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Petukhova VZ, Aboagye SY, Ardini M, Lullo RP, Fata F, Byrne ME, Gabriele F, Martin LM, Harding LNM, Gone V, Dangi B, Lantvit DD, Nikolic D, Ippoliti R, Effantin G, Ling WL, Johnson JJ, Thatcher GRJ, Angelucci F, Williams DL, Petukhov PA. Non-covalent inhibitors of thioredoxin glutathione reductase with schistosomicidal activity in vivo. Nat Commun 2023; 14:3737. [PMID: 37349300 PMCID: PMC10287695 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-023-39444-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/28/2022] [Accepted: 06/12/2023] [Indexed: 06/24/2023] Open
Abstract
Only praziquantel is available for treating schistosomiasis, a disease affecting more than 200 million people. Praziquantel-resistant worms have been selected for in the lab and low cure rates from mass drug administration programs suggest that resistance is evolving in the field. Thioredoxin glutathione reductase (TGR) is essential for schistosome survival and a validated drug target. TGR inhibitors identified to date are irreversible and/or covalent inhibitors with unacceptable off-target effects. In this work, we identify noncovalent TGR inhibitors with efficacy against schistosome infections in mice, meeting the criteria for lead progression indicated by WHO. Comparisons with previous in vivo studies with praziquantel suggests that these inhibitors outperform the drug of choice for schistosomiasis against juvenile worms.
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Grants
- R33 AI127635 NIAID NIH HHS
- Division of Intramural Research, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (Division of Intramural Research of the NIAID)
- Oncomelania hupensis subsp. hupensis, Chinese strain, infected with S. japonicum, Chinese strain, and Biomphalaria glabrata, strain NMRI, infected with S. mansoni, strain NMRI, were provided by the NIAID Schistosomiasis Resource Center for distribution through BEI Resources, NIAID, NIH. We are grateful to Dr. Guy Schoehn (Univ. Grenoble Alpes, CEA, CNRS, Institut de Biologie Structurale, Grenoble, France), Prof. Beatrice Vallone (Sapienza University of Rome, Italy) and Dr. Linda C. Montemiglio (IBPM, National Research Council, Italy) for helpful discussions of the cryo-EM studies. We acknowledge the Elettra-Sincrotrone Trieste (Italy) for support in X-ray data collections and the European Synchrotron Radiation Facility for provision of microscope time on CM01. The study was funded in part by US NIH/NIAID R33AI127635 to F.A., P.A.P., G.R.T. and D.L.W. This work benefited from access to Research Resources Centre and UICentre at University of Illinois at Chicago and used the platforms of the Grenoble Instruct-ERIC center (ISBG; UAR 3518 CNRS-CEA-UGA-EMBL) within the Grenoble Partnership for Structural Biology (PSB), supported by FRISBI (ANR-10-INBS-0005-02) and GRAL, financed within the University Grenoble Alpes graduate school (Ecoles Universitaires de Recherche) CBH-EUR-GS (ANR-17-EURE-0003). The IBS Electron Microscope facility is supported by the Auvergne Rhône-Alpes Region, the Fonds Feder, the Fondation pour la Recherche Médicale and GIS-IBiSA. The IBS acknowledges integration into the Interdisciplinary Research Institute of Grenoble (IRIG, CEA). M.A. has been supported by MIUR - Ministero dell'Istruzione Ministero dell'Università e della Ricerca (Ministry of Education, University and Research) under the national project FSE/FESR - PON Ricerca e Innovazione 2014-2020 (N° AIM1887574, CUP: E18H19000350007). We acknowledge OpenEye/Cadence for providing us with an academic license for the software used in these studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Valentina Z Petukhova
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA
| | - Sammy Y Aboagye
- Department of Microbial Pathogens and Immunity, Rush University Medical Center, Chicago, IL, USA
| | - Matteo Ardini
- Department of Life, Health and Environmental Sciences, University of L'Aquila, L'Aquila, Italy
| | - Rachel P Lullo
- Department of Microbial Pathogens and Immunity, Rush University Medical Center, Chicago, IL, USA
| | - Francesca Fata
- Department of Life, Health and Environmental Sciences, University of L'Aquila, L'Aquila, Italy
| | - Margaret E Byrne
- Department of Microbial Pathogens and Immunity, Rush University Medical Center, Chicago, IL, USA
| | - Federica Gabriele
- Department of Life, Health and Environmental Sciences, University of L'Aquila, L'Aquila, Italy
| | - Lucy M Martin
- Department of Microbial Pathogens and Immunity, Rush University Medical Center, Chicago, IL, USA
| | - Luke N M Harding
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA
| | - Vamshikrishna Gone
- UICentre, Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA
| | - Bikash Dangi
- Department of Pharmacy Practice, College of Pharmacy, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA
| | - Daniel D Lantvit
- UICentre, Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA
| | - Dejan Nikolic
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA
| | - Rodolfo Ippoliti
- Department of Life, Health and Environmental Sciences, University of L'Aquila, L'Aquila, Italy
| | - Grégory Effantin
- University of Grenoble Alpes, CEA, CNRS, IBS, F-38000, Grenoble, France
| | - Wai Li Ling
- University of Grenoble Alpes, CEA, CNRS, IBS, F-38000, Grenoble, France
| | - Jeremy J Johnson
- Department of Pharmacy Practice, College of Pharmacy, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA
| | - Gregory R J Thatcher
- Department of Pharmacology & Toxicology, R. Ken Coit College of Pharmacy, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, USA
| | - Francesco Angelucci
- Department of Life, Health and Environmental Sciences, University of L'Aquila, L'Aquila, Italy.
| | - David L Williams
- Department of Microbial Pathogens and Immunity, Rush University Medical Center, Chicago, IL, USA.
| | - Pavel A Petukhov
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA.
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2
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Vallières C, Golinelli-Cohen MP, Guittet O, Lepoivre M, Huang ME, Vernis L. Redox-Based Strategies against Infections by Eukaryotic Pathogens. Genes (Basel) 2023; 14:genes14040778. [PMID: 37107536 PMCID: PMC10138290 DOI: 10.3390/genes14040778] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/27/2023] [Revised: 03/13/2023] [Accepted: 03/21/2023] [Indexed: 04/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Redox homeostasis is an equilibrium between reducing and oxidizing reactions within cells. It is an essential, dynamic process, which allows proper cellular reactions and regulates biological responses. Unbalanced redox homeostasis is the hallmark of many diseases, including cancer or inflammatory responses, and can eventually lead to cell death. Specifically, disrupting redox balance, essentially by increasing pro-oxidative molecules and favouring hyperoxidation, is a smart strategy to eliminate cells and has been used for cancer treatment, for example. Selectivity between cancer and normal cells thus appears crucial to avoid toxicity as much as possible. Redox-based approaches are also employed in the case of infectious diseases to tackle the pathogens specifically, with limited impacts on host cells. In this review, we focus on recent advances in redox-based strategies to fight eukaryotic pathogens, especially fungi and eukaryotic parasites. We report molecules recently described for causing or being associated with compromising redox homeostasis in pathogens and discuss therapeutic possibilities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cindy Vallières
- Institut de Chimie des Substances Naturelles, CNRS UPR 2301, Université Paris-Saclay, 91198 Gif-sur-Yvette, France
| | - Marie-Pierre Golinelli-Cohen
- Institut de Chimie des Substances Naturelles, CNRS UPR 2301, Université Paris-Saclay, 91198 Gif-sur-Yvette, France
| | - Olivier Guittet
- Institut de Chimie des Substances Naturelles, CNRS UPR 2301, Université Paris-Saclay, 91198 Gif-sur-Yvette, France
| | - Michel Lepoivre
- Institut de Chimie des Substances Naturelles, CNRS UPR 2301, Université Paris-Saclay, 91198 Gif-sur-Yvette, France
| | - Meng-Er Huang
- Institut de Chimie des Substances Naturelles, CNRS UPR 2301, Université Paris-Saclay, 91198 Gif-sur-Yvette, France
| | - Laurence Vernis
- Institut de Chimie des Substances Naturelles, CNRS UPR 2301, Université Paris-Saclay, 91198 Gif-sur-Yvette, France
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3
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Liu Z. Antioxidant activity of the thioredoxin system. BIOPHYSICS REPORTS 2023; 9:26-32. [PMID: 37426202 PMCID: PMC10323771 DOI: 10.52601/bpr.2023.230002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/12/2023] [Accepted: 02/10/2023] [Indexed: 07/11/2023] Open
Abstract
The thioredoxin system is composed of thioredoxin (Trx), thioredoxin reductase (TR) and reduced nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate. Trx is an important antioxidant molecule that can resist cell death caused by various stresses and plays a prominent role in redox reactions. TR is a protein that contains selenium (selenocysteine), in three main forms, namely, TR1, TR2 and TR3. TR1, TR2 and TR3 are mainly distributed in the cytoplasm, mitochondria, and testes, respectively. TR can regulate cell growth and apoptosis. After a cell becomes cancerous, the expression of TR is increased to promote cell growth and metastasis. The Trx system is closely related to neurodegenerative diseases, parasitic infections, acquired immunodeficiency syndrome, rheumatoid arthritis, hypertension, myocarditis, and so on. In addition, the Trx system can remove the reactive oxygen species in the body and keep the inside and outside of the cell in a balanced state. In summary, the Trx system is an important target for the drug treatment of many diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zihua Liu
- Department of blood transfusion school of second hospital, Lanzhou University, Lanzhou 730030, China
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4
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Brenda CT, Norma RF, Marcela RL, Nelly LV, Teresa I F. Action mechanisms of metallic compounds on Plasmodium spp. J Trace Elem Med Biol 2022; 73:127028. [PMID: 35797926 DOI: 10.1016/j.jtemb.2022.127028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/04/2022] [Revised: 06/10/2022] [Accepted: 06/20/2022] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Malaria is a parasitic disease with the highest morbidity and mortality worldwide. Unfortunately, during the last decades, the causal agent, Plasmodium spp., has developed resistance to chloroquine and artemisinin. For this reason, metallic compounds have been proposed as an optional treatment since they have shown a potential antimalarial effect with diverse action mechanisms in the parasite and the host. OBJECTIVE To show the possible targets of metallic compounds in Plasmodium spp. CONCLUSION The metallic compounds are an option attractive to treatment for the malaria, for its low cost and its great activity to reduce parasitemia; however is necessary more studies principally in vivo in order to know the interactions that it can have in an experimental model.
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Affiliation(s)
- Casarrubias-Tabarez Brenda
- Departamento de Biología Celular y TIsular, Facultad de Medicina, UNAM, Av. Ciudad Universitaria 3000, Coyoacan, C.P. 04510 Mexico City, Mexico.
| | - Rivera-Fernández Norma
- Departamento de Microbiología y Parasitología, UNAM, Av. Ciudad Universitaria 3000, Coyoacan, C.P. 04510 Mexico City, Mexico.
| | - Rojas-Lemus Marcela
- Departamento de Biología Celular y TIsular, Facultad de Medicina, UNAM, Av. Ciudad Universitaria 3000, Coyoacan, C.P. 04510 Mexico City, Mexico.
| | - López-Valdez Nelly
- Departamento de Biología Celular y TIsular, Facultad de Medicina, UNAM, Av. Ciudad Universitaria 3000, Coyoacan, C.P. 04510 Mexico City, Mexico.
| | - Fortoul Teresa I
- Departamento de Biología Celular y TIsular, Facultad de Medicina, UNAM, Av. Ciudad Universitaria 3000, Coyoacan, C.P. 04510 Mexico City, Mexico.
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Lu J, Wei N, Cao J, Zhou Y, Gong H, Zhang H, Zhou J. Evaluation of enzymatic activity of Babesia microti thioredoxin reductase (Bmi TrxR)-mutants and screening of its potential inhibitors. Ticks Tick Borne Dis 2020; 12:101623. [PMID: 33418338 DOI: 10.1016/j.ttbdis.2020.101623] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/11/2020] [Revised: 12/07/2020] [Accepted: 12/08/2020] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
Abstract
Babesia microti is a zoonotic pathogen that mainly parasitizes mammalian erythrocytes. Oxidative stress can induce gene mutation, protein denaturation and lipid peroxidation, such as reactive oxygen species (ROS) induced by hypoxic environment and the host immune system. An antioxidase, B. microti thioredoxin reductase (Bmi TrxR), has been identified in B. microti. We used a combination of homology modeling and domain prediction to explore the functional sites of Bmi TrxR and found that TrxR has three domains. Constructed a mutant pool which His-tag were at the N-terminus (TrxR-Nhis, C105-Nhis, C110-Nhis, C105110-Nhis, C547-Nhis, C552-Nhis, C547552-Nhis) and the His tag were at the N- and C-terminus (TrxR-NChis, C547-NChis, C552-NChis, C547552-NChis). The proteins were expressed as His-tagged fusion proteins in Escherichia coli. The His-tag of TrxR C-terminus were affected the reaction with Trx. The inhibitory efficiency of DNCB was decreased for mutant C547, compared with recombinant TrxR, indicating that the action site of DNCB might be cysteine at position 547. These results indicate that the N-terminal active site of Bmi TrxR plays an important role in accepting electrons and promotes electron transfer. The C-terminus His tag of Bmi TrxR affected the electron transfer and the reducing activity of Bmi TrxR. Reduce reactive oxygen produced in oxidative stress was reduced by Bmi TrxR, which is beneficial to Babesia survival. Therefore, reduction site of TrxR may become a potential target for Babesia microti treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jinmiao Lu
- Key Laboratory of Animal Parasitology of Ministry of Agriculture, Shanghai Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Shanghai 200241, China
| | - Nana Wei
- Key Laboratory of Animal Parasitology of Ministry of Agriculture, Shanghai Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Shanghai 200241, China
| | - Jie Cao
- Key Laboratory of Animal Parasitology of Ministry of Agriculture, Shanghai Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Shanghai 200241, China
| | - Yongzhi Zhou
- Key Laboratory of Animal Parasitology of Ministry of Agriculture, Shanghai Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Shanghai 200241, China
| | - Haiyan Gong
- Key Laboratory of Animal Parasitology of Ministry of Agriculture, Shanghai Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Shanghai 200241, China
| | - Houshuang Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Animal Parasitology of Ministry of Agriculture, Shanghai Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Shanghai 200241, China.
| | - Jinlin Zhou
- Key Laboratory of Animal Parasitology of Ministry of Agriculture, Shanghai Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Shanghai 200241, China.
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6
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Ortiz S, Vásquez-Ocmín PG, Cojean S, Bouzidi C, Michel S, Figadère B, Grougnet R, Boutefnouchet S, Maciuk A. Correlation study on methoxylation pattern of flavonoids and their heme-targeted antiplasmodial activity. Bioorg Chem 2020; 104:104243. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bioorg.2020.104243] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/04/2020] [Revised: 08/22/2020] [Accepted: 08/25/2020] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
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7
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Hybrid Gold(I) NHC-Artemether Complexes to Target Falciparum Malaria Parasites. Molecules 2020; 25:molecules25122817. [PMID: 32570872 PMCID: PMC7356589 DOI: 10.3390/molecules25122817] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/20/2020] [Revised: 06/12/2020] [Accepted: 06/17/2020] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
The emergence of Plasmodium falciparum parasites, responsible for malaria disease, resistant to antiplasmodial drugs including the artemisinins, represents a major threat to public health. Therefore, the development of new antimalarial drugs or combinations is urgently required. In this context, several hybrid molecules combining a dihydroartemisinin derivative and gold(I) N-heterocyclic carbene (NHC) complexes have been synthesized based on the different modes of action of the two compounds. The antiplasmodial activity of these molecules was assessed in vitro as well as their cytotoxicity against mammalian cells. All the hybrid molecules tested showed efficacy against P. falciparum, in a nanomolar range for the most active, associated with a low cytotoxicity. However, cross-resistance between artemisinin and these hybrid molecules was evidenced. These results underline a fear about the risk of cross-resistance between artemisinins and new antimalarial drugs based on an endoperoxide part. This study thus raises concerns about the use of such molecules in future therapeutic malaria policies.
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8
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Zhang H, Wang Z, Huang J, Cao J, Zhou Y, Zhou J. A Novel Thioredoxin-Dependent Peroxiredoxin (TPx-Q) Plays an Important Role in Defense Against Oxidative Stress and Is a Possible Drug Target in Babesia microti. Front Vet Sci 2020; 7:76. [PMID: 32133382 PMCID: PMC7040034 DOI: 10.3389/fvets.2020.00076] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/19/2019] [Accepted: 01/29/2020] [Indexed: 01/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Thioredoxin peroxidases (TPxs) are ubiquitous cysteine-based peroxidases that reduce peroxides as part of antioxidant defenses and redox signaling and are essential for Babesia microti protection against adverse environment agents like reactive oxygen species (ROS) and reactive nitrogen species (RNS). To better systematically understand TPxs, we identified a novel 2-Cys peroxiredoxin-Q (BmTPx-Q) of B. microti. The full-length BmTPx-Q gene is 653 bp that consists of an intact open reading frame of 594 bp that encodes a 197-amino acid protein. The predicted protein has a molecular weight of 22.3 kDa and an isoelectric point of 9.18. Moreover, BmTPx-Q showed low identity at the amino acid level to other peroxiredoxins (Prxs) among the currently known subfamilies. The recombinant BmTPx-Q protein (rBmTPx-Q) was expressed in Escherichia coli and purified with beads. The native protein BmTPx-Q was detected using mouse anti-BmTPx-Q polyclonal serum with western blotting and indirect immunofluorescence assay (IFA). In addition, enzyme activity was observed using nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADPH) as substrate and triggered the NADPH-dependent reduction of the Trx/TrxR system. It was also discovered that BmTPx-Q mainly exists as a monomer whether under its native or functional states. In addition, when incubated with Chloroquine diphosphate salt for 24 h in vitro, the expression of BmTPx-Q showed a marked downward trend with the increase of drug concentration. These results suggest that B. microti uses BmTPx-Q to reduce and detoxify hydrogen peroxides to survive and proliferate inside the host. Furthermore, BmTPx-Q showed the lowest identity with host enzymes and could be a potential drug target for the development of novel strategies to control B. microti infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Houshuang Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Animal Parasitology of Ministry of Agriculture, Shanghai Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Shanghai, China
| | - Zhonghua Wang
- Key Laboratory of Animal Parasitology of Ministry of Agriculture, Shanghai Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Shanghai, China
| | - Jingwei Huang
- Key Laboratory of Animal Parasitology of Ministry of Agriculture, Shanghai Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Shanghai, China
| | - Jie Cao
- Key Laboratory of Animal Parasitology of Ministry of Agriculture, Shanghai Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Shanghai, China
| | - Yongzhi Zhou
- Key Laboratory of Animal Parasitology of Ministry of Agriculture, Shanghai Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Shanghai, China
| | - Jinlin Zhou
- Key Laboratory of Animal Parasitology of Ministry of Agriculture, Shanghai Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Shanghai, China
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9
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Shaulov Y, Nagaraja S, Sarid L, Trebicz-Geffen M, Ankri S. Formation of oxidised (OX) proteins in Entamoeba histolytica exposed to auranofin and consequences on the parasite virulence. Cell Microbiol 2020; 22:e13174. [PMID: 32017328 DOI: 10.1111/cmi.13174] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/05/2019] [Revised: 01/16/2020] [Accepted: 01/17/2020] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
Metronidazole (MNZ), the first line drug for amoebiasis and auranofin (AF), an emerging antiprotozoan drug, are both inhibiting Entamoeba histolytica thioredoxin reductase. The nature of oxidised proteins (OXs) formed in AF- or MNZ-treated E. histolytica trophozoites is unknown. In order to fill this knowledge gap, we performed a large-scale identification and quantification of the OXs formed in AF- or MNZ-treated E. histolytica trophozoites using resin-assisted capture coupled to mass spectrometry (MS). We detected 661 OXs in MNZ-treated trophozoites and 583 OXs in AF-treated trophozoites. More than 50% of these OXs were shared, and their functions include hydrolases, enzyme modulators, transferases, nucleic acid binding proteins, oxidoreductases, cytoskeletal proteins, chaperones, and ligases. Here, we report that the formation of actin filaments (F-actin) is impaired in AF-treated trophozoites. Consequently, their erythrophagocytosis, cytopathic activity, and their motility are impaired. We also observed that less than 15% of OXs present in H2 O2 -treated trophozoites are also present in AF- or MNZ-treated trophozoites. These results strongly suggest that the formation of OXs in AF- or MNZ-treated trophozoites and in H2 O2 -treated trophozoites occurred by two different mechanisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yana Shaulov
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, Ruth and Bruce Rappaport Faculty of Medicine, Technion, Haifa, Israel
| | - Shruti Nagaraja
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, Ruth and Bruce Rappaport Faculty of Medicine, Technion, Haifa, Israel
| | - Lotem Sarid
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, Ruth and Bruce Rappaport Faculty of Medicine, Technion, Haifa, Israel
| | - Meirav Trebicz-Geffen
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, Ruth and Bruce Rappaport Faculty of Medicine, Technion, Haifa, Israel
| | - Serge Ankri
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, Ruth and Bruce Rappaport Faculty of Medicine, Technion, Haifa, Israel
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10
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Zhao Y, Huang J, Cao J, Zhou Y, Gong H, Zhang H, Zhou J. 4-NBT, a specific inhibitor of Babesia microti thioredoxin reductase, affects parasite biochemistry and proteomic properties. Ticks Tick Borne Dis 2019; 10:1018-1027. [PMID: 31151924 DOI: 10.1016/j.ttbdis.2019.05.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2019] [Revised: 04/21/2019] [Accepted: 05/17/2019] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
Babesia microti is an emerging zoonotic pathogen that is transmitted by ticks and parasites and propagates in mammalian erythrocytes. Thioredoxin reductase (TrxR) plays a crucial role in B. microti survival by maintaining cellular redox homeostasis. In the present study, 4-nitro-2,1,3-benzothiadiazole (4-NBT) was selected as a specific B. microti TrxR inhibitor by comparing rat and parasite TrxR inhibition levels. Reactive oxygen species (ROS) levels were evaluated using flow cytometry, and in B. microti treated with 4-NBT, ROS levels increased with increasing inhibitor concentration. Furthermore, the inhibitor treatment increased lipid peroxidation and protein carbonyl levels, thus indicating a state of oxidative stress. While B. microti treated with 4-NBT appeared to lose the ability to multiply in mice, the fastigium of parasitemia between the treated and control groups was comparable. Furthermore, a TUNEL assay showed that 4-NBT induces apoptosis in B. microti. Proteomic analysis of B. microti treated with 4-NBT detected 960 proteins. Label-free quantitative proteomic analysis identified 118 proteins that were significantly up-regulated and 37 that were significantly down-regulated in the treatment group relative to the control. Of the differential proteins, proteasome and ribosomal subunit expression was up-regulated, thus suggesting that redundant proteins may be damaged by oxidation and waiting for degradation, while proteins for subsistence are waiting for de novo synthesis. Moreover, the findings obtained herein suggest that the DNA and lipids were also damaged and awaiting synthesis or repair. In conclusion, TrxR dysfunction in B. microti results in the breakdown of redox homeostasis and promotes apoptosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yanzhen Zhao
- Key Laboratory of Animal Parasitology of Ministry of Agriculture, Shanghai Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Shanghai 200241, China
| | - Jingwei Huang
- Key Laboratory of Animal Parasitology of Ministry of Agriculture, Shanghai Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Shanghai 200241, China
| | - Jie Cao
- Key Laboratory of Animal Parasitology of Ministry of Agriculture, Shanghai Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Shanghai 200241, China
| | - Yongzhi Zhou
- Key Laboratory of Animal Parasitology of Ministry of Agriculture, Shanghai Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Shanghai 200241, China
| | - Haiyan Gong
- Key Laboratory of Animal Parasitology of Ministry of Agriculture, Shanghai Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Shanghai 200241, China
| | - Houshuang Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Animal Parasitology of Ministry of Agriculture, Shanghai Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Shanghai 200241, China
| | - Jinlin Zhou
- Key Laboratory of Animal Parasitology of Ministry of Agriculture, Shanghai Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Shanghai 200241, China.
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11
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Huang J, Xiong K, Zhang H, Zhao Y, Cao J, Zhou Y, Gong H, Zhou J. Babesia microti thioredoxin 3 is an effective antioxidant and involved in the response to antiprotozoal drugs. Ticks Tick Borne Dis 2018; 9:645-653. [PMID: 29472160 DOI: 10.1016/j.ttbdis.2018.01.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/23/2017] [Revised: 12/22/2017] [Accepted: 01/31/2018] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
The intra-erythrocytic apicomplexan Babesia microti is the predominant pathogen that causes human babesiosis, an infectious disease that occurs worldwide. B. microti relies on the antioxidant including thioredoxin system to maintain the redox balance during the erythrocytic stage. In the present study, the full-length B. microti thioredoxin 3 (BmTrx3) gene was cloned, expressed in vitro, and its response to antiprotozoal drugs were tested. The full-length BmTrx3 was 663 bp and contained an intact open reading frame of 567 bp. The encoded polypeptide was 188 amino acids and the predicted molecular weight of the protein was 21.7 kDa. A conserved thioredoxin-like family domain was found in BmTrx3. The expression of BmTrx3 was upregulated on both the third and eighth day post-infection in mice, whereas expression was downregulated during the beginning and later stages. Western blot analysis showed that mouse anti-BmTrx3 serum could recognize the native BmTrx3 in parasite lysates and that the mouse anti-B. microti serum could recognize the recombinant BmTrx3 protein. Immunofluorescence microscopy showed that BmTrx3 localized in the cell cytoplasm of B. microti merozoites in B. microti-infected red blood cells. The results of bovine insulin reduction assay indicated the enzyme activity of the purified recombinant BmTrx3 protein. The anti-malaria drug chloroquine significantly inhibited the expression of BmTrx3, however, another anti-malaria drug qunine, and a known anti-babesiosis drug clindamycin, induced significantly higher upregulation of BmTrx3 mRNA. The results of the present study demonstrate that BmTrx3 is a functional enzyme with antioxidant activity and may be involved in the response of B. microti to anti-parasite drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jingwei Huang
- Key Laboratory of Animal Parasitology of Ministry of Agriculture, Shanghai Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Shanghai, 200241, China.
| | - Kang Xiong
- Key Laboratory of Animal Parasitology of Ministry of Agriculture, Shanghai Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Shanghai, 200241, China.
| | - Houshuang Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Animal Parasitology of Ministry of Agriculture, Shanghai Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Shanghai, 200241, China.
| | - Yanzhen Zhao
- Key Laboratory of Animal Parasitology of Ministry of Agriculture, Shanghai Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Shanghai, 200241, China.
| | - Jie Cao
- Key Laboratory of Animal Parasitology of Ministry of Agriculture, Shanghai Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Shanghai, 200241, China.
| | - Yongzhi Zhou
- Key Laboratory of Animal Parasitology of Ministry of Agriculture, Shanghai Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Shanghai, 200241, China.
| | - Haiyan Gong
- Key Laboratory of Animal Parasitology of Ministry of Agriculture, Shanghai Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Shanghai, 200241, China.
| | - Jinlin Zhou
- Key Laboratory of Animal Parasitology of Ministry of Agriculture, Shanghai Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Shanghai, 200241, China.
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Huang J, Xiong K, Zhang H, Zhao Y, Cao J, Gong H, Zhou Y, Zhou J. Molecular characterization of Babesia microti thioredoxin (BmTrx2) and its expression patterns induced by antiprotozoal drugs. Parasit Vectors 2018; 11:38. [PMID: 29335000 PMCID: PMC5769273 DOI: 10.1186/s13071-018-2619-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/11/2017] [Accepted: 01/02/2018] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Human babesiosis is an infectious disease that is epidemic in various regions all over the world. The predominant causative pathogen of this disease is the intra-erythrocytic parasite Babesia microti. The thioredoxin system is one of the major weapons that is used in the resistance to the reactive oxygen species (ROS) and reactive nitrogen species (RNS) produced by host immune system. In other intra-erythrocytic apicomplexans like the malaria parasite Plasmodium falciparum, anti-oxidative proteins are promising targets for the development of anti-parasitic drugs. However, to date, the sequences and biological properties of thioredoxins and thioredoxin-like molecules of B. microti remain unknown. Understanding the molecular characterization and function of B. microti thioredoxins may help to develop anti-Babesia drugs and controlling babesiosis. Methods The full-length B. microti thioredoxin 2 (BmTrx2) gene was obtained using a rapid amplification of cDNA ends (RACE) method, and the deduced BmTrx2 amino acid sequence was analyzed using regular bioinformatics tools. Recombinant BmTrx2 protein was expressed in vitro and purified using His-tag protein affinity chromatography resins. Reverse transcription PCR, quantitative real-time PCR and Western blot were employed to detect the expression and native proteins of BmTrx2. Indirect immunofluorescence assay was used to localize BmTrx2 in B. microti. Bovine insulin reduction assays were used to determine the enzyme activity of the purified recombinant BmTrx2 protein. Results The full-length BmTrx2 was 564 bp with a 408 bp open reading frame encoding a protein of 135 amino acids. The predicted molecular weight of the protein was 15.5 kDa. A conserved thioredoxin-like family domain was found in BmTrx2. The expression of BmTrx2 was upregulated on both the third and eighth day post-infection in mice, whereas expression was downregulated during the beginning and later stages. The results of Western blot analysis showed the native BmTrx2 in parasite lysates could be detected by mouse anti-BmTrx2 serum and that the recombinant BmTrx2 protein could be recognized by serum of B. microti-infected mice. Immunofluorescence microscopy showed that BmTrx2 localized in the cell cytoplasm of B. microti merozoites in B. microti-infected red blood cells. The results of bovine insulin reduction assay indicated the purified recombinant BmTrx2 protein possesses antioxidant enzyme activity. Dihydroartemisinin and quinine, known anti-malaria drugs, and clindamycin, a known anti-babesiosis drug, induced significantly higher upregulation of BmTrx2 mRNA. Conclusions Our results indicate that BmTrx2 is a functional enzyme with antioxidant activity and may be involved in the response of B. microti to anti-parasite drugs. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (10.1186/s13071-018-2619-9) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jingwei Huang
- Key Laboratory of Animal Parasitology of Ministry of Agriculture, Shanghai Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Shanghai, 200241, China
| | - Kang Xiong
- Key Laboratory of Animal Parasitology of Ministry of Agriculture, Shanghai Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Shanghai, 200241, China
| | - Houshuang Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Animal Parasitology of Ministry of Agriculture, Shanghai Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Shanghai, 200241, China
| | - Yanzhen Zhao
- Key Laboratory of Animal Parasitology of Ministry of Agriculture, Shanghai Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Shanghai, 200241, China
| | - Jie Cao
- Key Laboratory of Animal Parasitology of Ministry of Agriculture, Shanghai Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Shanghai, 200241, China
| | - Haiyan Gong
- Key Laboratory of Animal Parasitology of Ministry of Agriculture, Shanghai Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Shanghai, 200241, China
| | - Yongzhi Zhou
- Key Laboratory of Animal Parasitology of Ministry of Agriculture, Shanghai Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Shanghai, 200241, China
| | - Jinlin Zhou
- Key Laboratory of Animal Parasitology of Ministry of Agriculture, Shanghai Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Shanghai, 200241, China.
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Ssemaganda A, Low LM, Verhoeft KR, Wambuzi M, Kawoozo B, Nabasumba SB, Mpendo J, Bagaya BS, Kiwanuka N, Stanisic DI, Berners-Price SJ, Good MF. Gold(i) phosphine compounds as parasite attenuating agents for malaria vaccine and drug development. Metallomics 2018; 10:444-454. [DOI: 10.1039/c7mt00311k] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
The asexual blood-stagePlasmodiumparasite attenuating properties of gold(i) phosphine compounds are exploited in a novel strategy for malaria vaccine development.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Mathias Wambuzi
- UVRI-IAVI HIV Vaccine Program
- Uganda Virus Research Institute
- Entebbe
- Uganda
| | - Barbarah Kawoozo
- UVRI-IAVI HIV Vaccine Program
- Uganda Virus Research Institute
- Entebbe
- Uganda
| | | | - Juliet Mpendo
- UVRI-IAVI HIV Vaccine Program
- Uganda Virus Research Institute
- Entebbe
- Uganda
| | - Bernard S. Bagaya
- UVRI-IAVI HIV Vaccine Program
- Uganda Virus Research Institute
- Entebbe
- Uganda
- Department of Immunology and Molecular Biology
| | - Noah Kiwanuka
- UVRI-IAVI HIV Vaccine Program
- Uganda Virus Research Institute
- Entebbe
- Uganda
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Chiappino-Pepe A, Tymoshenko S, Ataman M, Soldati-Favre D, Hatzimanikatis V. Bioenergetics-based modeling of Plasmodium falciparum metabolism reveals its essential genes, nutritional requirements, and thermodynamic bottlenecks. PLoS Comput Biol 2017; 13:e1005397. [PMID: 28333921 PMCID: PMC5363809 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pcbi.1005397] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/07/2016] [Accepted: 02/04/2017] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Novel antimalarial therapies are urgently needed for the fight against drug-resistant parasites. The metabolism of malaria parasites in infected cells is an attractive source of drug targets but is rather complex. Computational methods can handle this complexity and allow integrative analyses of cell metabolism. In this study, we present a genome-scale metabolic model (iPfa) of the deadliest malaria parasite, Plasmodium falciparum, and its thermodynamics-based flux analysis (TFA). Using previous absolute concentration data of the intraerythrocytic parasite, we applied TFA to iPfa and predicted up to 63 essential genes and 26 essential pairs of genes. Of the 63 genes, 35 have been experimentally validated and reported in the literature, and 28 have not been experimentally tested and include previously hypothesized or novel predictions of essential metabolic capabilities. Without metabolomics data, four of the genes would have been incorrectly predicted to be non-essential. TFA also indicated that substrate channeling should exist in two metabolic pathways to ensure the thermodynamic feasibility of the flux. Finally, analysis of the metabolic capabilities of P. falciparum led to the identification of both the minimal nutritional requirements and the genes that can become indispensable upon substrate inaccessibility. This model provides novel insight into the metabolic needs and capabilities of the malaria parasite and highlights metabolites and pathways that should be measured and characterized to identify potential thermodynamic bottlenecks and substrate channeling. The hypotheses presented seek to guide experimental studies to facilitate a better understanding of the parasite metabolism and the identification of targets for more efficient intervention. Almost half of the world population is at risk of infection by malaria parasites. The rise in drug-resistant parasites requires better understanding and targeting of their metabolism. In this study, we present a genome-scale metabolic reconstruction (iPfa) of the deadliest malaria parasite, Plasmodium falciparum, and its thermodynamics-based flux analysis (TFA). Our results support and extend the available experimental evidence on the essential genes and nutritional requirements of this organism. Besides, we identify metabolites that give rise to thermodynamic bottlenecks and suggest substrate channeling. Overall, these results provide novel insight into the metabolism of P. falciparum and may guide experimental studies to develop a better characterization of the parasite metabolism and the identification of antimalarial drug targets.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anush Chiappino-Pepe
- Laboratory of Computational Systems Biotechnology, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, EPFL, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Stepan Tymoshenko
- Laboratory of Computational Systems Biotechnology, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, EPFL, Lausanne, Switzerland
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Geneva, CMU, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Meriç Ataman
- Laboratory of Computational Systems Biotechnology, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, EPFL, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Dominique Soldati-Favre
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Geneva, CMU, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Vassily Hatzimanikatis
- Laboratory of Computational Systems Biotechnology, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, EPFL, Lausanne, Switzerland
- * E-mail:
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Development of a Novel High-Density [3H]Hypoxanthine Scintillation Proximity Assay To Assess Plasmodium falciparum Growth. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2016; 60:5949-56. [PMID: 27458216 DOI: 10.1128/aac.00433-16] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/29/2016] [Accepted: 07/09/2016] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
The discovery and development of new antimalarial drugs are becoming imperative because of the spread of resistance to current clinical treatments. The lack of robustly validated antimalarial targets and the difficulties with the building in of whole-cell activity in screening hits are hampering target-based approaches. However, phenotypic screens of structurally diverse molecule libraries are offering new opportunities for the identification of novel antimalarials. Several methodologies can be used to determine the whole-cell in vitro potencies of antimalarial hits. The [(3)H]hypoxanthine incorporation assay is considered the "gold standard" assay for measurement of the activity of antimalarial compounds against intraerythrocytic forms of Plasmodium falciparum However, the method has important limitations, as the assay is not amenable for high-throughput screening since it remains associated with the 96-well plate format. We have overcome this drawback by adapting the [(3)H]hypoxanthine incorporation method to a 384-well high-density format by coupling a homogeneous scintillation proximity assay (SPA) and thus eliminating the limiting filtration step. This SPA has been validated using a diverse set of 1,000 molecules, including both a representative set from the Tres Cantos Antimalarial Set (TCAMS) of compounds and molecules inactive against whole cells. The results were compared with those from the P. falciparum lactate dehydrogenase whole-cell assay, another method that is well established as a surrogate for parasite growth and is amenable for high-throughput screening. The results obtained demonstrate that the SPA-based [(3)H]hypoxanthine incorporation assay is a suitable design that is adaptable to high-throughput antimalarial drug screening and that maintains the features, robustness, and reliability of the standard filtration hypoxanthine incorporation method.
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Chakraborty A. Emerging drug resistance in Plasmodium falciparum: A review of well-characterized drug targets for novel antimalarial chemotherapy. ASIAN PACIFIC JOURNAL OF TROPICAL DISEASE 2016. [DOI: 10.1016/s2222-1808(16)61090-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
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17
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In Silico Mining for Antimalarial Structure-Activity Knowledge and Discovery of Novel Antimalarial Curcuminoids. Molecules 2016; 21:molecules21070853. [PMID: 27367660 PMCID: PMC6273176 DOI: 10.3390/molecules21070853] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/01/2016] [Revised: 06/04/2016] [Accepted: 06/10/2016] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Malaria is a parasitic tropical disease that kills around 600,000 patients every year. The emergence of resistant Plasmodium falciparum parasites to artemisinin-based combination therapies (ACTs) represents a significant public health threat, indicating the urgent need for new effective compounds to reverse ACT resistance and cure the disease. For this, extensive curation and homogenization of experimental anti-Plasmodium screening data from both in-house and ChEMBL sources were conducted. As a result, a coherent strategy was established that allowed compiling coherent training sets that associate compound structures to the respective antimalarial activity measurements. Seventeen of these training sets led to the successful generation of classification models discriminating whether a compound has a significant probability to be active under the specific conditions of the antimalarial test associated with each set. These models were used in consensus prediction of the most likely active from a series of curcuminoids available in-house. Positive predictions together with a few predicted as inactive were then submitted to experimental in vitro antimalarial testing. A large majority from predicted compounds showed antimalarial activity, but not those predicted as inactive, thus experimentally validating the in silico screening approach. The herein proposed consensus machine learning approach showed its potential to reduce the cost and duration of antimalarial drug discovery.
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18
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Identification of a thioredoxin reductase from Babesia microti during mammalian infection. Parasitol Res 2016; 115:3219-27. [PMID: 27164832 DOI: 10.1007/s00436-016-5084-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/09/2016] [Accepted: 04/20/2016] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
Babesia microti is the primary causative agent of human babesiosis worldwide and associated with increased human health risks and the safety of blood supply. The parasite replicates in the host's red blood cells, thus, in order to counteract the oxidative stress and toxic effects, parasites employ a thioredoxin (Trx) system to maintain a redox balance. Since thioredoxin reductase (TrxR) plays a critical role in the system, in this study, we report the cloning, expression, and functional characterization of a novel TrxR from B. microti (BmiTrxR). The complete gene BmiTrxR was obtained by amplifying the 5' and 3' regions of messenger RNA (mRNA) by RACE. The full-length complementary DNA (cDNA) of BmiTrxR was 1766 bp and contained an intact open reading frame with 1662 bp that encoded a polypeptide with 553 amino acids. Molecular weight of the predicted protein was 58.4 kDa with an isoelectric point of 6.95, similar to high molecular weight TrxR. The recombinant protein of BmiTrxR was expressed in a His-fused soluble form in Escherichia coli. The native protein BmiTrxR was identified with the mouse anti-BmiTrxR polyclonal serum by western blotting and IFAT. Moreover, the enzyme showed a disulfide reductase activity using DTNB as substrate and catalyzed the NADPH-dependent reduction of Trx. Auranofin, a known inhibitor of TrxR, completely abrogated the activity of the recombinant enzyme in vitro. These results not only contribute to the understanding of redox pathway in this parasite but also suggest that BmiTrxR could be a potential target for the development of novel strategies to control B. microti thus reducing the incidence of babesiosis.
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Abadio AKR, Kioshima ES, Leroux V, Martins NF, Maigret B, Felipe MSS. Identification of New Antifungal Compounds Targeting Thioredoxin Reductase of Paracoccidioides Genus. PLoS One 2015; 10:e0142926. [PMID: 26569405 PMCID: PMC4646694 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0142926] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/11/2015] [Accepted: 10/28/2015] [Indexed: 11/27/2022] Open
Abstract
The prevalence of invasive fungal infections worldwide has increased in the last decades. The development of specific drugs targeting pathogenic fungi without producing collateral damage to mammalian cells is a daunting pharmacological challenge. Indeed, many of the toxicities and drug interactions observed with contemporary antifungal therapies can be attributed to “nonselective” interactions with enzymes or cell membrane systems found in mammalian host cells. A computer-aided screening strategy against the TRR1 protein of Paracoccidioides lutzii is presented here. Initially, a bank of commercially available compounds from Life Chemicals provider was docked to model by virtual screening simulations. The small molecules that interact with the model were ranked and, among the best hits, twelve compounds out of 3,000 commercially-available candidates were selected. These molecules were synthesized for validation and in vitro antifungal activity assays for Paracoccidioides lutzii and P. brasiliensis were performed. From 12 molecules tested, 3 harbor inhibitory activity in antifungal assays against the two pathogenic fungi. Corroborating these findings, the molecules have inhibitory activity against the purified recombinant enzyme TRR1 in biochemical assays. Therefore, a rational combination of molecular modeling simulations and virtual screening of new drugs has provided a cost-effective solution to an early-stage medicinal challenge. These results provide a promising technique to the development of new and innovative drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Erika Seki Kioshima
- Department of Clinical Analysis and Biomedicine, State University of Maringá, Maringá, Paraná, Brazil
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20
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McCarty SE, Schellenberger A, Goodwin DC, Fuanta NR, Tekwani BL, Calderón AI. Plasmodium falciparum Thioredoxin Reductase (PfTrxR) and Its Role as a Target for New Antimalarial Discovery. Molecules 2015; 20:11459-73. [PMID: 26111176 PMCID: PMC6272602 DOI: 10.3390/molecules200611459] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/12/2015] [Revised: 06/12/2015] [Accepted: 06/17/2015] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
The growing resistance to current antimalarial drugs is a major concern for global public health. The pressing need for new antimalarials has led to an increase in research focused on the Plasmodium parasites that cause human malaria. Thioredoxin reductase (TrxR), an enzyme needed to maintain redox equilibrium in Plasmodium species, is a promising target for new antimalarials. This review paper provides an overview of the structure and function of TrxR, discusses similarities and differences between the thioredoxin reductases (TrxRs) of different Plasmodium species and the human forms of the enzyme, gives an overview of modeling Plasmodium infections in animals, and suggests the role of Trx functions in antimalarial drug resistance. TrxR of Plasmodium falciparum is a central focus of this paper since it is the only Plasmodium TrxR that has been crystallized and P. falciparum is the species that causes most malaria cases. It is anticipated that the information summarized here will give insight and stimulate new directions in which research might be most beneficial.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sara E McCarty
- College of Sciences and Mathematics, Auburn University, Auburn, AL 36849, USA.
- Department of Drug Discovery and Development, Harrison School of Pharmacy, Auburn University, Auburn, AL 36849, USA.
| | - Amanda Schellenberger
- Department of Drug Discovery and Development, Harrison School of Pharmacy, Auburn University, Auburn, AL 36849, USA.
- College of Agriculture, Auburn University, Auburn, AL 36849, USA.
| | - Douglas C Goodwin
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Auburn University, Auburn, AL 36849, USA.
| | - Ngolui Rene Fuanta
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Auburn University, Auburn, AL 36849, USA.
| | - Babu L Tekwani
- National Center for Natural Products Research and Department of BioMolecular Sciences, School of Pharmacy, University of Mississippi, Oxford, MS 38677, USA.
| | - Angela I Calderón
- Department of Drug Discovery and Development, Harrison School of Pharmacy, Auburn University, Auburn, AL 36849, USA.
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21
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Role and Regulation of Glutathione Metabolism in Plasmodium falciparum. Molecules 2015; 20:10511-34. [PMID: 26060916 PMCID: PMC6272303 DOI: 10.3390/molecules200610511] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/10/2015] [Revised: 05/11/2015] [Accepted: 06/01/2015] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Malaria in humans is caused by one of five species of obligate intracellular protozoan parasites of the genus Plasmodium. P. falciparum causes the most severe disease and is responsible for 600,000 deaths annually, primarily in Sub-Saharan Africa. It has long been suggested that during their development, malaria parasites are exposed to environmental and metabolic stresses. One strategy to drug discovery was to increase these stresses by interfering with the parasites’ antioxidant and redox systems, which may be a valuable approach to disease intervention. Plasmodium possesses two redox systems—the thioredoxin and the glutathione system—with overlapping but also distinct functions. Glutathione is the most abundant low molecular weight redox active thiol in the parasites existing primarily in its reduced form representing an excellent thiol redox buffer. This allows for an efficient maintenance of the intracellular reducing environment of the parasite cytoplasm and its organelles. This review will highlight the mechanisms that are responsible for sustaining an adequate concentration of glutathione and maintaining its redox state in Plasmodium. It will provide a summary of the functions of the tripeptide and will discuss the potential of glutathione metabolism for drug discovery against human malaria parasites.
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Winkler M, Maynadier M, Wein S, Lespinasse MA, Boumis G, Miele AE, Vial H, Wong YS. Uncovering new structural insights for antimalarial activity from cost-effective aculeatin-like derivatives. Org Biomol Chem 2015; 13:2064-77. [DOI: 10.1039/c4ob02459a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
Abstract
An expedient synthesis of aculeatin-like analogues results in finding PfTrxR as putative cellular target and a promising new antimalarial chemotype.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthias Winkler
- Département de Pharmacochimie Moléculaire
- Univ. Grenoble-Alpes
- CNRS UMR 5063
- CNRS ICMG FR 2607
- F-38041 Grenoble Cedex 9
| | - Marjorie Maynadier
- Laboratory Dynamique des Interactions Membranaires Normales et Pathologiques
- UMR5235
- CNRS
- University Montpellier 2
- 34095 Montpellier
| | - Sharon Wein
- Laboratory Dynamique des Interactions Membranaires Normales et Pathologiques
- UMR5235
- CNRS
- University Montpellier 2
- 34095 Montpellier
| | - Marie-Ange Lespinasse
- Département de Pharmacochimie Moléculaire
- Univ. Grenoble-Alpes
- CNRS UMR 5063
- CNRS ICMG FR 2607
- F-38041 Grenoble Cedex 9
| | - Giovanna Boumis
- Department of Biochemical Sciences
- “Sapienza” University of Rome
- 00185 Rome
- Italy
| | - Adriana E. Miele
- Department of Biochemical Sciences
- “Sapienza” University of Rome
- 00185 Rome
- Italy
| | - Henri Vial
- Laboratory Dynamique des Interactions Membranaires Normales et Pathologiques
- UMR5235
- CNRS
- University Montpellier 2
- 34095 Montpellier
| | - Yung-Sing Wong
- Département de Pharmacochimie Moléculaire
- Univ. Grenoble-Alpes
- CNRS UMR 5063
- CNRS ICMG FR 2607
- F-38041 Grenoble Cedex 9
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23
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Brizuela M, Huang HM, Smith C, Burgio G, Foote SJ, McMorran BJ. Treatment of erythrocytes with the 2-cys peroxiredoxin inhibitor, Conoidin A, prevents the growth of Plasmodium falciparum and enhances parasite sensitivity to chloroquine. PLoS One 2014. [PMID: 24699133 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0092411.] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
The human erythrocyte contains an abundance of the thiol-dependant peroxidase Peroxiredoxin-2 (Prx2), which protects the cell from the pro-oxidant environment it encounters during its 120 days of life in the blood stream. In malarial infections, the Plasmodium parasite invades red cells and imports Prx2 during intraerythrocytic development, presumably to supplement in its own degradation of peroxides generated during cell metabolism, especially hemoglobin (Hb) digestion. Here we demonstrate that an irreversible Prx2 inhibitor, Conoidin A (2,3-bis(bromomethyl)-1,4-dioxide-quinoxaline; BBMQ), has potent cytocidal activity against cultured P. falciparum. Parasite growth was also inhibited in red cells that were treated with BBMQ and then washed prior to parasite infection. These cells remained susceptible to merozoite invasion, but failed to support normal intraerythrocytic development. In addition the potency of chloroquine (CQ), an antimalarial drug that prevents the detoxification of Hb-derived heme, was significantly enhanced in the presence of BBMQ. CQ IC50 values decreased an order of magnitude when parasites were either co-incubated with BBMQ, or introduced into BBMQ-pretreated cells; these effects were equivalent for both drug-resistant and drug-sensitive parasite lines. Together these results indicate that treatment of red cells with BBMQ renders them incapable of supporting parasite growth and increases parasite sensitivity to CQ. We also propose that molecules such as BBMQ that target host cell proteins may constitute a novel host-directed therapeutic approach for treating malaria.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mariana Brizuela
- The Menzies Research Institute Tasmania, University of Tasmania, Hobart, Tasmania, Australia
| | - Hong Ming Huang
- The Australian School of Advanced Medicine, Macquarie University, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Clare Smith
- The Menzies Research Institute Tasmania, University of Tasmania, Hobart, Tasmania, Australia
| | - Gaetan Burgio
- The Australian School of Advanced Medicine, Macquarie University, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Simon J Foote
- The Australian School of Advanced Medicine, Macquarie University, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Brendan J McMorran
- The Australian School of Advanced Medicine, Macquarie University, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
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Brizuela M, Huang HM, Smith C, Burgio G, Foote SJ, McMorran BJ. Treatment of erythrocytes with the 2-cys peroxiredoxin inhibitor, Conoidin A, prevents the growth of Plasmodium falciparum and enhances parasite sensitivity to chloroquine. PLoS One 2014; 9:e92411. [PMID: 24699133 PMCID: PMC3974718 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0092411] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/19/2013] [Accepted: 02/22/2014] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
The human erythrocyte contains an abundance of the thiol-dependant peroxidase Peroxiredoxin-2 (Prx2), which protects the cell from the pro-oxidant environment it encounters during its 120 days of life in the blood stream. In malarial infections, the Plasmodium parasite invades red cells and imports Prx2 during intraerythrocytic development, presumably to supplement in its own degradation of peroxides generated during cell metabolism, especially hemoglobin (Hb) digestion. Here we demonstrate that an irreversible Prx2 inhibitor, Conoidin A (2,3-bis(bromomethyl)-1,4-dioxide-quinoxaline; BBMQ), has potent cytocidal activity against cultured P. falciparum. Parasite growth was also inhibited in red cells that were treated with BBMQ and then washed prior to parasite infection. These cells remained susceptible to merozoite invasion, but failed to support normal intraerythrocytic development. In addition the potency of chloroquine (CQ), an antimalarial drug that prevents the detoxification of Hb-derived heme, was significantly enhanced in the presence of BBMQ. CQ IC50 values decreased an order of magnitude when parasites were either co-incubated with BBMQ, or introduced into BBMQ-pretreated cells; these effects were equivalent for both drug-resistant and drug-sensitive parasite lines. Together these results indicate that treatment of red cells with BBMQ renders them incapable of supporting parasite growth and increases parasite sensitivity to CQ. We also propose that molecules such as BBMQ that target host cell proteins may constitute a novel host-directed therapeutic approach for treating malaria.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mariana Brizuela
- The Menzies Research Institute Tasmania, University of Tasmania, Hobart, Tasmania, Australia
| | - Hong Ming Huang
- The Australian School of Advanced Medicine, Macquarie University, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Clare Smith
- The Menzies Research Institute Tasmania, University of Tasmania, Hobart, Tasmania, Australia
| | - Gaetan Burgio
- The Australian School of Advanced Medicine, Macquarie University, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Simon J. Foote
- The Australian School of Advanced Medicine, Macquarie University, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Brendan J. McMorran
- The Australian School of Advanced Medicine, Macquarie University, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
- * E-mail:
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Offeddu V, Rauch M, Silvie O, Matuschewski K. The Plasmodium protein P113 supports efficient sporozoite to liver stage conversion in vivo. Mol Biochem Parasitol 2014; 193:101-9. [DOI: 10.1016/j.molbiopara.2014.03.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/20/2013] [Revised: 03/01/2014] [Accepted: 03/03/2014] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
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Snider GW, Dustin CM, Ruggles EL, Hondal RJ. A mechanistic investigation of the C-terminal redox motif of thioredoxin reductase from Plasmodium falciparum. Biochemistry 2014; 53:601-9. [PMID: 24400600 PMCID: PMC3957191 DOI: 10.1021/bi400931k] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
![]()
High-molecular
mass thioredoxin reductases (TRs) are pyridine nucleotide
disulfide oxidoreductases that catalyze the reduction of the disulfide
bond of thioredoxin (Trx). Trx is responsible for reducing multiple
protein disulfide targets in the cell. TRs utilize reduced β-nicotinamide
adenine dinucleotide phosphate to reduce a bound flavin prosthetic
group, which in turn reduces an N-terminal redox center that has the
conserved sequence CICVNVGCCT, where CIC is denoted as the interchange thiol while the thiol involved in
charge-transfer complexation is denoted as CCT. The reduced
N-terminal redox center reduces a C-terminal redox center on the opposite
subunit of the head-to-tail homodimer, the C-terminal redox center
that catalyzes the reduction of the Trx-disulfide. Variations in the
amino acid sequence of the C-terminal redox center differentiate high-molecular
mass TRs into different types. Type Ia TRs have tetrapeptide C-terminal
redox centers of with a GCUG sequence, where U is the rare amino acid
selenocysteine (Sec), while the tetrapeptide sequence in type Ib TRs
has its Sec residue replaced with a conventional cysteine (Cys) residue
and can use small polar amino acids such as serine and threonine in
place of the flanking glycine residues. The TR from Plasmodium
falciparum (PfTR) is similar in structure and mechanism to
type Ia and type Ib TRs except that the C-terminal redox center is
different in its amino acid sequence. The C-terminal redox center
of PfTR has the sequence G534CGGGKCG541, and
we classify it as a type II high-molecular mass TR. The oxidized type
II redox motif will form a 20-membered disulfide ring, whereas the
absence of spacer amino acids in the type I motif results in the formation
of a rare eight-membered ring. We used site-directed mutagenesis and
protein semisynthesis to investigate features of the distinctive type
II C-terminal redox motif that help it perform catalysis. Deletion
of Gly541 reduces thioredoxin reductase activity by ∼50-fold,
most likely because of disruption of an important hydrogen bond between
the amide NH group of Gly541 and the carbonyl of Gly534 that helps
to stabilize
the β–turn−β motif. Alterations of the 20-membered
disulfide ring either by amino acid deletion or by substitution resulted
in impaired catalytic activity. Subtle changes in the ring structure
and size caused by using semisynthesis to substitute homocysteine
for cysteine also caused significant reductions in catalytic activity,
demonstrating the importance of the disulfide ring’s geometry
in making the C-terminal redox center reactive for thiol–disulfide
exchange. The data suggested to us that the transfer of electrons
from the N-terminal redox center to the C-terminal redox center may
be rate-limiting. We propose that the transfer of electrons from the
N-terminal redox center in PfTR to the type II C-terminal disulfide
is accelerated by the use of an “electrophilic activation”
mechanism. In this mechanism, the type II C-terminal disulfide is
polarized, making the sulfur atom of Cys540 electron deficient, highly
electrophilic, and activated for thiol–disulfide exchange with
the N-terminal redox center. This hypothesis was investigated by constructing
chimeric PfTR mutant enzymes containing C-terminal type I sequences
GCCG and GCUG, respectively. The PfTR-GCCG chimera had 500-fold less
thioredoxin reductase activity than the native enzyme but still reduced
selenocystine and lipoic acid efficiently. The PfTR-GCUG chimera had
higher catalytic activity than the native enzyme with Trx, selenocystine,
and lipoic acid as substrates. The results suggested to us that (i)
Sec in the mutant enzyme accelerated the rate of thiol–disulfide
exchange between the N- and C-terminal redox centers, (ii) the type
II redox center evolved for efficient catalysis utilizing Cys instead
of Sec, and (iii) the type II redox center of PfTR is partly responsible
for substrate recognition of the cognate PfTrx substrate relative
to noncognate thioredoxins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gregg W Snider
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Vermont, College of Medicine , 89 Beaumont Avenue, Given Building Room B413, Burlington, Vermont 05405, United States
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Abstract
The potential of flavoproteins as targets of pharmacological treatments is immense. In this review we present an overview of the current research progress on medical interventions based on flavoproteins with a special emphasis on cancer, infectious diseases, and neurological disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Esther Jortzik
- Interdisciplinary Research Center, Justus Liebig University, Giessen, Germany
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Fritz-Wolf K, Jortzik E, Stumpf M, Preuss J, Iozef R, Rahlfs S, Becker K. Crystal Structure of the Plasmodium falciparum Thioredoxin Reductase–Thioredoxin Complex. J Mol Biol 2013; 425:3446-60. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jmb.2013.06.037] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/04/2013] [Revised: 06/26/2013] [Accepted: 06/29/2013] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
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Elfawal MA, Towler MJ, Reich NG, Golenbock D, Weathers PJ, Rich SM. Dried whole plant Artemisia annua as an antimalarial therapy. PLoS One 2012; 7:e52746. [PMID: 23289055 PMCID: PMC3527585 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0052746] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/03/2012] [Accepted: 11/21/2012] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Drugs are primary weapons for reducing malaria in human populations. However emergence of resistant parasites has repeatedly curtailed the lifespan of each drug that is developed and deployed. Currently the most effective anti-malarial is artemisinin, which is extracted from the leaves of Artemisia annua. Due to poor pharmacokinetic properties and prudent efforts to curtail resistance to monotherapies, artemisinin is prescribed only in combination with other anti-malarials composing an Artemisinin Combination Therapy (ACT). Low yield in the plant, and the added cost of secondary anti-malarials in the ACT, make artemisinin costly for the developing world. As an alternative, we compared the efficacy of oral delivery of the dried leaves of whole plant (WP) A. annua to a comparable dose of pure artemisinin in a rodent malaria model (Plasmodium chabaudi). We found that a single dose of WP (containing 24 mg/kg artemisinin) reduces parasitemia more effectively than a comparable dose of purified drug. This increased efficacy may result from a documented 40-fold increase in the bioavailability of artemisinin in the blood of mice fed the whole plant, in comparison to those administered synthetic drug. Synergistic benefits may derive from the presence of other anti-malarial compounds in A. annua. If shown to be clinically efficacious, well-tolerated, and compatible with the public health imperative of forestalling evolution of drug resistance, inexpensive, locally grown and processed A. annua might prove to be an effective addition to the global effort to reduce malaria morbidity and mortality.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mostafa A. Elfawal
- Laboratory of Medical Zoology, Department of Microbiology, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - Melissa J. Towler
- Department of Biology and Biotechnology, Worcester Polytechnic Institute, Worcester, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - Nicholas G. Reich
- Division of Biostatistics and Epidemiology, School of Public Health and Health Sciences, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - Douglas Golenbock
- Infectious Diseases and Immunology, University of Massachusetts Medical School, Worcester, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - Pamela J. Weathers
- Department of Biology and Biotechnology, Worcester Polytechnic Institute, Worcester, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - Stephen M. Rich
- Laboratory of Medical Zoology, Department of Microbiology, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, Massachusetts, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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Percário S, Moreira DR, Gomes BAQ, Ferreira MES, Gonçalves ACM, Laurindo PSOC, Vilhena TC, Dolabela MF, Green MD. Oxidative stress in malaria. Int J Mol Sci 2012; 13:16346-72. [PMID: 23208374 PMCID: PMC3546694 DOI: 10.3390/ijms131216346] [Citation(s) in RCA: 183] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/17/2012] [Revised: 11/08/2012] [Accepted: 11/23/2012] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Malaria is a significant public health problem in more than 100 countries and causes an estimated 200 million new infections every year. Despite the significant effort to eradicate this dangerous disease, lack of complete knowledge of its physiopathology compromises the success in this enterprise. In this paper we review oxidative stress mechanisms involved in the disease and discuss the potential benefits of antioxidant supplementation as an adjuvant antimalarial strategy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sandro Percário
- Oxidative Stress Research Laboratory, Institute of Biological Sciences, Federal University of Para (LAPEO/ICB/UFPA) Av. Augusto Correa, 1, Guama, Belem, Para 66075-110, Brazil; E-Mails: (D.R.M.); (B.A.Q.G.); (M.E.S.F.); (A.C.M.G.); (P.S.O.C.L.); (T.C.V.)
| | - Danilo R. Moreira
- Oxidative Stress Research Laboratory, Institute of Biological Sciences, Federal University of Para (LAPEO/ICB/UFPA) Av. Augusto Correa, 1, Guama, Belem, Para 66075-110, Brazil; E-Mails: (D.R.M.); (B.A.Q.G.); (M.E.S.F.); (A.C.M.G.); (P.S.O.C.L.); (T.C.V.)
| | - Bruno A. Q. Gomes
- Oxidative Stress Research Laboratory, Institute of Biological Sciences, Federal University of Para (LAPEO/ICB/UFPA) Av. Augusto Correa, 1, Guama, Belem, Para 66075-110, Brazil; E-Mails: (D.R.M.); (B.A.Q.G.); (M.E.S.F.); (A.C.M.G.); (P.S.O.C.L.); (T.C.V.)
| | - Michelli E. S. Ferreira
- Oxidative Stress Research Laboratory, Institute of Biological Sciences, Federal University of Para (LAPEO/ICB/UFPA) Av. Augusto Correa, 1, Guama, Belem, Para 66075-110, Brazil; E-Mails: (D.R.M.); (B.A.Q.G.); (M.E.S.F.); (A.C.M.G.); (P.S.O.C.L.); (T.C.V.)
| | - Ana Carolina M. Gonçalves
- Oxidative Stress Research Laboratory, Institute of Biological Sciences, Federal University of Para (LAPEO/ICB/UFPA) Av. Augusto Correa, 1, Guama, Belem, Para 66075-110, Brazil; E-Mails: (D.R.M.); (B.A.Q.G.); (M.E.S.F.); (A.C.M.G.); (P.S.O.C.L.); (T.C.V.)
| | - Paula S. O. C. Laurindo
- Oxidative Stress Research Laboratory, Institute of Biological Sciences, Federal University of Para (LAPEO/ICB/UFPA) Av. Augusto Correa, 1, Guama, Belem, Para 66075-110, Brazil; E-Mails: (D.R.M.); (B.A.Q.G.); (M.E.S.F.); (A.C.M.G.); (P.S.O.C.L.); (T.C.V.)
| | - Thyago C. Vilhena
- Oxidative Stress Research Laboratory, Institute of Biological Sciences, Federal University of Para (LAPEO/ICB/UFPA) Av. Augusto Correa, 1, Guama, Belem, Para 66075-110, Brazil; E-Mails: (D.R.M.); (B.A.Q.G.); (M.E.S.F.); (A.C.M.G.); (P.S.O.C.L.); (T.C.V.)
| | - Maria F. Dolabela
- Pharmacy Faculty, Institute of Health Sciences, Federal University of Para. Av. Augusto Correa, 1, Guama, Belem, Para 66075-110, Brazil; E-Mail:
| | - Michael D. Green
- US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 1600 Clifton Road NE, mailstop G49, Atlanta, GA 30329, USA; E-Mail:
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31
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Lehane AM, McDevitt CA, Kirk K, Fidock DA. Degrees of chloroquine resistance in Plasmodium - is the redox system involved? INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL FOR PARASITOLOGY-DRUGS AND DRUG RESISTANCE 2012; 2:47-57. [PMID: 22773965 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpddr.2011.11.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
Chloroquine (CQ) was once a very effective antimalarial drug that, at its peak, was consumed in the hundreds of millions of doses per year. The drug acts against the Plasmodium parasite during the asexual intraerythrocytic phase of its lifecycle. Unfortunately, clinical resistance to this drug is now widespread. Questions remain about precisely how CQ kills malaria parasites, and by what means some CQ-resistant (CQR) parasites can withstand much higher concentrations of the drug than others that also fall in the CQR category. In this review we investigate the evidence for and against the proposal that CQ kills parasites by generating oxidative stress. Further, we examine a long-held idea that the glutathione system of malaria parasites plays a role in CQ resistance. We conclude that there is strong evidence that glutathione levels modulate CQ response in the rodent malaria species P. berghei, but that a role for redox in contributing to the degree of CQ resistance in species infectious to humans has not been firmly established.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adele M Lehane
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Columbia University Medical Center, New York, NY 10032, USA
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Perkins A, Gretes MC, Nelson KJ, Poole LB, Karplus PA. Mapping the active site helix-to-strand conversion of CxxxxC peroxiredoxin Q enzymes. Biochemistry 2012; 51:7638-50. [PMID: 22928725 DOI: 10.1021/bi301017s] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Peroxiredoxins (Prx) make up a family of enzymes that reduce peroxides using a peroxidatic cysteine residue; among these, members of the PrxQ subfamily are proposed to be the most ancestral-like yet are among the least characterized. In many PrxQ enzymes, a second "resolving" cysteine is located five residues downstream from the peroxidatic Cys, and these residues form a disulfide during the catalytic cycle. Here, we describe three hyperthermophilic PrxQ crystal structures originally determined by the RIKEN structural genomics group. We reprocessed the diffraction data and conducted further refinement to yield models with R(free) values lowered by 2.3-7.2% and resolution extended by 0.2-0.3 Å, making one, at 1.4 Å, one of the best resolved peroxiredoxins to date. Comparisons of two matched thiol and disulfide forms reveal that the active site conformational change required for disulfide formation involves a transition of ~20 residues from a pair of α-helices to a β-hairpin and 3(10)-helix. Each conformation has ~10 residues with a high level of disorder providing slack that allows the dramatic shift, and the two conformations are anchored to the protein core by distinct nonpolar side chains that fill three hydrophobic pockets. Sequence conservation patterns confirm the importance of these and a few additional residues for function. From a broader perspective, this study raises the provocative question of how to make use of the valuable information in the Protein Data Bank generated by structural genomics projects but not described in the literature, perhaps remaining unrecognized and certainly underutilized.
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Affiliation(s)
- Arden Perkins
- Department of Biochemistry and Biophysics, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR 97331, USA
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Abstract
SIGNIFICANCE Parasitic diseases affect hundreds of millions of people worldwide and represent major health problems. Treatment is becoming extremely difficult due to the emergence of drug resistance, the absence of effective vaccines, and the spread of insecticide-resistant vectors. Thus, identification of affordable and readily available drugs against resistant parasites is of global demand. RECENT ADVANCES Susceptibility of many parasites to oxidative stress is a well-known phenomenon. Therefore, generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) or inhibition of endogenous antioxidant enzymes would be a novel therapeutic approach to develop antiparasitic drugs. This article highlights the unique metabolic pathways along with redox enzymes of unicellular (Plasmodium falciparum, Trypanosoma cruzi, Trypanosoma brucei, Leishmania donovani, Entamoeba histolytica, and Trichomonas vaginalis) and multicellular parasites (Schistosoma mansoni), which could be utilized to promote ROS-mediated toxicity. CRITICAL ISSUES Enzymes involved in various vital redox reactions could be potential targets for drug development. FUTURE DIRECTIONS The identification of redox-active antiparasitic drugs along with their mode of action will help researchers around the world in designing novel drugs in the future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chinmay Pal
- Department of Infectious Diseases and Immunology, Indian Institute of Chemical Biology, Kolkata, India
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Theobald AJ, Caballero I, Coma I, Colmenarejo G, Cid C, Gamo FJ, Hibbs MJ, Bass AL, Thomas DA. Discovery and biochemical characterization of Plasmodium thioredoxin reductase inhibitors from an antimalarial set. Biochemistry 2012; 51:4764-71. [PMID: 22612231 DOI: 10.1021/bi3005076] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Plasmodium falciparum is the most prevalent and deadly species of the human malaria parasites, and thioredoxin reductase (TrxR) is an enzyme involved in the redox response to oxidative stress. Essential for P. falciparum survival, the enzyme has been highlighted as a promising target for novel antimalarial drugs. Here we report the discovery and characterization of seven molecules from an antimalarial set of 13533 compounds through single-target TrxR biochemical screens. We have produced high-purity, full-length, recombinant native enzyme from four Plasmodium species, and thioredoxin substrates from P. falciparum and Rattus norvegicus. The enzymes were screened using a unique, high-throughput, in vitro native substrate assay, and we have observed selectivity between the Plasmodium species and the mammalian form of the enzyme. This has indicated differences in their biomolecular profiles and has provided valuable insights into the biochemical mechanisms of action of compounds with proven antimalarial activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew J Theobald
- GlaxoSmithKline, Medicines Research Centre, Stevenage, Hertfordshire, UK.
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36
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Abstract
Glutathione (γ-glutamylcysteinyl-glycine, GSH) has vital functions as thiol redox buffer and cofactor of antioxidant and detoxification enzymes. Plasmodium falciparum possesses a functional GSH biosynthesis pathway and contains mM concentrations of the tripeptide. It was impossible to delete in P. falciparum the genes encoding γ-glutamylcysteine synthetase (γGCS) or glutathione synthetase (GS), the two enzymes synthesizing GSH, although both gene loci were not refractory to recombination. Our data show that the parasites cannot compensate for the loss of GSH biosynthesis via GSH uptake. This suggests an important if not essential function of GSH biosynthesis pathway for the parasites. Treatment with the irreversible inhibitor of γGCS L-buthionine sulfoximine (BSO) reduced intracellular GSH levels in P. falciparum and was lethal for their intra-erythrocytic development, corroborating the suggestion that GSH biosynthesis is important for parasite survival. Episomal expression of γgcs in P. falciparum increased tolerance to BSO attributable to increased levels of γGCS. Concomitantly expression of glutathione reductase was reduced leading to an increased GSH efflux. Together these data indicate that GSH levels are tightly regulated by a functional GSH biosynthesis and the reduction of GSSG.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eva-Maria Patzewitz
- Wellcome Trust Centre for Molecular Parasitology, Institute of Infection, Immunity & Inflammation, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, 120 University Place, Glasgow G12 8TA, UK.
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Caroli A, Simeoni S, Lepore R, Tramontano A, Via A. Investigation of a potential mechanism for the inhibition of SmTGR by Auranofin and its implications for Plasmodium falciparum inhibition. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2011; 417:576-81. [PMID: 22177949 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbrc.2011.12.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/24/2011] [Accepted: 12/01/2011] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Schistosoma mansoni and Plasmodium falciparum are pathogen parasites that spend part of their lives in the blood stream of the human host and are therefore heavily exposed to fluxes of toxic reactive oxygen species (ROS). SmTGR, an essential enzyme of the S. mansoni ROS detoxification machinery, is known to be inhibited by Auranofin although the inhibition mechanism has not been completely clarified. Auranofin also kills P. falciparum, even if its molecular targets are unknown. Here, we used computational and docking techniques to investigate the molecular mechanism of interaction between SmTGR and Auranofin. Furthermore, we took advantage of the homology relationship and of docking studies to assess if PfTR, the SmTGR malaria parasite homologue, can be a putative target for Auranofin. Our findings support a recently hypothesized molecular mechanism of inhibition for SmTGR and suggest that PfTR is indeed a possible and attractive drug target in P. falciparum.
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Affiliation(s)
- Antonia Caroli
- Department of Physics, Sapienza University of Rome, Rome, Italy
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Denoeud F, Roussel M, Noel B, Wawrzyniak I, Da Silva C, Diogon M, Viscogliosi E, Brochier-Armanet C, Couloux A, Poulain J, Segurens B, Anthouard V, Texier C, Blot N, Poirier P, Ng GC, Tan KSW, Artiguenave F, Jaillon O, Aury JM, Delbac F, Wincker P, Vivarès CP, El Alaoui H. Genome sequence of the stramenopile Blastocystis, a human anaerobic parasite. Genome Biol 2011; 12:R29. [PMID: 21439036 PMCID: PMC3129679 DOI: 10.1186/gb-2011-12-3-r29] [Citation(s) in RCA: 126] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/25/2010] [Revised: 01/04/2011] [Accepted: 03/25/2011] [Indexed: 01/28/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Blastocystis is a highly prevalent anaerobic eukaryotic parasite of humans and animals that is associated with various gastrointestinal and extraintestinal disorders. Epidemiological studies have identified different subtypes but no one subtype has been definitively correlated with disease. Results Here we report the 18.8 Mb genome sequence of a Blastocystis subtype 7 isolate, which is the smallest stramenopile genome sequenced to date. The genome is highly compact and contains intriguing rearrangements. Comparisons with other available stramenopile genomes (plant pathogenic oomycete and diatom genomes) revealed effector proteins potentially involved in the adaptation to the intestinal environment, which were likely acquired via horizontal gene transfer. Moreover, Blastocystis living in anaerobic conditions harbors mitochondria-like organelles. An incomplete oxidative phosphorylation chain, a partial Krebs cycle, amino acid and fatty acid metabolisms and an iron-sulfur cluster assembly are all predicted to occur in these organelles. Predicted secretory proteins possess putative activities that may alter host physiology, such as proteases, protease-inhibitors, immunophilins and glycosyltransferases. This parasite also possesses the enzymatic machinery to tolerate oxidative bursts resulting from its own metabolism or induced by the host immune system. Conclusions This study provides insights into the genome architecture of this unusual stramenopile. It also proposes candidate genes with which to study the physiopathology of this parasite and thus may lead to further investigations into Blastocystis-host interactions.
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Affiliation(s)
- France Denoeud
- Genoscope (CEA) and CNRS UMR 8030, Université d'Evry, 2 rue Gaston Crémieux, 91057 Evry, France
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Kapoor G, Banyal H. Purification and Characterization of Plasmodium berghei Thioredoxin Reductase. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2011. [DOI: 10.3923/ajas.2011.145.152] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
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Abadio AKR, Kioshima ES, Teixeira MM, Martins NF, Maigret B, Felipe MSS. Comparative genomics allowed the identification of drug targets against human fungal pathogens. BMC Genomics 2011; 12:75. [PMID: 21272313 PMCID: PMC3042012 DOI: 10.1186/1471-2164-12-75] [Citation(s) in RCA: 73] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/26/2010] [Accepted: 01/27/2011] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Background The prevalence of invasive fungal infections (IFIs) has increased steadily worldwide in the last few decades. Particularly, there has been a global rise in the number of infections among immunosuppressed people. These patients present severe clinical forms of the infections, which are commonly fatal, and they are more susceptible to opportunistic fungal infections than non-immunocompromised people. IFIs have historically been associated with high morbidity and mortality, partly because of the limitations of available antifungal therapies, including side effects, toxicities, drug interactions and antifungal resistance. Thus, the search for alternative therapies and/or the development of more specific drugs is a challenge that needs to be met. Genomics has created new ways of examining genes, which open new strategies for drug development and control of human diseases. Results In silico analyses and manual mining selected initially 57 potential drug targets, based on 55 genes experimentally confirmed as essential for Candida albicans or Aspergillus fumigatus and other 2 genes (kre2 and erg6) relevant for fungal survival within the host. Orthologs for those 57 potential targets were also identified in eight human fungal pathogens (C. albicans, A. fumigatus, Blastomyces dermatitidis, Paracoccidioides brasiliensis, Paracoccidioides lutzii, Coccidioides immitis, Cryptococcus neoformans and Histoplasma capsulatum). Of those, 10 genes were present in all pathogenic fungi analyzed and absent in the human genome. We focused on four candidates: trr1 that encodes for thioredoxin reductase, rim8 that encodes for a protein involved in the proteolytic activation of a transcriptional factor in response to alkaline pH, kre2 that encodes for α-1,2-mannosyltransferase and erg6 that encodes for Δ(24)-sterol C-methyltransferase. Conclusions Our data show that the comparative genomics analysis of eight fungal pathogens enabled the identification of four new potential drug targets. The preferred profile for fungal targets includes proteins conserved among fungi, but absent in the human genome. These characteristics potentially minimize toxic side effects exerted by pharmacological inhibition of the cellular targets. From this first step of post-genomic analysis, we obtained information relevant to future new drug development.
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Plata G, Hsiao TL, Olszewski KL, Llinás M, Vitkup D. Reconstruction and flux-balance analysis of the Plasmodium falciparum metabolic network. Mol Syst Biol 2010; 6:408. [PMID: 20823846 PMCID: PMC2964117 DOI: 10.1038/msb.2010.60] [Citation(s) in RCA: 108] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/19/2010] [Accepted: 07/09/2010] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Genome-scale metabolic reconstructions can serve as important tools for hypothesis generation and high-throughput data integration. Here, we present a metabolic network reconstruction and flux-balance analysis (FBA) of Plasmodium falciparum, the primary agent of malaria. The compartmentalized metabolic network accounts for 1001 reactions and 616 metabolites. Enzyme-gene associations were established for 366 genes and 75% of all enzymatic reactions. Compared with other microbes, the P. falciparum metabolic network contains a relatively high number of essential genes, suggesting little redundancy of the parasite metabolism. The model was able to reproduce phenotypes of experimental gene knockout and drug inhibition assays with up to 90% accuracy. Moreover, using constraints based on gene-expression data, the model was able to predict the direction of concentration changes for external metabolites with 70% accuracy. Using FBA of the reconstructed network, we identified 40 enzymatic drug targets (i.e. in silico essential genes), with no or very low sequence identity to human proteins. To demonstrate that the model can be used to make clinically relevant predictions, we experimentally tested one of the identified drug targets, nicotinate mononucleotide adenylyltransferase, using a recently discovered small-molecule inhibitor.
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Affiliation(s)
- Germán Plata
- Center for Computational Biology and Bioinformatics, Columbia University, New York City, NY 10032, USA
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Buchholz K, Putrianti ED, Rahlfs S, Schirmer RH, Becker K, Matuschewski K. Molecular genetics evidence for the in vivo roles of the two major NADPH-dependent disulfide reductases in the malaria parasite. J Biol Chem 2010; 285:37388-95. [PMID: 20852334 PMCID: PMC2988344 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m110.123323] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/14/2010] [Revised: 08/27/2010] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Malaria-associated pathology is caused by the continuous expansion of Plasmodium parasites inside host erythrocytes. To maintain a reducing intracellular milieu in an oxygen-rich environment, malaria parasites have evolved a complex antioxidative network based on two central electron donors, glutathione and thioredoxin. Here, we dissected the in vivo roles of both redox pathways by gene targeting of the respective NADPH-dependent disulfide reductases. We show that Plasmodium berghei glutathione reductase and thioredoxin reductase are dispensable for proliferation of the pathogenic blood stages. Intriguingly, glutathione reductase is vital for extracellular parasite development inside the insect vector, whereas thioredoxin reductase is dispensable during the entire parasite life cycle. Our findings suggest that glutathione reductase is the central player of the parasite redox network, whereas thioredoxin reductase fulfils a specialized and dispensable role for P. berghei. These results also indicate redundant roles of the Plasmodium redox pathways during the pathogenic blood phase and query their suitability as promising drug targets for antimalarial intervention strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kathrin Buchholz
- From the Interdisciplinary Research Centre, Justus-Liebig University, Giessen 35390, Germany
- the Biochemistry Centre, Ruprecht-Karls University, Heidelberg 69120, Germany
- the Department of Parasitology, Heidelberg University School of Medicine, Heidelberg 69120, Germany, and
| | - Elyzana D. Putrianti
- the Parasitology Unit, Max Planck Institute for Infection Biology, Berlin 10117, Germany
| | - Stefan Rahlfs
- From the Interdisciplinary Research Centre, Justus-Liebig University, Giessen 35390, Germany
| | - R. Heiner Schirmer
- the Biochemistry Centre, Ruprecht-Karls University, Heidelberg 69120, Germany
| | - Katja Becker
- From the Interdisciplinary Research Centre, Justus-Liebig University, Giessen 35390, Germany
| | - Kai Matuschewski
- the Parasitology Unit, Max Planck Institute for Infection Biology, Berlin 10117, Germany
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Crowther GJ, Napuli AJ, Gilligan JH, Gagaring K, Borboa R, Francek C, Chen Z, Dagostino EF, Stockmyer JB, Wang Y, Rodenbough PP, Castaneda LJ, Leibly DJ, Bhandari J, Gelb MH, Brinker A, Engels IH, Taylor J, Chatterjee AK, Fantauzzi P, Glynne RJ, Van Voorhis WC, Kuhen KL. Identification of inhibitors for putative malaria drug targets among novel antimalarial compounds. Mol Biochem Parasitol 2010; 175:21-9. [PMID: 20813141 DOI: 10.1016/j.molbiopara.2010.08.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/23/2010] [Revised: 08/09/2010] [Accepted: 08/24/2010] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
The efficacy of most marketed antimalarial drugs has been compromised by evolution of parasite resistance, underscoring an urgent need to find new drugs with new mechanisms of action. We have taken a high-throughput approach toward identifying novel antimalarial chemical inhibitors of prioritized drug targets for Plasmodium falciparum, excluding targets which are inhibited by currently used drugs. A screen of commercially available libraries identified 5655 low molecular weight compounds that inhibit growth of P. falciparum cultures with EC(50) values below 1.25μM. These compounds were then tested in 384- or 1536-well biochemical assays for activity against nine Plasmodium enzymes: adenylosuccinate synthetase (AdSS), choline kinase (CK), deoxyuridine triphosphate nucleotidohydrolase (dUTPase), glutamate dehydrogenase (GDH), guanylate kinase (GK), N-myristoyltransferase (NMT), orotidine 5'-monophosphate decarboxylase (OMPDC), farnesyl pyrophosphate synthase (FPPS) and S-adenosylhomocysteine hydrolase (SAHH). These enzymes were selected using TDRtargets.org, and are believed to have excellent potential as drug targets based on criteria such as their likely essentiality, druggability, and amenability to high-throughput biochemical screening. Six of these targets were inhibited by one or more of the antimalarial scaffolds and may have potential use in drug development, further target validation studies and exploration of P. falciparum biochemistry and biology.
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Huthmacher C, Hoppe A, Bulik S, Holzhütter HG. Antimalarial drug targets in Plasmodium falciparum predicted by stage-specific metabolic network analysis. BMC SYSTEMS BIOLOGY 2010; 4:120. [PMID: 20807400 PMCID: PMC2941759 DOI: 10.1186/1752-0509-4-120] [Citation(s) in RCA: 89] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/23/2009] [Accepted: 08/31/2010] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Despite enormous efforts to combat malaria the disease still afflicts up to half a billion people each year of which more than one million die. Currently no approved vaccine is available and resistances to antimalarials are widely spread. Hence, new antimalarial drugs are urgently needed. RESULTS Here, we present a computational analysis of the metabolism of Plasmodium falciparum, the deadliest malaria pathogen. We assembled a compartmentalized metabolic model and predicted life cycle stage specific metabolism with the help of a flux balance approach that integrates gene expression data. Predicted metabolite exchanges between parasite and host were found to be in good accordance with experimental findings when the parasite's metabolic network was embedded into that of its host (erythrocyte). Knock-out simulations identified 307 indispensable metabolic reactions within the parasite. 35 out of 57 experimentally demonstrated essential enzymes were recovered and another 16 enzymes, if additionally the assumption was made that nutrient uptake from the host cell is limited and all reactions catalyzed by the inhibited enzyme are blocked. This predicted set of putative drug targets, shown to be enriched with true targets by a factor of at least 2.75, was further analyzed with respect to homology to human enzymes, functional similarity to therapeutic targets in other organisms and their predicted potency for prophylaxis and disease treatment. CONCLUSIONS The results suggest that the set of essential enzymes predicted by our flux balance approach represents a promising starting point for further drug development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carola Huthmacher
- Institute of Biochemistry, Charité, Monbijoustraße 2, 10117 Berlin, Germany
| | - Andreas Hoppe
- Institute of Biochemistry, Charité, Monbijoustraße 2, 10117 Berlin, Germany
| | - Sascha Bulik
- Institute of Biochemistry, Charité, Monbijoustraße 2, 10117 Berlin, Germany
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Guiguemde WA, Shelat AA, Bouck D, Duffy S, Crowther GJ, Davis PH, Smithson DC, Connelly M, Clark J, Zhu F, Jiménez-Díaz MB, Martinez MS, Wilson EB, Tripathi AK, Gut J, Sharlow ER, Bathurst I, El Mazouni F, Fowble JW, Forquer I, McGinley PL, Castro S, Angulo-Barturen I, Ferrer S, Rosenthal PJ, Derisi JL, Sullivan DJ, Lazo JS, Roos DS, Riscoe MK, Phillips MA, Rathod PK, Van Voorhis WC, Avery VM, Guy RK. Chemical genetics of Plasmodium falciparum. Nature 2010; 465:311-5. [PMID: 20485428 PMCID: PMC2874979 DOI: 10.1038/nature09099] [Citation(s) in RCA: 440] [Impact Index Per Article: 31.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/20/2010] [Accepted: 04/21/2010] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
Abstract
Malaria caused by Plasmodium falciparum is a catastrophic disease worldwide (880,000 deaths yearly). Vaccine development has proved difficult and resistance has emerged for most antimalarials. In order to discover new antimalarial chemotypes, we have employed a phenotypic forward chemical genetic approach to assay 309,474 chemicals. Here we disclose structures and biological activity of the entire library, many of which exhibited potent in vitro activity against drug resistant strains, and detailed profiling of 172 representative candidates. A reverse chemical genetic study identified 19 new inhibitors of 4 validated drug targets and 15 novel binders among 61 malarial proteins. Phylochemogenetic profiling in multiple organisms revealed similarities between Toxoplasma gondii and mammalian cell lines and dissimilarities between P. falciparum and related protozoans. One exemplar compound displayed efficacy in a murine model. Overall, our findings provide the scientific community with new starting points for malaria drug discovery.
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Affiliation(s)
- W Armand Guiguemde
- Department of Chemical Biology and Therapeutics, St Jude Children's Research Hospital, Memphis, Tennessee 38105, USA
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Early transcriptional response to chloroquine of the Plasmodium falciparum antioxidant defence in sensitive and resistant clones. Acta Trop 2010; 114:109-15. [PMID: 20138820 DOI: 10.1016/j.actatropica.2010.01.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/01/2009] [Revised: 01/14/2010] [Accepted: 01/28/2010] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
Resistance to chloroquine (CQ) in Plasmodium falciparum has a major impact on malaria control worldwide. To gain insight into early parasite stress response, mRNA expression profiles were determined for a set of 10 antioxidant defence genes in synchronized CQ-sensitive (3D7) and CQ-resistant (Dd2) clones under transient IC50 CQ-exposure (Dd2, 200 nM; 3D7, 14 nM). Upon 2-h CQ challenge, the mRNA upregulation detected was greater in 3D7 (six genes overexpressed at 1/3 of the intraerythrocytic cycle) than in Dd2 clone (three genes responding), providing evidence of an early transcriptional response to CQ-induced oxidative stress which might underlie some of the parasite's metabolic adaptation to the drug.
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Flavonoids from Artemisia annua L. as antioxidants and their potential synergism with artemisinin against malaria and cancer. Molecules 2010; 15:3135-70. [PMID: 20657468 PMCID: PMC6263261 DOI: 10.3390/molecules15053135] [Citation(s) in RCA: 266] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/26/2010] [Revised: 04/08/2010] [Accepted: 04/19/2010] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Artemisia annua is currently the only commercial source of the sesquiterpene lactone artemisinin. Since artemisinin was discovered as the active component of A. annua in early 1970s, hundreds of papers have focused on the anti-parasitic effects of artemisinin and its semi-synthetic analogs dihydroartemisinin, artemether, arteether, and artesunate. Artemisinin per se has not been used in mainstream clinical practice due to its poor bioavailability when compared to its analogs. In the past decade, the work with artemisinin-based compounds has expanded to their anti-cancer properties. Although artemisinin is a major bioactive component present in the traditional Chinese herbal preparations (tea), leaf flavonoids, also present in the tea, have shown a variety of biological activities and may synergize the effects of artemisinin against malaria and cancer. However, only a few studies have focused on the potential synergistic effects between flavonoids and artemisinin. The resurgent idea that multi-component drug therapy might be better than monotherapy is illustrated by the recent resolution of the World Health Organization to support artemisinin-based combination therapies (ACT), instead of the previously used monotherapy with artemisinins. In this critical review we will discuss the possibility that artemisinin and its semi-synthetic analogs might become more effective to treat parasitic diseases (such as malaria) and cancer if simultaneously delivered with flavonoids. The flavonoids present in A. annua leaves have been linked to suppression of CYP450 enzymes responsible for altering the absorption and metabolism of artemisinin in the body, but also have been linked to a beneficial immunomodulatory activity in subjects afflicted with parasitic and chronic diseases.
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Kapoor G, Banyal HS. Glutathione reductase and thioredoxin reductase: novel antioxidant enzymes from Plasmodium berghei. THE KOREAN JOURNAL OF PARASITOLOGY 2009; 47:421-4. [PMID: 19967095 DOI: 10.3347/kjp.2009.47.4.421] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/06/2009] [Revised: 07/30/2009] [Accepted: 08/03/2009] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
Malaria parasites adapt to the oxidative stress during their erythrocytic stages with the help of vital thioredoxin redox system and glutathione redox system. Glutathione reductase and thioredoxin reductase are important enzymes of these redox systems that help parasites to maintain an adequate intracellular redox environment. In the present study, activities of glutathione reductase and thioredoxin reductase were investigated in normal and Plasmodium berghei-infected mice red blood cells and their fractions. Activities of glutathione reductase and thioredoxin reductase in P. berghei-infected host erythrocytes were found to be higher than those in normal host cells. These enzymes were mainly confined to the cytosolic part of cell-free P. berghei. Full characterization and understanding of these enzymes may promise advances in chemotherapy of malaria.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gaurav Kapoor
- Laboratory of Parasitology and Immunology, Department of Biosciences, Himachal Pradesh University, Shimla 171005, India
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The malarial parasite Plasmodium falciparum imports the human protein peroxiredoxin 2 for peroxide detoxification. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2009; 106:13323-8. [PMID: 19666612 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.0905387106] [Citation(s) in RCA: 75] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Coevolution of the malarial parasite and its human host has resulted in a complex network of interactions contributing to the homeodynamics of the host-parasite unit. As a rapidly growing and multiplying organism, Plasmodium falciparum depends on an adequate antioxidant defense system that is efficient despite the absence of genuine catalase and glutathione peroxidase. Using different experimental approaches, we demonstrate that P. falciparum imports the human redox-active protein peroxiredoxin 2 (hPrx-2, hTPx1) into its cytosol. As shown by confocal microscopy and immunogold electron microscopy, hPrx-2 is also present in the Maurer's clefts, organelles that are described as being involved in parasite protein export. Enzyme kinetic analyses prove that hPrx-2 accepts Plasmodium cytosolic thioredoxin 1 as a reducing substrate. hPrx-2 accounts for roughly 50% of thioredoxin peroxidase activity in parasite extracts, thus indicating a functional role of hPrx-2 as an enzymatic scavenger of peroxides in the parasite. Under chloroquine treatment, a drug promoting oxidative stress, the abundance of hPrx-2 in the parasite increases significantly. P. falciparum has adapted to adopt the hPrx-2, thereby using the host protein for its own purposes.
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Differential inhibition of high and low Mr thioredoxin reductases of parasites by organotelluriums supports the concept that low Mr thioredoxin reductases are good drug targets. Parasitology 2008; 136:27-33. [PMID: 18980703 DOI: 10.1017/s0031182008005131] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Abstract
Thioredoxin reductase (TrxR), a NADPH-dependent disulfide oxidoreductase, is vital in numerous cellular processes including defence against reactive oxygen species, cell proliferation and signal transduction. TrxRs occur in 2 forms, a high Mr enzyme characterized by those of mammals, the malaria parasite Plasmodium falciparum and some worms, and a low Mr form is present in bacteria, fungi, plants and some protozoan parasites. Our hypothesis is that the differences between the forms can be exploited in the development of selective inhibitors. In this study, cyclodextrin- and sulfonic acid-derived organotelluriums known to inhibit mammalian TrxR were investigated for their relative efficacy against P. falciparum TrxR (PfTrxR), a high Mr enzyme, and Trichomonas vaginalis TrxR (TvTrxR), a low Mr form of TrxR. The results suggest that selective inhibition of low Mr TrxRs is a feasible goal.
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