the detoxification of the four major insecticide classes. These enzymes act by rapidly metabolizing the insecticide to non-toxic products, or by rapidly binding and very slowly turning over the insecticide (sequestration). In Culex mosquitoes, the most common organophosphate insecticide resistance mechanism is caused by co-amplification of two esterases. The amplified esterases are differentially regulated, with three times more Est beta 2(1) being produced than Est alpha 2(1). Cis-acting regulatory sequences associated with these esterases are under investigation. All the amplified esterases in different Culex species act through sequestration. The rates at which they bind with insecticides are more rapid than those for their non-amplified counterparts in the insecticide-susceptible insects. In contrast, esterase-based organophosphate resistance in Anopheles is invariably based on changes in substrate specificities and increased turnover rates of a small subset of insecticides. The up-regulation of both glutathione S-transferases and monooxygenases in resistant mosquitoes is due to the effects of a single major gene in each case. The products of these major genes up-regulate a broad range of enzymes. The diversity of glutathione S-transferases produced by Anopheles mosquitoes is increased by the splicing of different 5' ends of genes, with a single 3' end, within one class of this enzyme family. The trans-acting regulatory factors responsible for the up-regulation of both the monooxygenase and glutathione S-transferases still need to be identified, but the recent development of molecular tools for positional cloning in Anopheles gambiae now makes this possible.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- J Hemingway
- School of Pure and Applied Biology, University of Wales, Cardiff, UK
| | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|