Characterization of the N-acetylglucosaminyltransferase activity involved in the biosynthesis of the Staphylococcus epidermidis polysaccharide intercellular adhesin

Inhibition of Biofilm Production and Determination of In Vitro Time-Kill Thymus vulgaris L. Essential Oil (TEO) for the Control of Mastitis in Small Ruminants

Staphylococcus aureus and coagulase-negative staphylococci (CNS) are the main causative agents of mastitis in sheep. Their ability to form biofilms in vivo is considered an important virulence factor underlying mastitis outbreaks refractory to antibiotic treatments. Furthermore, pre- and postdipping immersion during milking in iodine substances could determine the presence of residues in milk and therefore represent a health risk factor for consumers. The aim of this study was to evaluate the antibacterial and biofilm inhibitory activity of Thymus vulgaris L. essential oil (TEO) against staphylococci strains isolated from ovine clinical mastitis. In particular, 3 reference strains (S. aureus 25923 and 11623 and S. epidermidis 12228) and 12 clinical isolates (6 S. aureus and 6 CNS) were used. TEO solutions, from a concentration of 1% (v/v) to 1.25% (v/v), corresponding to 9.28-2.32 mg/mL, were obtained after solubilization in 10% dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO) and used to evaluate the bacterial time-kill compared to that of an iodine-based solution. Antibacterial efficacy was then assessed by the minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) and minimum bactericidal concentration (MBC), while biofilm inhibition was assessed by minimum biofilm inhibitory concentration (MBIC) using a spectrophotometer at a wavelength of 570 nm. Additionally, biofilm-associated genes (icaA and icaD) were evaluated in all tested strains by PCR. The tested TEO concentrations were able to significantly and prominently reduce bacterial growth compared to controls, as demonstrated by bacterial time-kills. The MIC value was obtained at a concentration of 0.50% (v/v) for a single coagulation-positive isolate (S. aureus (f)) and at a concentration of 0.25% (v/v) for all other isolates. TEO showed effective bactericidal action with a 99.9% reduction in CFU/mL of all isolates in the MBC test at a concentration of 0.25% (v/v) for most of the tested strains. Furthermore, a marked inhibition in biofilm formation at all tested concentrations was observed, with MBIC value of 0.25%. All S. aureus tested were biofilm-producing strains and positive for icaA and icaD genes, while two CNS biofilm-producing strains were negative for both genes. These preliminary results suggest that TEO could be a promising alternative as an udder disinfectant during milking practices. Although in vivo studies are needed to confirm the efficacy and safety of TEO as an adjuvant in the prevention and treatment of udder infections, TEO could help counteract the emergence of antimicrobial resistance and reduce the potential risk of iodine residues in milk.

Combating multidrug-resistant (MDR) Staphylococcus aureus infection using terpene and its derivative

Multidrug-resistant (MDR) Staphylococcus aureus represents a major global health issue resulting in a wide range of debilitating infections and fatalities. The slow progression of new antibiotics, limited choices for treatment, and scarcity of new drug approvals create immense obstacles in new drug line development. S. aureus poses a significant public health risk, due to the emergence of methicillin-resistant (MRSA) and vancomycin-resistant strains (VRSA), necessitating novel antibiotics for effective control management. Current studies are delving into the terpenes' potential as an antimicrobial agent, indicating positive prospects as promising substitutes or complementary to conventional antibiotics. Concurrent reactions of terpenes with conventional antibiotics create synergistic effects that significantly enhance antibiotic efficacy. Accumulated evidence has shown that while efflux pump (e.g., NorA, TetK, and MepA) is revealed as an essential defense of S. aureus against antibiotics, terpene and its derivative act as its potent inhibitor, suggesting the promising potential of terpenes in combating those infectious pathogens. Furthermore, pronounced cell membrane disruptive activity and antibiofilm properties by terpenes have been exerted, signifying their significance as promising prevention against microbial pathogenesis and antimicrobial resistance. This review provides an overview of the potential of terpenes and their derivatives in combating S. aureus infections, highlighting their potential mechanisms of action (MOA), synergistic effects with conventional antibiotics, and challenges in clinical translation. The unique properties of terpenes offer an opportunity for their use in developing an exceptional defense strategy against antibiotic-resistant S. aureus.

The pathogenicity and virulence of the opportunistic pathogen Staphylococcus epidermidis

The pervasive presence of Staphylococcus epidermidis and other coagulase-negative staphylococci on the skin and mucous membranes has long underpinned a casual disregard for the infection risk that these organisms pose to vulnerable patients in healthcare settings. Prior to the recognition of biofilm as an important virulence determinant in S. epidermidis, isolation of this microorganism in diagnostic specimens was often overlooked as clinically insignificant with potential delays in diagnosis and onset of appropriate treatment, contributing to the establishment of chronic infection and increased morbidity or mortality. While impressive progress has been made in our understanding of biofilm mechanisms in this important opportunistic pathogen, research into other virulence determinants has lagged S. aureus. In this review, the broader virulence potential of S. epidermidis including biofilm, toxins, proteases, immune evasion strategies and antibiotic resistance mechanisms is surveyed, together with current and future approaches for improved therapeutic interventions.

Staphylococcus epidermidis biofilm in inflammatory breast cancer and its treatment strategies

Bacterial biofilms represent a significant challenge in both clinical and industrial settings because of their robust nature and resistance to antimicrobials. Biofilms are formed by microorganisms that produce an exopolysaccharide matrix, protecting function and supporting for nutrients. Among the various bacterial species capable of forming biofilms, Staphylococcus epidermidis, a commensal organism found on human skin and mucous membranes, has emerged as a prominent opportunistic pathogen, when introduced into the body via medical devices, such as catheters, prosthetic joints, and heart valves. The formation of biofilms by S. epidermidis on these surfaces facilitates colonization and provides protection against host immune responses and antibiotic therapies, leading to persistent and difficult-to-treat infections. The possible involvement of biofilms for breast oncogenesis has recently created the curiosity. This paper therefore delves into S. epidermidis biofilm involvement in breast cancer. S. epidermidis biofilms can create a sustained inflammatory environment through their metabolites and can break DNA in breast tissue, promoting cellular proliferation, angiogenesis, and genetic instability. Preventing biofilm formation primarily involves preventing bacterial proliferation using prophylactic measures and sterilization of medical devices and equipment. In cancer treatment, common modalities include chemotherapy, surgery, immunotherapy, alkylating agents, and various anticancer drugs. Understanding the relationship between anticancer drugs and bacterial biofilms is crucial, especially for those undergoing cancer treatment who may be at increased risk of bacterial infections, for improving patient outcomes. By elucidating these interactions, strategies to prevent or disrupt biofilm formation, thereby reducing the incidence of infections associated with medical devices and implants, can be identified.

Surface-functionalized UIO-66-NH2 for dual-drug delivery of vancomycin and amikacin against vancomycin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus

BACKGROUND

Conventional antibacterial compounds can inhibit the growth of microorganisms, but their adverse effects and the development of drug limit their widespread use. The current study aimed to synthesize PEG-coated UIO-66-NH2 nanoparticles loaded with vancomycin and amikacin (VAN/AMK-UIO-66-NH2@PEG) and evaluate their antibacterial and anti-biofilm activities against vancomycin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (VRSA) clinical isolates.

METHODS

The VAN/AMK-UIO-66-NH2@PEG were characterized using scanning electron microscopy (SEM), transmission electron microscopy (TEM), and dynamic light scattering (DLS) to determine their size, polydispersity index (PDI), encapsulation efficiency (EE%), zeta-potential, drug release profile, and physical stability. Antibacterial activity was evaluated using minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC), minimum bactericidal concentration (MBC), and time-kill assays. Biofilm formation by VRSA was assessed using the crystal violet (CV) and minimum biofilm eradication concentration (MBEC) assays. The effect of sub-MIC concentrations of the formulations on the expression of biofilm-related genes (icaA, icaD) and resistance-related genes (mecA, vanA) was investigated using quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction (RT-qPCR).

RESULTS

As demonstrated by MIC, MBC and time-kill assay, the VAN/AMK-UIO-66-NH2@PEG nanoparticles exhibited enhanced antibacterial activity against VRSA isolates compared to free drugs and prepared formulations. Furthermore, CV and MBEC tests indicated that the VAN/AMK-UIO-66@NH2/PEG can reduce biofilm formation dramatically compared to VAN/AMK and VAN/AMK-UIO-66@NH2, due to its great drug release properties. This study also found that the expression level of the mecA, vanA, icaA, and icaD genes in VAN/AMK-UIO-66@NH2/PEG treated VRSA isolates was substantially decreased compared to other groups.

CONCLUSIONS

These findings highlighted the efficiency of VAN/AMK-UIO-66@NH2/PEG in combating antimicrobial resistance and biofilm formation in VRSA isolates. Future studies, particularly in vivo models, are necessary to evaluate the safety, efficacy, and clinical applicability of these nanoparticles for the treatment of bacterial infections.

A rare biofilm dispersion strategy demonstrated by Staphylococcus aureus under oxacillin stress

Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus), a versatile Gram-positive bacterium, is implicated in a spectrum of infections, and its resilience is often attributed to biofilm formation. This study investigates the effect of sub-inhibitory doses of oxacillin on biofilm formation by methicillin-resistant S. aureus (MRSA). Specifically, it examines how these doses influence biofilms' development, maturation, and dispersal. The biofilm's zenith reached 48 h of incubation, followed by a noteworthy decline at 96 h and a distinctive clearance zone around biofilm-positive cells exposed to oxacillin. Scanning electron micrographs unveiled an intriguing active biofilm dispersal mechanism, a rarity in this species. Among 180 isolates, only three carrying the elusive icaD gene exhibited this phenomenon. icaD gene was absent in their counterparts. Notably, the icaD gene emerges as a distinctive marker, crucial in regulating biofilm dispersion and setting these isolates apart. The captivating interplay of oxacillin, biofilm dynamics, and genetic signatures disintegrate novel dimensions in understanding MRSA's adaptive strategies and underscores the importance of the icaD gene in engineering biofilm resilience.

Phenotypic and molecular characterization of clinically isolated antibiotics-resistant S. aureus (MRSA), E. coli (ESBL) and Acinetobacter 1379 bacterial strains

Antibiotic-resistant bacteria causing nosocomial infections pose a significant global health concern. This study focused on examining the lipid profiles of both non-resistant and clinically resistant strains of Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA 1418), E. coli (ESBL 1384), and Acinetobacter 1379. The main aim was to investigate the relationship between lipid profiles, hydrophobicity, and antibiotic resistance so as to identify the pathogenic potential and resistance factors of strains isolated from patients with sepsis and urinary tract infections (UTIs). The research included various tests, such as antimicrobial susceptibility assays following CLSI guidelines, biochemical tests, biofilm assays, and hydrophobicity assays. Additionally, gas chromatography mass spectrometry (GC-MS) and GC-Flame Ionization Detector (GC-FID) analysis were used for lipid profiling and composition. The clinically isolated resistant strains (MRSA-1418, ESBL-1384, and Acinetobacter 1379) demonstrated resistance phenotypes of 81.80%, 27.6%, and 63.6%, respectively, with a multiple antibiotic resistance index of 0.81, 0.27, and 0.63. Notably, the MRSA-1418 strain, which exhibited resistance, showed significantly higher levels of hemolysin, cell surface hydrophobicity, biofilm index, and a self-aggregative phenotype compared to the non-resistant strains. Gene expression analysis using quantitative real-time PCR (qPCR). Indicated elevated expression levels of intercellular adhesion biofilm-related genes (icaA, icaC, and icaD) in MRSA-1418 (pgaA, pgaC, and pgaB) and Acinetobacter 1379 after 24 h compared to non-resistant strains. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) was employed for structural investigation. These findings provide valuable insights into the role of biofilms in antibiotic resistance and suggest potential target pathways for combating antibiotic-resistant bacteria.

Determining the dispersion time in Staphylococcus epidermidis biofilm using physical and molecular approaches

Despite being an innocuous commensal of human skin and mucous membranes, Staphylococcus epidermidis, infects surgical wounds and causes infections through biofilm formation. This study evaluates, in a time-dependent experiment, the self-dispersion of S. epidermidis CIP 444 biofilm when formed on borosilicate glass (hydrophilic) and polystyrene (hydrophobic) surfaces, using physical and molecular approaches. During a seven-day period of incubation, absorbance measurement revealed a drop in biofilm optical density on both studied surfaces on day 4 (0.043-0.035 nm/cm2, polystyrene), (0.06-0.053 nm/cm2, borosilicate glass). Absorbance results were correlated with crystal violet staining that showed a clear detachment from day 4. The blue color increases again on day 7, with an increase in biofilm optical density indicating the regeneration of the biofilm. Changes in gene expression in the S. epidermidis biofilm were assessed using a real-time reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction. High expression of agr genes was detected on days 4 and 5, confirming our supposition of dispersion in this period, autolysin genes like atlE1 and aae were upregulated from day 3 until day 6 and the genes responsible for slime production and biofilm accumulation, were upregulated on days 4, 5, and 6 (ica ADBC) and on days 5, 6 and 7 (aap), indicating a dual process taking place. These findings suggest that S. epidermidis CIP 444 biofilms disperse at day 4 and reform at day 7. Over the course of the seven-day investigation, 2-ΔΔCt results showed that some genes in the biofilm were dramatically enhanced while others were significantly decreased as compared to planktonic ones.

Characterization of Ssc, an N-acetylgalactosamine-containing Staphylococcus aureus surface polysaccharide

Whole genome sequencing has revealed that the genome of Staphylococcus aureus possesses an uncharacterized 5-gene operon (SAOUHSC_00088-00092 in strain 8325 genome) that encodes factors with functions related to polysaccharide biosynthesis and export, indicating the existence of a new extracellular polysaccharide species. We designate this locus as ssc for staphylococcal surface carbohydrate. We found that the ssc genes were weakly expressed and highly repressed by the global regulator MgrA. To characterize Ssc, Ssc was heterologously expressed in Escherichia coli and extracted by heat treatment. Ssc was also conjugated to AcrA from Campylobacter jejuni in E. coli using protein glycan coupling technology (PGCT). Analysis of the heat-extracted Ssc and the purified Ssc-AcrA glycoconjugate by tandem mass spectrometry revealed that Ssc is likely a polymer consisting of N-acetylgalactosamine. We further demonstrated that the expression of the ssc genes in S. aureus affected phage adsorption and susceptibility, suggesting that Ssc is surface-exposed.

IMPORTANCE

Surface polysaccharides play crucial roles in the biology and virulence of bacterial pathogens. Staphylococcus aureus produces four major types of polysaccharides that have been well-characterized. In this study, we identified a new surface polysaccharide containing N-acetylgalactosamine (GalNAc). This marks the first report of GalNAc-containing polysaccharide in S. aureus. Our discovery lays the groundwork for further investigations into the chemical structure, surface location, and role in pathogenesis of this new polysaccharide.

Polysaccharide intercellular adhesin and proper phospholipid composition are important for aggregation in Tetragenococcus halophilus SL10

Aggregating strains of Tetragenococcus halophilus tend to be trapped during soy sauce mash-pressing process and are, therefore, critical for clear soy sauce production. However, the precise molecular mechanism involved in T. halophilus aggregation remains elusive. In previous studies, we isolated a number of aggregating strains, including T. halophilus AB4 and AL1, and showed that a cell surface proteinaceous aggregation factor is responsible for their aggregation phenotype. In the present study, we explored the role of polysaccharide intercellular adhesin (PIA) in aggregate formation in T. halophilus SL10, isolated from soy sauce. SL10 exhibited similar aggregation to AB4 and AL1 but formed a non-uniform precipitate with distinctive wrinkles at the bottom of the test tube, unlike AB4 and AL1. Insertion sequence mutations in each gene of the ica operon diminished aggregation and PIA production, highlighting the critical role of IcaADBC-mediated PIA production in T. halophilus aggregation. Furthermore, two non-aggregating cardiolipin synthase (cls) gene mutants with intact ica operon did not produce detectable PIA. Phospholipid composition analysis in cls mutants revealed a decrease in cardiolipin and an increase in phosphatidylglycerol levels, highlighting the association between phospholipid composition and PIA production. These findings provide evidence for the pivotal role of cls in PIA-mediated aggregation and lay the foundation for future studies to understand the intricate networks of the multiple aggregation factors governing microbial aggregation.IMPORTANCEAggregation, commonly observed in various microbes, triggers biofilm formation in pathogenic variants and plays a beneficial role in efficient food production in those used for food production. Here, we showed that Tetragenococcus halophilus, a microorganism used in soy sauce fermentation, forms aggregates in a polysaccharide intercellular adhesin (PIA)-mediated manner. Additionally, we unveiled the relationship between phospholipid composition and PIA production. This study provides evidence for the presence of aggregation factors in T. halophilus other than the proteinaceous aggregation factor and suggests that further understanding of the coordinated action of these factors may improve clarified soy sauce production.

Deciphering the dynamics of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus biofilm formation: from molecular signaling to nanotherapeutic advances

Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) represents a global threat, necessitating the development of effective solutions to combat this emerging superbug. In response to selective pressures within healthcare, community, and livestock settings, MRSA has evolved increased biofilm formation as a multifaceted virulence and defensive mechanism, enabling the bacterium to thrive in harsh conditions. This review discusses the molecular mechanisms contributing to biofilm formation across its developmental stages, hence representing a step forward in developing promising strategies for impeding or eradicating biofilms. During staphylococcal biofilm development, cell wall-anchored proteins attach bacterial cells to biotic or abiotic surfaces; extracellular polymeric substances build scaffolds for biofilm formation; the cidABC operon controls cell lysis within the biofilm, and proteases facilitate dispersal. Beside the three main sequential stages of biofilm formation (attachment, maturation, and dispersal), this review unveils two unique developmental stages in the biofilm formation process for MRSA; multiplication and exodus. We also highlighted the quorum sensing as a cell-to-cell communication process, allowing distant bacterial cells to adapt to the conditions surrounding the bacterial biofilm. In S. aureus, the quorum sensing process is mediated by autoinducing peptides (AIPs) as signaling molecules, with the accessory gene regulator system playing a pivotal role in orchestrating the production of AIPs and various virulence factors. Several quorum inhibitors showed promising anti-virulence and antibiofilm effects that vary in type and function according to the targeted molecule. Disrupting the biofilm architecture and eradicating sessile bacterial cells are crucial steps to prevent colonization on other surfaces or organs. In this context, nanoparticles emerge as efficient carriers for delivering antimicrobial and antibiofilm agents throughout the biofilm architecture. Although metal-based nanoparticles have been previously used in combatting biofilms, its non-degradability and toxicity within the human body presents a real challenge. Therefore, organic nanoparticles in conjunction with quorum inhibitors have been proposed as a promising strategy against biofilms. As nanotherapeutics continue to gain recognition as an antibiofilm strategy, the development of more antibiofilm nanotherapeutics could offer a promising solution to combat biofilm-mediated resistance.

Biofilm-mediated infections by multidrug-resistant microbes: a comprehensive exploration and forward perspectives

A biofilm is a collection of microorganisms organized in a matrix of extracellular polymeric material. Biofilms consist of microbial cells that attach to both surfaces and each other, whether they are living or non-living. These microbial biofilms can lead to hospital-acquired infections and are generally detrimental. They possess the ability to resist the human immune system and antibiotics. The National Institute of Health (NIH) states that biofilm formation is associated with 65% of all microbial illnesses and 80% of chronic illnesses. Additionally, non-device-related microbial biofilm infections include conditions like cystic fibrosis, otitis media, infective endocarditis, and chronic inflammatory disorders. This review aims to provide an overview of research on chronic infections caused by microbial biofilms, methods used for biofilm detection, recent approaches to combat biofilms, and future perspectives, including the development of innovative antimicrobial strategies such as antimicrobial peptides, bacteriophages, and agents that disrupt biofilms.

The biofilm proteome of Staphylococcus aureus and its implications for therapeutic interventions to biofilm-associated infections

Staphylococcus aureus is a major healthcare concern due to its ability to inflict life-threatening infections and evolve antibiotic resistance at an alarming pace. It is frequently associated with hospital-acquired infections, especially device-associated infections. Systemic infections due to S. aureus are difficult to treat and are associated with significant mortality and morbidity. The situation is worsened by the ability of S. aureus to form social associations called biofilms. Biofilms embed a community of cells with the ability to communicate with each other and share resources within a polysaccharide or protein matrix. S. aureus establish biofilms on tissues and conditioned abiotic surfaces. Biofilms are hyper-tolerant to antibiotics and help evade host immune responses. Biofilms exacerbate the severity and recalcitrance of device-associated infections. The development of a biofilm involves various biomolecules, such as polysaccharides, proteins and nucleic acids, contributing to different structural and functional roles. Interconnected signaling pathways and regulatory molecules modulate the expression of these molecules. A comprehensive understanding of the molecular biology of biofilm development would help to devise effective anti-biofilm therapeutics. Although bactericidal agents, antimicrobial peptides, bacteriophages and nano-conjugated anti-biofilm agents have been employed with varying levels of success, there is still a requirement for effective and clinically viable anti-biofilm therapeutics. Proteins that are expressed and utilized during biofilm formation, constituting the biofilm proteome, are a particularly attractive target for anti-biofilm strategies. The proteome can be explored to identify potential anti-biofilm drug targets and utilized for rational drug discovery. With the aim of uncovering the biofilm proteome, this chapter explores the mechanism of biofilm formation and its regulation. Furthermore, it explores the antibiofilm therapeutics targeted against the biofilm proteome.

Genome Analysis and Physiology of Pseudomonas sp. Strain OVF7 Degrading Naphthalene and n-Dodecane

The complete genome of the naphthalene- and n-alkane-degrading strain Pseudomonas sp. strain OVF7 was collected and analyzed. Clusters of genes encoding enzymes for the degradation of naphthalene and n-alkanes are localized on the chromosome. Based on the Average Nucleotide Identity and digital DNA-DNA Hybridization compared with type strains of the group of fluorescent pseudomonads, the bacterium studied probably belongs to a new species. Using light, fluorescent, and scanning electron microscopy, the ability of the studied bacterium to form biofilms of different architectures when cultured in liquid mineral medium with different carbon sources, including naphthalene and n-dodecane, was demonstrated. When grown on a mixture of naphthalene and n-dodecane, the strain first consumed naphthalene and then n-dodecane. Cultivation of the strain on n-dodecane was characterized by a long adaptation phase, in contrast to cultivation on naphthalene and a mixture of naphthalene and n-dodecane.

Impact of cell-free supernatant of lactic acid bacteria on Staphylococcus aureus biofilm and its metabolites

Introduction

A safe bio-preservative agent, lactic acid bacteria (LAB) can inhibit the growth of pathogenic bacteria and spoilage organisms. Its cell-free supernatant (LAB-CFS), which is rich in bioactive compounds, is what makes LAB antibacterial work.

Methods

This study focused on the changes in biofilm activity and related metabolic pathways of S. aureus treated with lactic acid bacteria planktonic CFS (LAB-pk-CFS) and biofilm state (LAB-bf-CFS).

Results

The findings demonstrated that the LAB-CFS treatment considerably slowed Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus) growth and prevented it from forming biofilms. Additionally, it inhibits the physiological traits of the S. aureus biofilm, including hydrophobicity, motility, eDNA, and PIA associated to the biofilm. The metabolites of S. aureus biofilm treated with LAB-CFS were greater in the LAB-bf-CFS than they were in the LAB-pk-CFS, according to metabolomics studies. Important metabolic pathways such amino acids and carbohydrates metabolism were among the most noticeably altered metabolic pathways.

Discussion

These findings show that LAB-CFS has a strong potential to combat S. aureus infections.

Upregulation of ica Operon Governs Biofilm Formation by a Coagulase-Negative Staphylococcus caprae

Staphylococcus caprae is a Gram-positive, coagulase-negative staphylococci (CoNS), which appears as commensal in the skin, as well as a prevalent mastitis pathogen of goats. Occasionally, it is also associated with infections in humans. Biofilm formation has been identified as a putative virulence factor in S. caprae. Biofilms are multicellular communities protected by a self-produced extracellular matrix (ECM), which facilitates the resistance of bacterial cells to antimicrobial treatments. The ECM is constructed by exopolysaccharides, including the major exopolysaccharide-polysaccharide intercellular adhesion (PIA), regulated by the ica operon in Staphylococcus species. The aim of this study was to characterize the expression of the ica operon in relation to biofilm formation in S. caprae. Results showed that within a few hours of growth, S. caprae could adhere to polystyrene surfaces, start to accumulate, and form biofilm. Peak biofilm biomass and maturation were reached after 48 h, followed by a reduction in biomass after 72 h. Confocal laser scanning microscopy showed the expression of matrix-associated proteins and polysaccharides at various time points. The expression dynamics of the ica operon were investigated using real-time reverse transcriptase PCR (RT)-qPCR, which showed elevated expression during the early stages of biofilm formation and subsequent downregulation throughout the biofilm aging process. In conclusion, our results show that the ica operon is essential in regulating biofilm formation in S. caprae, similar to other Staphylococcus species. Furthermore, the robustness of the observed biofilm phenotype could account for the successful intramammary colonization and may explain disease persistence caused by this pathogenic bacterium.

Biology and Regulation of Staphylococcal Biofilm

Despite continuing progress in medical and surgical procedures, staphylococci remain the major Gram-positive bacterial pathogens that cause a wide spectrum of diseases, especially in patients requiring the utilization of indwelling catheters and prosthetic devices implanted temporarily or for prolonged periods of time. Within the genus, if Staphylococcus aureus and S. epidermidis are prevalent species responsible for infections, several coagulase-negative species which are normal components of our microflora also constitute opportunistic pathogens that are able to infect patients. In such a clinical context, staphylococci producing biofilms show an increased resistance to antimicrobials and host immune defenses. Although the biochemical composition of the biofilm matrix has been extensively studied, the regulation of biofilm formation and the factors contributing to its stability and release are currently still being discovered. This review presents and discusses the composition and some regulation elements of biofilm development and describes its clinical importance. Finally, we summarize the numerous and various recent studies that address attempts to destroy an already-formed biofilm within the clinical context as a potential therapeutic strategy to avoid the removal of infected implant material, a critical event for patient convenience and health care costs.

Non-deacetylated poly-N-acetylglucosamine-hyperproducing Staphylococcus aureus undergoes immediate autoaggregation upon vortexing

Biofilms are microbial communities of cells embedded in a matrix of extracellular polymeric substances generated and adhering to each other or to a surface. Cell aggregates formed in the absence of a surface and floating pellicles that form biofilms at the air-liquid interface are also considered to be a type of biofilm. Staphylococcus aureus is a well-known cause of biofilm infections and high-molecular-weight polysaccharides, poly-N-acetylglucosamine (PNAG) is a main constituent of the biofilm. An icaADBC operon comprises major machinery to synthesize and extracellularly secrete PNAG. Extracellular PNAG is partially deacetylated by IcaB deacetylase, and the positively charged PNAG hence interacts with negatively charged cell surface to form the major component of biofilm. We previously reported a new regulator of biofilm (Rob) and demonstrated that Rob binds to a unique 5-bp motif, TATTT, present in intergenic region between icaADBC operon and its repressor gene icaR in Yu et al. The deletion of the 5-bp motif induces excessive adherent biofilm formation. The real function of the 5-bp motif is still unknown. In an attempt to isolate the 5-bp motif deletion mutant, we isolated several non-adherent mutants. They grew normally in turbid broth shaking culture but immediately auto-aggregated upon weak vortexing and sedimented as a lump resulting in a clear supernatant. Whole genome sequencing of the mutants identified they all carried mutations in icaB in addition to deletion of the 5-bp motif. Purification and molecular characterization of auto-aggregating factor in the culture supernatant of the mutant identified that the factor was a massively produced non-deacetylated PNAG. Therefore, we created a double deficient strain of biofilm inhibitory factors (5-bp motif, icaR, rob) and icaB to confirm the aggregation phenomenon. This peculiar phenomenon was only observed in Δ5bpΔicaB double mutant but not in ΔicaR ΔicaB or ΔrobΔicaB mutant. This study explains large amount of extracellularly produced non-deacetylated PNAG by Δ5bpΔicaB double mutation induced rapid auto-aggregation of S. aureus cells by vortexing. This phenomenon indicated that Staphylococcus aureus may form biofilms that do not adhere to solid surfaces and we propose this as a new mechanism of non-adherent biofilm formation of S. aureus.

Baicalein Inhibits the Staphylococcus aureus Biofilm and the LuxS/AI-2 System in vitro

Introduction

Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus) is a common cause of mastitis in dairy cows, a condition that has a significant economic impact. S. aureus displays quorum sensing (QS) system-controlled virulence characteristics, like biofilm formation, that make therapy challenging. In order to effectively combat S. aureus, one potential technique is to interfere with quorum sensing.

Methods

This study evaluated the effects of different Baicalin (BAI) concentrations on the growth and the biofilm of S. aureus isolates, including the biofilm formation and mature biofilm clearance. The binding activity of BAI to LuxS was verified by molecular docking and kinetic simulations. The secondary structure of LuxS in the formulations was characterized using fluorescence quenching and Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy. Additionally, using fluorescence quantitative PCR, the impact of BAI on the transcript levels of the luxS and biofilm-related genes was investigated. The impact of BAI on LuxS at the level of protein expression was also confirmed by a Western blotting investigation.

Results

According to the docking experiments, they were able to engage with the amino acid residues in LuxS and BAI through hydrogen bonding. The results of molecular dynamics simulations and the binding free energy also confirmed the stability of the complex and supported the experimental results. BAI showed weak inhibitory activity against S. aureus but significantly reduced biofilm formation and disrupted mature biofilms. BAI also downregulated luxS and biofilm-associated genes' mRNA expression. Successful binding was confirmed using fluorescence quenching and FTIR.

Discussion

We thus report that BAI inhibits the S. aureus LuxS/AI-2 system for the first time, which raises the possibility that BAI could be employed as a possible antimicrobial drug to treat S. aureus strain-caused biofilms.

A Review of Biofilm Formation of Staphylococcus aureus and Its Regulation Mechanism

Bacteria can form biofilms in natural and clinical environments on both biotic and abiotic surfaces. The bacterial aggregates embedded in biofilms are formed by their own produced extracellular matrix. Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus) is one of the most common pathogens of biofilm infections. The formation of biofilm can protect bacteria from being attacked by the host immune system and antibiotics and thus bacteria can be persistent against external challenges. Therefore, clinical treatments for biofilm infections are currently encountering difficulty. To address this critical challenge, a new and effective treatment method needs to be developed. A comprehensive understanding of bacterial biofilm formation and regulation mechanisms may provide meaningful insights against antibiotic resistance due to bacterial biofilms. In this review, we discuss an overview of S. aureus biofilms including the formation process, structural and functional properties of biofilm matrix, and the mechanism regulating biofilm formation.

Biofilm formation and inflammatory potential of Staphylococcus saccharolyticus: A possible cause of orthopedic implant-associated infections

Staphylococcus saccharolyticus, a coagulase-negative staphylococcal species, has some unusual characteristics for human-associated staphylococci, such as slow growth and its preference for anoxic culture conditions. This species is a relatively abundant member of the human skin microbiota, but its microbiological properties, as well as the pathogenic potential, have scarcely been investigated so far, despite being occasionally isolated from different types of infections including orthopedic implant-associated infections. Here, we investigated the growth and biofilm properties of clinical isolates of S. saccharolyticus and determined host cell responses. Growth assessments in anoxic and oxic conditions revealed strain-dependent outcomes, as some strains can also grow aerobically. All tested strains of S. saccharolyticus were able to form biofilm in a microtiter plate assay. Strain-dependent differences were determined by optical coherence tomography, revealing that medium supplementation with glucose and sodium chloride enhanced biofilm formation. Visualization of the biofilm by confocal laser scanning microscopy revealed the role of extracellular DNA in the biofilm structure. In addition to attached biofilms, S. saccharolyticus also formed bacterial aggregates at an early stage of growth. Transcriptome analysis of biofilm-grown versus planktonic cells revealed a set of upregulated genes in biofilm-embedded cells, including factors involved in adhesion, colonization, and competition such as epidermin, type I toxin-antitoxin system, and phenol-soluble modulins (beta and epsilon). To investigate consequences for the host after encountering S. saccharolyticus, cytokine profiling and host cell viability were assessed by infection experiments with differentiated THP-1 cells. The microorganism strongly triggered the secretion of the tested pro-inflammatory cyto- and chemokines IL-6, IL-8, and TNF-alpha, determined at 24 h post-infection. S. saccharolyticus was less cytotoxic than Staphylococcus aureus. Taken together, the results indicate that S. saccharolyticus has substantial pathogenic potential. Thus, it can be a potential cause of orthopedic implant-associated infections and other types of deep-seated infections.

Staphylococcus epidermidis Pathogenesis: Interplay of icaADBC Operon and MSCRAMMs in Biofilm Formation of Isolates from Pediatric Bacteremia in Peshawar, Pakistan

Background and Objective: Staphylococcus epidermidis is an opportunistic pathogen from pediatric bacteremia that is commonly isolated. Biofilm is the major virulence factor of S. epidermidis; however, the role of biofilm determinants in biofilm formation is highly contradictory and diverse. The current study aimed to investigate the role of polysaccharide-dependent and polysaccharide-independent pathogenic determinants in biofilm formation under physiological stress conditions. Materials and Methods: The isolates (n = 75) were identified and screened for the icaADBC operon, IS256, and an array of MSCRAMMs (Microbial Surface Component Recognizing Adhesive Matrix Molecules) through PCR analysis. The activity of the icaADBC operon was detected by Congo red assay, and the biofilm formation was analyzed through microtiter plate assay. Results: S. epidermidis isolates produced biofilm (n = 65; 86.6%) frequently. The icaA was the major representative module of the actively expressing icaADBC operon (n = 21; 80.7% sensitivity). The MSCRAMMs, including fbe (n = 59; 90.7%; p = 0.007), and embp (n = 57; 87.6%; p = 0.026), were highly prevalent and associated with biofilm positive S. epidermidis. The prevalence of icaADBC operon in biofilm positive and negative S. epidermidis was not significant (n = 41; 63%; p = 0.429). No significant association was found between IS256 and actively complete icaADBC operon (n = 10; 47.6%; p = 0.294). In the presence of 5% human plasma and glucose stress, S. epidermidis produced a strong biofilm (n = 55; 84.6%). Conclusion: The polysaccharide-dependent biofilm formation is significantly replaced (n = 21; 28%; p = 0.149) by a polysaccharide-independent mechanism (n = 59; 90.7%; p = 0.007), in which the MSCRAMMs might actively play their role. The fibrinogen-binding protein and extracellular matrix-binding protein might be potential anti-biofilm drug targets, markers of rapid diagnosis, and potential vaccine candidates of S. epidermidis involved in pediatric bacteremia.

Vitexin alters Staphylococcus aureus surface hydrophobicity to obstruct biofilm formation

Cell Surface hydrophobicity is one of the determinant biophysical parameters of bacterial aggregation for being networked to form a biofilm. Phytoconstituent, like vitexin, has long been in use for their antibacterial effect. The present work demonstrates the role of vitexin in modulating Staphylococcus aureus surface hydrophobicity while aggregating to form biofilm and pathogenesis in a host. In planktonic form, vitexin shows minimum inhibitory concentration at 252 µg/ml against S. aureus. Sub-MIC doses of vitexin and antibiotics (26 µg/ml of vitexin, 55 µg/ml of azithromycin, and 2.5 µg/ml of gentamicin) were selected to treat S. aureus. Dead cell counts after treatment were studied through flow cytometry. As dead cell counts were minimal (<5 %), these doses were considered for all subsequent experiments. While studying aggregating cells, it was observed that vitexin reduces S. aureus surface hydrophobicity and membrane permeability at the sub-MIC dose of 26 µg/ml. The in silico binding analysis showed a higher binding affinity of vitexin with surface proteins (IcaA, DltA, and SasG) of S. aureus. Down-regulation of dltA and icaAB expression, along with the reduction in membrane potential with a sub-MIC dose of vitexin, explains reduced S. aureus surface hydrophobicity. Vitexin was found to interfere with S. aureus biofilm-associated protein biomass, EPS production, and swarming movement. Subsequently, the suppression of proteases production and down-regulation of icaAB and agrAC gene expression with a sub-MIC dose of vitexin explained the inhibition of S. aureus virulence in vitro. Besides, vitexin was also found to potentiate the antibiofilm activity of sub-MIC doses of gentamicin and azithromycin. Treatment with vitexin exhibits a protective response in S. aureus infected macrophages through modulation of expression of cytokines like IL-10 and IL-12p40 at protein and mRNA levels. Furthermore, CFU count and histological examination of infected mouse tissue (liver and spleen) justify the in vivo protective effect of vitexin from S. aureus biofilm-associated infection. From this study, it can be inferred that vitexin can reduce S. aureus surface hydrophobicity, leading to interference with aggregation at the time of biofilm formation and subsequent pathogenesis in a host.

The Role of Staphylococcal Biofilm on the Surface of Implants in Orthopedic Infection

Despite advanced implant sterilization and aseptic surgical techniques, implant-associated infection remains a major challenge for orthopedic surgeries. The subject of bacterial biofilms is receiving increasing attention, probably as a result of the wide acknowledgement of the ubiquity of biofilms in the clinical environment, as well as the extreme difficulty in eradicating them. Biofilm can be defined as a structured microbial community of cells that are attached to a substratum and embedded in a matrix of extracellular polymeric substances (EPS) that they have produced. Biofilm development has been proposed as occurring in a multi-step process: (i) attachment and adherence, (ii) accumulation/maturation due to cellular aggregation and EPS production, and (iii) biofilm detachment (also called dispersal) of bacterial cells. In all these stages, characteristic proteinaceous and non-proteinaceous compounds are expressed, and their expression is strictly controlled. Bacterial biofilm formation around implants shelters the bacteria and encourages the persistence of infection, which could lead to implant failure and osteomyelitis. These complications need to be treated by major revision surgeries and extended antibiotic therapies, which could lead to high treatment costs and even increase mortality. Effective preventive and therapeutic measures to reduce risks for implant-associated infections are thus in urgent need.

Antibiofilm Activity of Omega-3 Fatty Acids and Its Influence on the Expression of Biofilm Formation Genes on Staphylococcus aureus

Background: Currently, 1–2% of all prosthetic joint surgeries are followed by an infection. These infections cause approximately 4% of deaths in the first year after surgery, while the 5-year mortality rate is up to 21%. Prosthetic joint infections are mainly caused by Staphylococcus aureus or Staphylococcus epidermis strains. Both species share the capability of biofilm formation and methicillin resistance. The formation of biofilm helps bacterial cells to withstand critical environmental conditions. Due to their tolerance against antibacterial substances, biofilms are a significant problem in modern medicine. Alternatives for the use of methicillin as a therapeutic are not yet widespread. The use of omega-3 fatty acids, such as docosahexaenoic acid, may help against prosthetic joint infections and lower mortality rates. The aim of this study is to evaluate if docosahexaenoic acid offers a safe anti-biofilm activity against Staphylococcus aureus and MRSA without enhancing icaADBC-dependent biofilm formation or additional stress responses, therefore enhancing antibiotic tolerance and resistance. Methods: In this study, we examined the gene expression of biofilm-associated genes and regulators. We performed RT-qPCR after RNA extraction of Staphylococcus aureus ATCC 29213 and one clinical MRSA strain. We compared gene expression of icaADBC, SarA, SigB, and agrAC under the influence of 1.25 mg /L and 0.625 mg/L of docosahexaenoic acid to their controls. Results: We found a higher expression of regulatory genes such as SarA, SigB, agrA, and agrC at 1.25 mg/L of docosahexaenoic acid in ATCC 29213 and a lower increase in gene expression levels in clinical MRSA isolates. icaADBC was not affected in both strains at both concentration levels by docosahexaenoic acid. Conclusions: Docosahexaenoic acid does not enhance icaADBC-dependent biofilm formation while still reducing bacterial CFU in biofilms. Docosahexaenoic acid can be considered an option as a therapeutic substance against biofilm formation and may be a good alternative in reducing the risk of MRSA formation.

Genotypes and phenotypes of methicillin-resistant staphylococci isolated from shrimp aquaculture farms

The population of methicillin-resistant (MR) staphylococci in aquatic environment is rarely investigated. Here, we characterized a collection of MR staphylococci recovered from shrimp aquaculture farms (n = 37) in Kerala, India. A total of 261 samples yielded 47 MR isolates (16 S. aureus, 13 S. haemolyticus, 11 S. epidermidis, 3 S. saprophytics and 2 each of S.intermedius and S. kloosii). Multi-drug resistance was evident in 72.3% of the isolates, with resistance mainly towards erythromycin (78.7%), norfloxacin and trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole (53.2%), and gentamicin (34%). Major resistance genes identified included mecA (100%), ermC (38.3%), aacA-aphD (21.3%), tetK (14.9%) and tetM (21.3%). Almost 60% of the isolates carried type V SCCmec (Staphylococcal Cassette Chromosome mec), and the remaining harboured untypeable SCCmec elements. Comprehensive genotyping of the methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus isolates revealed high prevalence of ST772-t345-V (sequence type-spa type-SCCmec type) (75%), followed by minor representations of ST6657-t345-V and ST3190-t12353. The isolates of S. haemolyticus and S. epidermidis were genotypically diverse as shown by their pulsed-field gel electrophoresis (PFGE) profiles. Genes encoding staphylococcal enterotoxins were observed in 53.2% of the isolates. Various genes involved in adhesion and biofilm formation were also identified. In conclusion, our findings provide evidence that shrimp aquaculture settings can act as reservoirs of methicillin-resistant staphylococci.

Colonization and Infection of Indwelling Medical Devices by Staphylococcus aureus with an Emphasis on Orthopedic Implants

The use of indwelling medical devices has constantly increased in recent years and has revolutionized the quality of life of patients affected by different diseases. However, despite the improvement of hygiene conditions in hospitals, implant-associated infections remain a common and serious complication in prosthetic surgery, mainly in the orthopedic field, where infection often leads to implant failure. Staphylococcus aureus is the most common cause of biomaterial-centered infection. Upon binding to the medical devices, these bacteria proliferate and develop dense communities encased in a protective matrix called biofilm. Biofilm formation has been proposed as occurring in several stages-(1) attachment; (2) proliferation; (3) dispersal-and involves a variety of host and staphylococcal proteinaceous and non-proteinaceous factors. Moreover, biofilm formation is strictly regulated by several control systems. Biofilms enable staphylococci to avoid antimicrobial activity and host immune response and are a source of persistent bacteremia as well as of localized tissue destruction. While considerable information is available on staphylococcal biofilm formation on medical implants and important results have been achieved on the treatment of biofilms, preclinical and clinical applications need to be further investigated. Thus, the purpose of this review is to gather current studies about the mechanism of infection of indwelling medical devices by S. aureus with a special focus on the biochemical factors involved in biofilm formation and regulation. We also provide a summary of the current therapeutic strategies to combat biomaterial-associated infections and highlight the need to further explore biofilm physiology and conduct research for innovative anti-biofilm approaches.

Linezolid decreases Staphylococcus aureus biofilm formation by affecting the IcaA and IcaB proteins

Background

The ica gene of Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus) plays a vital role in its growth and biofilm formation. Among them, IcaA and IcaB are critical proteins for synthesizing extracellular polysaccharides and biofilms in S. aureus. To investigate whether the formation of S. aureus biofilms can be inhibited through the IcaA and IcaB proteins by the presence of linezolid.

Methods

The icaA and icaB genes of S. aureus ATCC 25923 were silenced by homologous recombination. The critical roles of icaA and icaB in S. aureus were analysed by observing the growth curve and biofilm formation after linezolid treatment. Then, the effect of linezolid on the morphology of S. aureus was observed by scanning electron microscopy. Finally, the potential binding ability of linezolid to Ica proteins was predicted by molecular docking.

Results

The icaA- and icaB-silenced strains were successfully constructed, and the sensitivity of S. aureus to linezolid was decreased after icaA and icaB silencing. Scanning electron microscopy showed that linezolid caused invagination of the S. aureus surface and reduced the production of biofilms. Molecular docking results showed that linezolid could bind to IcaA and IcaB proteins.

Conclusion

IcaA and IcaB are potential targets of linezolid in inhibiting the biofilm formation of S. aureus (ATCC 25923).

Molecular docking and simulation of IcaC protein as O-succinyltransferase function in staphylococcus epidermidis biofilm formation

Intercellular adhesion (IcaADBC) operon is necessary for PNAG (Polyβ-1,6-N-acetyl-D-glucosamine) biosynthesis of biofilm formation in Staphylococcus epidermidis. IcaC protein has a wide range of functions in terms of growth phase variation, migration, transposon insertion, PNAG modification, biofilm formation. Unusual TTTA signature motifs were identified from nucleotide sequence. Asparagine-linked glycosylation consensus motifs were identified at position 169 and 240. S. epidermidis was a close evolutionary association with S. haemolyticus and other Staphylococcus spp. Due to the non-availability of crystal structure, protein threading procedure was selected for constructing a full length IcaC three-dimensional structure. QMEANBrane structure quality assessment with model scores −100000 range within predicted integral membrane structure. IcaC motif constitutes 18 transmembrane helix, 37 helix-helix interaction, 8 beta turn, 2 gamma turn. Binding free energy was calculated with their succinate ligand docking form hydrogen bond with critical amino acids showed ΔG score −2.574 ​kJ/mol using Schrödinger. Serine (Ser96), Glutamic acid (Glu99), Tryptophan (Trp191) were active site amino acids form the catalytic core required for O-succinyltransferase function. Molecular dynamics simulation (MDS) was performed to evaluate the stability of IcaC protein and IcaC-Succinate binding complexes with the active site amino acids throughout trajectories captured with time scale 100 ns simulation period using GROMACS 4.5.

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Structural characterization of Intercellular adhesion (IcaC) protein from Staphylococcus epidermidis.

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Understanding of nucleotide, protein signature sequence, secondary structure motifs and phylogenetic association among Staphylococcus sp. homologs.

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IcaC-Succinate docking and molecular dynamics simulation for determined structural stability of protein.

Inactivation of the Response Regulator AgrA Has a Pleiotropic Effect on Biofilm Formation, Pathogenesis and Stress Response in Staphylococcus lugdunensis

Staphylococcus lugdunensis is a coagulase-negative Staphylococcus that emerges as an important opportunistic pathogen. However, little is known about the regulation underlying the transition from commensal to virulent state. Based on knowledge of S. aureus virulence, we suspected that the agr quorum sensing system may be an important determinant for the pathogenicity of S. lugdunensis. We investigated the functions of the transcriptional regulator AgrA using the agrA deletion mutant. AgrA played a role in cell pigmentation: ΔargA mutant colonies were white while the parental strains were slightly yellow. Compared with the wild-type strain, the ΔargA mutant was affected in its ability to form biofilm and was less able to survive in mice macrophages. Moreover, the growth of ΔagrA was significantly reduced by the addition of 10% NaCl or 0.4 mM H2O2 and its survival after 2 h in the presence of 1 mM H2O2 was more than 10-fold reduced. To explore the mechanisms involved beyond these phenotypes, the ΔagrA proteome and transcriptome were characterized by mass spectrometry and RNA-Seq. We found that AgrA controlled several virulence factors as well as stress-response factors, which are well correlated with the reduced resistance of the ΔagrA mutant to osmotic and oxidative stresses. These results were not the consequence of the deregulation of RNAIII of the agr system, since no phenotype or alteration of the proteomic profile has been observed for the ΔRNAIII mutant. Altogether, our results highlighted that the AgrA regulator of S. lugdunensis played a key role in its ability to become pathogenic. IMPORTANCE Although belonging to the natural human skin flora, Staphylococcus lugdunensis is recognized as a particularly aggressive and destructive pathogen. This study aimed to characterize the role of the response regulator AgrA, which is a component of the quorum-sensing agr system and known to be a major element in the regulation of pathogenicity and biofilm formation in Staphylococcus aureus. In the present study, we showed that, contrary to S. aureus, the agrA deletion mutant produced less biofilm. Inactivation of agrA conferred a white colony phenotype and impacted S. lugdunensis in its ability to survive in mice macrophages and to cope with osmotic and oxidative stresses. By global proteomic and transcriptomic approaches, we identified the AgrA regulon, bringing molecular bases underlying the observed phenotypes. Together, our data showed the importance of AgrA in the opportunistic pathogenic behavior of S. lugdunensis allowing it to be considered as an interesting therapeutic target.

The Role of Staphylococcus aureus YycFG in Gene Regulation, Biofilm Organization and Drug Resistance

Antibiotic resistance is a serious global health concern that may have significant social and financial consequences. Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) infection is responsible for substantial morbidity and leads to the death of 21.8% of infected patients annually. A lack of novel antibiotics has prompted the exploration of therapies targeting bacterial virulence mechanisms. The two-component signal transduction system (TCS) enables microbial cells to regulate gene expression and the subsequent metabolic processes that occur due to environmental changes. The YycFG TCS in S. aureus is essential for bacterial viability, the regulation of cell membrane metabolism, cell wall synthesis and biofilm formation. However, the role of YycFG-associated biofilm organization in S. aureus antimicrobial drug resistance and gene regulation has not been discussed in detail. We reviewed the main molecules involved in YycFG-associated cell wall biosynthesis, biofilm development and polysaccharide intercellular adhesin (PIA) accumulation. Two YycFG-associated regulatory mechanisms, accessory gene regulator (agr) and staphylococcal accessory regulator (SarA), were also discussed. We highlighted the importance of biofilm formation in the development of antimicrobial drug resistance in S. aureus infections. Data revealed that inhibition of the YycFG pathway reduced PIA production, biofilm formation and bacterial pathogenicity, which provides a potential target for the management of MRSA-induced infections.

Presence of Candida tropicalis on Staphylococcus epidermidis Biofilms Facilitated Biofilm Production and Candida Dissemination: An Impact of Fungi on Bacterial Biofilms

While Staphylococcus epidermidis (SE) is a common cause of infections in implanted prostheses and other indwelling devices, partly due to the biofilm formation, Candida tropicalis (CT) is an emerging Candida spp. with a potent biofilm-producing property. Due to the possible coexistence between SE and CT infection in the same patient, characteristics of the polymicrobial biofilms from both organisms might be different from those of the biofilms of each organism. Then, the exploration on biofilms, from SE with or without CT, and an evaluation on l-cysteine (an antibiofilm against both bacteria and fungi) were performed. As such, Candida incubation in preformed SE biofilms (SE > CT) produced higher biofilms than the single- (SE or CT) or mixed-organism (SE + CT) biofilms as determined by crystal violet staining and fluorescent confocal images with z-stack thickness analysis. In parallel, SE > CT biofilms demonstrated higher expression of icaB and icaC than other groups at 20 and 24 h of incubation, suggesting an enhanced matrix polymerization and transportation, respectively. Although organism burdens (culture method) from single-microbial biofilms (SE or CT) were higher than multi-organism biofilms (SE + CT and SE > CT), macrophage cytokine responses (TNF-α and IL-6) against SE > CT biofilms were higher than those in other groups in parallel to the profound biofilms in SE > CT. Additionally, sepsis severity in mice with subcutaneously implanted SE > CT catheters was more severe than in other groups as indicated by mortality rate, fungemia, serum cytokines (TNF-α and IL-6), and kidney and liver injury. Although CT grows upon preformed SE-biofilm production, the biofilm structures interfered during CT morphogenesis leading to the frailty of biofilm structure and resulting in the prominent candidemia. However, l-cysteine incubation together with the organisms in catheters reduced biofilms, microbial burdens, macrophage responses, and sepsis severity. In conclusion, SE > CT biofilms prominently induced biofilm matrix, fungemia, macrophage responses, and sepsis severity, whereas the microbial burdens were lower than in the single-organism biofilms. All biofilms were attenuated by l-cysteine.

The Vancomycin Resistance-Associated Regulatory System VraSR Modulates Biofilm Formation of Staphylococcus epidermidis in an ica-Dependent Manner

The two-component system VraSR responds to the cell wall-active antibiotic stress in Staphylococcus epidermidis. To study its regulatory function in biofilm formation, a vraSR deletion mutant (ΔvraSR) was constructed using S. epidermidis strain 1457 (SE1457) as the parent strain. Compared to SE1457, the ΔvraSR mutant showed impaired biofilm formation both in vitro and in vivo with a higher ratio of dead cells within the biofilm. Consistently, the ΔvraSR mutant produced much less polysaccharide intercellular adhesin (PIA). The ΔvraSR mutant also showed increased susceptibility to the cell wall inhibitor and SDS, and its cell wall observed under a transmission electron microscope (TEM) appeared to be thinner and interrupted, which is in accordance with higher susceptibility to the stress. Complementation of vraSR in the ΔvraSR mutant restored the biofilm formation and the cell wall thickness to wild-type levels. Transcriptome sequencing (RNA-Seq) showed that the vraSR deletion affected the transcription levels of 73 genes, including genes involved in biofilm formation, bacterial programmed cell death (CidA-LrgAB system), glycolysis/gluconeogenesis, the pentose phosphate pathway (PPP), and the tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle, etc. The results of RNA-Seq were confirmed by quantitative real-time reverse transcription-PCR (qRT-PCR). In the ΔvraSR mutant, the expression of icaA and lrgAB was downregulated and the expression of icaR and cidA was upregulated, in comparison to that of SE1457. The transcriptional levels of antibiotic-resistant genes (pbp2, serp1412, murAA, etc.) had no significant changes. An electrophoretic mobility shift assay further revealed that phosphorylated VraR bound to the promoter regions of the ica operon, as well as its own promoter region. This study demonstrates that in S. epidermidis, VraSR is an autoregulator and directly regulates biofilm formation in an ica-dependent manner. Upon cell wall stress, it indirectly regulates cell death and drug resistance in association with alterations to multiple metabolism pathways.

IMPORTANCES. epidermidis is a leading cause of hospital-acquired catheter-related infections, and its pathogenicity depends mostly on its ability to form biofilms on implants. The biofilm formation is a complex procedure that involves multiple regulating factors. Here, we show that a vancomycin resistance-associated two-component regulatory system, VraSR, plays an important role in modulating S. epidermidis biofilm formation and tolerance to stress. We demonstrate that S. epidermidis VraSR is an autoregulated system that selectively responds to stress targeting cell wall synthesis. Besides, phosphorylated VraR can bind to the promoter region of the ica operon and directly regulates polysaccharide intercellular adhesin production and biofilm formation in S. epidermidis. Furthermore, VraSR may indirectly modulate bacterial cell death and extracellular DNA (eDNA) release in biofilms through the CidA-LrgAB system. This work provides a new molecular insight into the mechanisms of VraSR-mediated modulation of the biofilm formation and cell death of S. epidermidis.

Andrographolide Sulfonate Is a Promising Treatment to Combat Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus and Its Biofilms

Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) is a drug-resistant pathogen threatening human health and safety. Biofilms are an important cause of its drug resistance and pathogenicity. Inhibition and elimination of biofilms is an important strategy for the treatment of MRSA infection. Andrographolide sulfonate (AS) is an active component of the traditional herbal medicine Andrographis paniculata. This study aims to explore the inhibitory effect and corresponding mechanisms of AS on MRSA and its biofilms. Three doses of AS (6.25, 12.5, and 25 mg/ml) were introduced to MRSA with biofilms. In vitro antibacterial testing and morphological observation were used to confirm the inhibitory effect of AS on MRSA with biofilms. Real-time PCR and metabonomics were used to explore the underlying mechanisms of the effect by studying the expression of biofilm-related genes and endogenous metabolites. AS displayed significant anti-MRSA activity, and its minimum inhibitory concentration was 50 μg/ml. Also, AS inhibited biofilms and improved biofilm permeability. The mechanisms are mediated by the inhibition of the expression of genes, such as quorum sensing system regulatory genes (agrD and sarA), microbial surface components–recognizing adhesion matrix genes (clfA and fnbB), intercellular adhesion genes (icaA, icaD, and PIA), and a gene related to cellular eDNA release (cidA), and the downregulation of five biofilm-related metabolites, including anthranilic acid, D-lactic acid, kynurenine, L-homocitrulline, and sebacic acid. This study provided valuable evidence for the activity of AS against MRSA and its biofilms and extended the methods to combat MRSA infection.

Bacterial Biofilms and Their Implications in Pathogenesis and Food Safety

Biofilm formation is an integral part of the microbial life cycle in nature. In food processing environments, bacterial transmissions occur primarily through raw or undercooked foods and by cross-contamination during unsanitary food preparation practices. Foodborne pathogens form biofilms as a survival strategy in various unfavorable environments, which also become a frequent source of recurrent contamination and outbreaks of foodborne illness. Instead of focusing on bacterial biofilm formation and their pathogenicity individually, this review discusses on a molecular level how these two physiological processes are connected in several common foodborne pathogens such as Listeria monocytogenes, Staphylococcus aureus, Salmonella enterica and Escherichia coli. In addition, biofilm formation by Pseudomonas aeruginosa is discussed because it aids the persistence of many foodborne pathogens forming polymicrobial biofilms on food contact surfaces, thus significantly elevating food safety and public health concerns. Furthermore, in-depth analyses of several bacterial molecules with dual functions in biofilm formation and pathogenicity are highlighted.

The MpsAB Bicarbonate Transporter Is Superior to Carbonic Anhydrase in Biofilm-Forming Bacteria with Limited CO2 Diffusion

CO2 and bicarbonate are required for carboxylation reactions, which are essential in most bacteria. To provide the cells with sufficient CO2, there exist two dissolved inorganic carbon supply (DICS) systems: the membrane potential-generating system (MpsAB) and the carbonic anhydrase (CA). Recently, it has been shown that MpsAB is a bicarbonate transporter that is present not only in photo- and autotrophic bacteria, but also in a diverse range of nonautotrophic microorganisms. Since the two systems rarely coexist in a species but are interchangeable, we investigated what advantages the one system might have over the other. Using the genus Staphylococcus as a model, we deleted the CA gene can in Staphylococcus carnosus and mpsABC genes in Staphylococcus aureus. Deletion of the respective gene in one or the other species led to growth inhibition that could only be reversed by CO2 supplementation. While the S. carnosus Δcan mutant could be fully complemented with mpsABC, the S. aureus ΔmpsABC mutant was only partially complemented by can, suggesting that MpsAB outperforms CA. Interestingly, we provide evidence that mucus biofilm formation such as that involving polysaccharide intercellular adhesin (PIA) impedes the diffusion of CO2 into cells, making MpsAB more advantageous in biofilm-producing strains or species. Coexpression of MpsAB and CA does not confer any growth benefits, even under stress conditions. In conclusion, the distribution of MpsAB or CA in bacteria does not appear to be random as expression of bicarbonate transporters provides an advantage where diffusion of CO2 is impeded. IMPORTANCE CO2 and bicarbonate are required for carboxylation reactions in central metabolism and biosynthesis of small molecules in all bacteria. This is achieved by two different systems for dissolved inorganic carbon supply (DICS): these are the membrane potential-generating system (MpsAB) and the carbonic anhydrase (CA), but both rarely coexist in a given species. Here, we compared both systems and demonstrate that the distribution of MpsAB and/or CA within the phylum Firmicutes is apparently not random. The bicarbonate transporter MpsAB has an advantage in species where CO2 diffusion is hampered-for instance, in mucus- and biofilm-forming bacteria. However, coexpression of MpsAB and CA does not confer any growth benefits, even under stress conditions. Given the clinical relevance of Staphylococcus in the medical environment, such findings contribute to the understanding of bacterial metabolism and thus are crucial for exploration of potential targets for antimicrobials. The knowledge gained here as exemplified by staphylococcal species could be extended to other pathogenic bacteria.

Research on the Biofilm Formation of Staphylococcus aureus after Cold Stress

Staphylococcus aureus is a common food pathogen and has a strong tolerance to environmental stress. Here, the biofilm formation of S. aureus strains after cold stress for 24 weeks were investigated. It was found that the biofilm formation of S. aureus CICC 21600, CICC 22942, W1, W3, and C1 cells was enhanced after cold stress for 20 weeks. What is more, the mRNA levels of the clfA, icaA, icaB, icaC or icaD genes in these strains were increased for >2-fold. The increased gene transcription levels were consistent with the increase in the polysaccharide content in the biofilm matrix of these S. aureus strains after cold stress. Meanwhile, hydrophobicity and the adhesion proteins also played a role in the formation of biofilms. The biofilm of S. aureus cells can be effectively degraded by snailase and proteinase K (125 µg/mL + 20 µg/mL) mixture. In summary, S. aureus frozen at -20 °C for 12 to 20 weeks is still a potential hazard. Food factory equipment should be cleaned in a timely manner to avoid outbreaks of foodborne pathogenic bacteria due to contamination.

Staphylococcus aureus: biofilm formation and strategies against it

The formation of Staphylococcus aureus biofilm causes significant infections in the human body. Biofilm forms through the aggregation of bacterial species and brings about many complications. It mediates drug resistance and persistence and facilitates the recurrence of infection at the end of antimicrobial therapy. Biofilm formation goes through a series of steps to complete, and any interference in these steps can disrupt its formation. Such interference may occur at any stage of biofilm production, including attachment, monolayer formation, and accumulation. Interfering agents can act as quorum sensing inhibitors and interfere in the functionality of quorum sensing receptors, attachment inhibitors and affect the cell hydrophobicity. Among these inhibiting strategies, attachment inhibitors could serve as the best agents against biofilm formation. If pathogens abort the attachment, the following stages of biofilm formation, e.g., accumulation and dispersion, will fail to materialize. Inhibition at this stage leads to suppression of virulence factors and invasion. One of the best-known inhibitors is a chelator that collects metal, Fe+, Zn+, and magnesium critical for biofilm formation. These influential factors in the binding and formation of biofilm are investigated, and the coping strategy is discussed. This review examines the stages of biofilm formation and determines what factors interfere in the continuity of these steps. Finally, the inhibition strategies are investigated, reviewed, and discussed. Keywords: Biofilm, Staphylococcus, Biofilm inhibitor, Dispersion, Antibiofilm agent, EPS, PIA.

Antibacterial, Antibiofilm, and Antioxidant Activity of Polysaccharides Obtained from Fresh Sarcotesta of Ginkgo biloba: Bioactive Polysaccharide that Can Be Exploited as a Novel Biocontrol Agent

Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus) biofilm plays an important role in the persistence of chronic infection due to its resistance to antibiotics. Because of their functional diversity, active polysaccharide is increasingly being applied as a biocontrol agent to inhibit the formation of biofilm by pathogens. In this study, a new polysaccharide, GBSPII-1, isolated from the fresh sarcotesta of Ginkgo biloba L. (G. biloba) was characterized and its effect on antibiofilm formation of S. aureus was examined in vitro. High-Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC) analysis showed that GBSPII-1 is an acidic heteropolysaccharide composed of mannose, rhamnose, glucose, glucuronic acid, and galacturonic acid. GBSPII-1 demonstrated a molecular weight of 34 kDa and may affect the accumulation of polysaccharide intercellular adhesion (PIA) by inhibiting icaA, icaB, icaC, and icaD gene expression at subinhibitory concentrations. Under 10 g/L, GBSPII-1 showed an antioxidant effect on the inhibition rate of H₂O₂-induced erythrocyte hemolysis and the scavenging rate of DPPH radicals was 76.5 ± 0.5% and 89.2 ± 0.26%, respectively. The findings obtained in this study indicate that GBSPII-1 has antibacterial effect, is a possible source of natural antioxidants, and may be a potential biocontrol agent for the design of new therapeutic strategies for biofilm-related S. aureus infections.

Mimicking biofilm formation and development: Recent progress in in vitro and in vivo biofilm models

Biofilm formation in living organisms is associated to tissue and implant infections, and it has also been linked to the contribution of antibiotic resistance. Thus, understanding biofilm development and being able to mimic such processes is vital for the successful development of antibiofilm treatments and therapies. Several decades of research have contributed to building the foundation for developing in vitro and in vivo biofilm models. However, no such thing as an "all fit" in vitro or in vivo biofilm models is currently available. In this review, in addition to presenting an updated overview of biofilm formation, we critically revise recent approaches for the improvement of in vitro and in vivo biofilm models.

Comparative population genomic analyses of transporters within the Asgard archaeal superphylum

Upon discovery of the first archaeal species in the 1970s, life has been subdivided into three domains: Eukarya, Archaea, and Bacteria. However, the organization of the three-domain tree of life has been challenged following the discovery of archaeal lineages such as the TACK and Asgard superphyla. The Asgard Superphylum has emerged as the closest archaeal ancestor to eukaryotes, potentially improving our understanding of the evolution of life forms. We characterized the transportomes and their substrates within four metagenome-assembled genomes (MAGs), that is, Odin-, Thor-, Heimdall- and Loki-archaeota as well as the fully sequenced genome of Candidatus Prometheoarchaeum syntrophicum strain MK-D1 that belongs to the Loki phylum. Using the Transporter Classification Database (TCDB) as reference, candidate transporters encoded within the proteomes were identified based on sequence similarity, alignment coverage, compatibility of hydropathy profiles, TMS topologies and shared domains. Identified transport systems were compared within the Asgard superphylum as well as within dissimilar eukaryotic, archaeal and bacterial organisms. From these analyses, we infer that Asgard organisms rely mostly on the transport of substrates driven by the proton motive force (pmf), the proton electrochemical gradient which then can be used for ATP production and to drive the activities of secondary carriers. The results indicate that Asgard archaea depend heavily on the uptake of organic molecules such as lipid precursors, amino acids and their derivatives, and sugars and their derivatives. Overall, the majority of the transporters identified are more similar to prokaryotic transporters than eukaryotic systems although several instances of the reverse were documented. Taken together, the results support the previous suggestions that the Asgard superphylum includes organisms that are largely mixotrophic and anaerobic but more clearly define their metabolic potential while providing evidence regarding their relatedness to eukaryotes.

Biofilms by bacterial human pathogens: Clinical relevance - development, composition and regulation - therapeutical strategies

Notably, bacterial biofilm formation is increasingly recognized as a passive virulence factor facilitating many infectious disease processes. In this review we will focus on bacterial biofilms formed by human pathogens and highlight their relevance for diverse diseases. Along biofilm composition and regulation emphasis is laid on the intensively studied biofilms of Vibrio cholerae, Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Staphylococcus spp., which are commonly used as biofilm model organisms and therefore contribute to our general understanding of bacterial biofilm (patho-)physiology. Finally, therapeutical intervention strategies targeting biofilms will be discussed.

Staphylococcal Biofilms: Challenges and Novel Therapeutic Perspectives

Staphylococci, like Staphylococcus aureus and S. epidermidis, are common colonizers of the human microbiota. While being harmless in many cases, many virulence factors result in them being opportunistic pathogens and one of the major causes of hospital-acquired infections worldwide. One of these virulence factors is the ability to form biofilms-three-dimensional communities of microorganisms embedded in an extracellular polymeric matrix (EPS). The EPS is composed of polysaccharides, proteins and extracellular DNA, and is finely regulated in response to environmental conditions. This structured environment protects the embedded bacteria from the human immune system and decreases their susceptibility to antimicrobials, making infections caused by staphylococci particularly difficult to treat. With the rise of antibiotic-resistant staphylococci, together with difficulty in removing biofilms, there is a great need for new treatment strategies. The purpose of this review is to provide an overview of our current knowledge of the stages of biofilm development and what difficulties may arise when trying to eradicate staphylococcal biofilms. Furthermore, we look into promising targets and therapeutic methods, including bacteriocins and phage-derived antibiofilm approaches.

Starvation Survival and Biofilm Formation under Subminimum Inhibitory Concentration of QAMs

Quaternary ammonium methacrylates (QAMs) are useful antimicrobial compounds against oral bacteria. Here, we investigated the effects of two QAMs, dimethylaminododecyl methacrylate (DMADDM) and dimethylaminohexadecyl methacrylate (DMAHDM), on biofilm formation, survival and development of tolerance by biofilm, and survival and development of tolerance against QAMs after prolonged starvation. Enterococcus faecalis (E. faecalis), Streptococcus gordonii (S. gordonii), Lactobacillus acidophilus (L. acidophilus), and Actinomyces naeslundii (A. naeslundii) were used. Minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) of QAMs against multispecies biofilm was determined. Biofilm formed under sub-MIC was observed by crystal violet staining and confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM). Metabolic activity was assessed by 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide (MTT) assay and lactic acid production measurement. Development of tolerance was determined by MIC values before and after exposure to QAMs or after prolonged starvation. It was found that E. faecalis and S. gordonii could survive and form biofilm under sub-MIC of QAMs. Lactic acid production from biofilms formed under sub-MIC was significantly higher than control specimens (p < 0.05). The exposure to sub-MIC of QAMs promoted biofilm formation, and prolonged starvation or prolonged contact with sub-MIC helped bacteria develop tolerance against killing by QAMs.

The staphylococcal exopolysaccharide PIA - Biosynthesis and role in biofilm formation, colonization, and infection

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PIA is a key extracellular matrix component in staphylococci and other bacteria.

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PIA is a cationic, partially deacetylated N-acetylglucosamine polymer.

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PIA has a major role in bacterial biofilms and biofilm-associated infection.

Exopolysaccharide is a key part of the extracellular matrix that contributes to important mechanisms of bacterial pathogenicity, most notably biofilm formation and immune evasion. In the human pathogens Staphylococcus aureus and S. epidermidis, as well as in many other staphylococcal species, the only exopolysaccharide is polysaccharide intercellular adhesin (PIA), a cationic, partially deacetylated homopolymer of N-acetylglucosamine, whose biosynthetic machinery is encoded in the ica locus. PIA production is strongly dependent on environmental conditions and controlled by many regulatory systems. PIA contributes significantly to staphylococcal biofilm formation and immune evasion mechanisms, such as resistance to antimicrobial peptides and ingestion and killing by phagocytes, and presence of the ica genes is associated with infectivity. Due to its role in pathogenesis, PIA has raised considerable interest as a potential vaccine component or target.

Artesunate inhibits Staphylococcus aureus biofilm formation by reducing alpha-toxin synthesis

Staphylococcus aureus is one of the most common pathogens in bacterial biofilm infections. Antibiotic treatment for infection caused by S. aureus biofilms is challenging, and few effective strategies have been developed to combat these infections. The aim of this study was to investigate the effect and possible mechanisms of artesunate on the biofilm formation of S. aureus. Bacterial growth curves were determined by a microtiter plate. Biofilm formation was determined by the crystal violet staining method and confocal laser scanning microscopy. Bacterial adhesion was assayed by the colony-counting method. The expression of virulence and adhesion genes was determined by real-time PCR. The hemolytic activity and expression of ɑ-hemolysin were analyzed using rabbit erythrocytes and Western blotting. The results showed that artesunate could significantly inhibit the biofilm formation of S. aureus in a dose-dependent manner. Artesunate could also inhibit bacterial adhesion and the expression of hla, RNAIII and agrA as well as ɑ-hemolysin production. The effect of artesunate on adhesion genes (clfA, clfB, fnbA, fnbB) had strain specificity, but it did not affect the expression of ica genes. The results indicated that artesunate might inhibit ɑ-hemolysin synthesis by the agr system, which inhibits biofilm formation.

The Genome of Staphylococcus epidermidis O47

The skin colonizing coagulase-negative Staphylococcus epidermidis causes nosocomial infections and is an important opportunistic and highly adaptable pathogen. To gain more insight into this species, we sequenced the genome of the biofilm positive, methicillin susceptible S. epidermidis O47 strain (hereafter O47). This strain belongs to the most frequently isolated sequence type 2. In comparison to the RP62A strain, O47 can be transformed, which makes it a preferred strain for molecular studies. S. epidermidis O47’s genome has a single chromosome of about 2.5 million base pairs and no plasmid. Its oriC sequence has the same directionality as S. epidermidis RP62A, S. carnosus, S. haemolyticus, S. saprophyticus and is inverted in comparison to Staphylococcus aureus and S. epidermidis ATCC 12228. A phylogenetic analysis based on all S. epidermidis genomes currently available at GenBank revealed that O47 is closest related to DAR1907. The genome of O47 contains genes for the typical global regulatory systems known in staphylococci. In addition, it contains most of the genes encoding for the typical virulence factors for S. epidermidis but not for S. aureus with the exception of a putative hemolysin III. O47 has the typical S. epidermidis genetic islands and several mobile genetic elements, which include staphylococcal cassette chromosome (SCC) of about 54 kb length and two prophages φO47A and φO47B. However, its genome has no transposons and the smallest number of insertion sequence (IS) elements compared to the other known S. epidermidis genomes. By sequencing and analyzing the genome of O47, we provide the basis for its utilization in genetic and molecular studies of biofilm formation.

Staphylococcal Biofilm Development: Structure, Regulation, and Treatment Strategies

In many natural and clinical settings, bacteria are associated with some type of biotic or abiotic surface that enables them to form biofilms, a multicellular lifestyle with bacteria embedded in an extracellular matrix. Staphylococcus aureus and Staphylococcus epidermidis, the most frequent causes of biofilm-associated infections on indwelling medical devices, can switch between an existence as single free-floating cells and multicellular biofilms. During biofilm formation, cells first attach to a surface and then multiply to form microcolonies. They subsequently produce the extracellular matrix, a hallmark of biofilm formation, which consists of polysaccharides, proteins, and extracellular DNA. After biofilm maturation into three-dimensional structures, the biofilm community undergoes a disassembly process that leads to the dissemination of staphylococcal cells. As biofilms are dynamic and complex biological systems, staphylococci have evolved a vast network of regulatory mechanisms to modify and fine-tune biofilm development upon changes in environmental conditions. Thus, biofilm formation is used as a strategy for survival and persistence in the human host and can serve as a reservoir for spreading to new infection sites. Moreover, staphylococcal biofilms provide enhanced resilience toward antibiotics and the immune response and impose remarkable therapeutic challenges in clinics worldwide. This review provides an overview and an updated perspective on staphylococcal biofilms, describing the characteristic features of biofilm formation, the structural and functional properties of the biofilm matrix, and the most important mechanisms involved in the regulation of staphylococcal biofilm formation. Finally, we highlight promising strategies and technologies, including multitargeted or combinational therapies, to eradicate staphylococcal biofilms.

Staphylococcal Biofilm Development: Structure, Regulation, and Treatment Strategies

In many natural and clinical settings, bacteria are associated with some type of biotic or abiotic surface that enables them to form biofilms, a multicellular lifestyle with bacteria embedded in an extracellular matrix. Staphylococcus aureus and Staphylococcus epidermidis, the most frequent causes of biofilm-associated infections on indwelling medical devices, can switch between an existence as single free-floating cells and multicellular biofilms. During biofilm formation, cells first attach to a surface and then multiply to form microcolonies. They subsequently produce the extracellular matrix, a hallmark of biofilm formation, which consists of polysaccharides, proteins, and extracellular DNA. After biofilm maturation into three-dimensional structures, the biofilm community undergoes a disassembly process that leads to the dissemination of staphylococcal cells. As biofilms are dynamic and complex biological systems, staphylococci have evolved a vast network of regulatory mechanisms to modify and fine-tune biofilm development upon changes in environmental conditions. Thus, biofilm formation is used as a strategy for survival and persistence in the human host and can serve as a reservoir for spreading to new infection sites. Moreover, staphylococcal biofilms provide enhanced resilience toward antibiotics and the immune response and impose remarkable therapeutic challenges in clinics worldwide. This review provides an overview and an updated perspective on staphylococcal biofilms, describing the characteristic features of biofilm formation, the structural and functional properties of the biofilm matrix, and the most important mechanisms involved in the regulation of staphylococcal biofilm formation. Finally, we highlight promising strategies and technologies, including multitargeted or combinational therapies, to eradicate staphylococcal biofilms.