Guggulsterone inhibits NF-kappaB and IkappaBalpha kinase activation, suppresses expression of anti-apoptotic gene products, and enhances apoptosis

Integrating Network Pharmacology and Molecular Docking Approach to Elucidate the Mechanism of Commiphora wightii for the Treatment of Rheumatoid Arthritis

Background

Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is considered a notable prolonged inflammatory condition with no proper cure. Synovial inflammation and synovial pannus are crucial in the onset of RA. The "tumor-like" invading proliferation of new arteries is a keynote of RA. Commiphora wightii (C wightii) is a perennial, deciduous, and trifoliate plant used in several areas of southeast Asia to cure numerous ailments, including arthritis, diabetes, obesity, and asthma. Several in vitro investigations have indicated C wightii's therapeutic efficacy in the treatment of arthritis. However, the precise molecular action is yet unknown.

Material and methods

In this study, a network pharmacology approach was applied to uncover potential targets, active therapeutic ingredients and signaling pathways in C wightii for the treatment of arthritis. In the groundwork of this research, we examined the active constituent-compound-target-pathway network and evaluated that (Guggulsterol-V, Myrrhahnone B, and Campesterol) decisively donated to the development of arthritis by affecting tumor necrosis factor (TNF), PIK3CA, and MAPK3 genes. Later on, docking was employed to confirm the active components' efficiency against the potential targets.

Results

According to molecular-docking research, several potential targets of RA bind tightly with the corresponding key active ingredient of C wightii. With the aid of network pharmacology techniques, we conclude that the signaling pathways and biological processes involved in C wightii had an impact on the prevention of arthritis. The outcomes of molecular docking also serve as strong recommendations for future research. In the context of this study, network pharmacology combined with molecular docking analysis showed that C wightii acted on arthritis-related signaling pathways to exhibit a promising preventive impact on arthritis.

Conclusion

These results serve as the basis for grasping the mechanism of the antiarthritis activity of C wightii. However, further in vivo/in vitro study is needed to verify the reliability of these targets for the treatment of arthritis.

Current stage of preclinical and clinical development of guggulsterone in cancers: Challenges and promises

Throughout human history, the utilization of medicinal herbs has been recognized as a crucial defense against various ailments, including cancer. Natural products with potential anticancer properties, capable of inducing apoptosis in cancer cells, have garnered substantial attention. One such agent under investigation is guggulsterone (GS), a phytosterol derived from the gum resin of the Commiphora mukul tree. This review aims to provide a comprehensive summary of recent studies elucidating the anticancer molecular mechanisms and molecular targets of GS, guiding future research and potential applications as an adjuvant drug in cancer therapy. Recent in vivo and in vitro studies have explored the biological activities of the active ingredients in Commiphora mukul. Specifically, GS emerges as a potential cancer chemopreventive and therapeutic agent. The investigations delve into the impact of GS on constitutively activated survival pathways, including Janus kinase/signal transducer and activator of transcription (JAK/STAT), nuclear factor-kappa B (NF-kB), and PI3-kinase/AKT signaling pathways. These pathways regulate antiapoptotic and proinflammatory genes, exerting control over growth and inflammatory responses. The findings highlight the potential of GS in disrupting survival pathways crucial for cancer cell viability. The inhibition of JAK/STAT, NF-kB, and PI3-kinase/AKT signaling pathways positions GS as a promising candidate for cancer therapy. The review synthesizes evidence from diverse studies, underscoring the multifaceted biological activities of GS in cancer prevention and treatment. To advance our understanding, future clinical and translational studies are imperative to determine effective doses in humans. Additionally, there is a need for the development of new pharmaceutical forms of GS to optimize therapeutic effects. This comprehensive review provides a foundation for ongoing research, offering insights into the potential of GS as a valuable addition to the armamentarium against cancer.

Implication of Oxysterols and Phytosterols in Aging and Human Diseases

Cholesterol is easily oxidized and can be transformed into numerous oxidation products, among which oxysterols. Phytosterols are plant sterols related to cholesterol. Both oxysterols and phytosterols can have an impact on human health and diseases.Cholesterol is a member of the sterol family that plays essential roles in biological processes, including cell membrane stability and myelin formation. Cholesterol can be metabolized into several molecules including bile acids, hormones, and oxysterols. On the other hand, phytosterols are plant-derived compounds structurally related to cholesterol, which can also have an impact on human health. Here, we review the current knowledge about the role of oxysterols and phytosterols on human health and focus on the impact of their pathways on diseases of the central nervous system (CNS), autoimmune diseases, including inflammatory bowel diseases (IBD), vascular diseases, and cancer in both experimental models and human studies. We will first discuss the implications of oxysterols and then of phytosterols in different human diseases.

A Review of the Occurrence of Rheumatoid Arthritis and Potential Treatments through Medicinal Plants from an Indian Perspective

Arthritis is a medical condition that affects the joints and causes inflammation, pain, and stiffness. There are different types of arthritis, and it can affect people of all ages, even infants and the elderly. Recent studies have found that individuals with diabetes, heart disease, and obesity are more likely to experience arthritis symptoms. According to the World Health Organization, over 21% of people worldwide suffer from musculoskeletal problems. Roughly 42.19 million individuals in India, constituting around 0.31% of the populace, have been documented as having Rheumatic Arthritis (RA). Compared to other common diseases like diabetes, cancer, and AIDS, arthritis is more prevalent in the general population. Unfortunately, there is no specific cure for arthritis, and treatment plans usually involve non-pharmacological methods, surgeries, and medications that target specific symptoms. Plant-based remedies have also been shown to be effective in managing inflammation and related complications. In addition to therapies, maintaining a healthy diet, exercise, and weight management are essential for managing arthritis. This review discusses the causes, prevalence, diagnostic methods, current and prospective future treatments, and potential medicinal plants that may act as anti-inflammatory or anti-rheumatic agents. However, more research is necessary to identify the underlying mechanisms and active molecules that could improve arthritis treatment.

Exploring the Promising Role of Guggulipid in Rheumatoid Arthritis Management: An In-depth Analysis

BACKGROUND

Guggulipid, an oleo-gum resin extracted from the bark of Commiphora wightii of the Burseraceae family, holds a significant place in Ayurvedic medicine due to its historical use in treating various disorders, including inflammation, gout, rheumatism, obesity, and lipid metabolism imbalances.

OBJECTIVE

This comprehensive review aims to elucidate the molecular targets of guggulipids and explore their cellular responses. Furthermore, it summarizes the findings from in-vitro, in-vivo, and clinical investigations related to arthritis and various inflammatory conditions.

METHODS

A comprehensive survey encompassing in-vitro, in-vivo, and clinical studies has been conducted to explore the therapeutic capacity of guggulipid in the management of rheumatoid arthritis. Various molecular pathways, such as cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2), vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF), PI3-kinase/AKT, JAK/STAT, nitric oxide synthase (iNOS), and NFκB signaling pathways, have been targeted to assess the antiarthritic and anti-inflammatory effects of this compound.

RESULTS

The research findings reveal that guggulipid demonstrates notable antiarthritic and anti-inflammatory effects by targeting key molecular pathways involved in inflammatory responses. These pathways include COX-2, VEGF, PI3-kinase/AKT, JAK/STAT, iNOS, and NFκB signaling pathways. in-vitro, in-vivo, and clinical studies collectively support the therapeutic potential of guggulipid in managing rheumatoid arthritis and related inflammatory conditions.

CONCLUSION

This review provides a deeper understanding of the therapeutic mechanisms and potential of guggulipid in the management of rheumatoid arthritis. The collective evidence strongly supports the promising role of guggulipid as a therapeutic agent, encouraging further research and development in guggulipid-based treatments for these conditions.

Guggulsterone inhibits migration and invasion through proteasomal and lysosomal degradation in human glioblastoma cells

Glioblastoma multiforme (GBM) is a deadly brain malignancy, and current therapies offer limited survival benefit. The phytosterol guggulsterone (GS) has been shown to exhibit antitumor efficacy. This study aimed to investigate the effects of GS on migration and invasion and its underlying mechanisms in human GBM cell lines. After GS treatment, the survival rate of GBM cells was reduced, and the migration and invasion abilities of GBM cells were significantly decreased. There was also concomitant decreased expression of focal adhesion complex, matrix metalloproteinase-2 (MMP2), MMP9 and cathepsin B. Furthermore, GS induced ERK phosphorylation and autophagy, with increased p62 and LC3B-II expression. Notably, treatment of in GBM cells with the proteasome inhibitor MG132 or the lysosome inhibitor NH4Cl reversed the GS-mediated inhibition of migration and invasion. In an orthotopic xenograft mouse model, immunohistochemical staining of brain tumor tissues demonstrated that MMP2 and cathepsin B expression was reduced in GS-treated mice. GS treatment inhibited GBM cell migration and invasion via proteasomal and lysosomal degradation, suggesting its therapeutic potential in clinical use in the future.

Commiphora myrrh: a phytochemical and pharmacological update

Medicinal plants have a long track record of use in history, and one of them is Commiphora myrrh which is commonly found in the southern part of Arabia, the northeastern part of Africa, in Somalia, and Kenya. Relevant literatures were accessed via Google Scholar, PubMed, Scopus, and Web of Science to give updated information on the phytochemical constituents and pharmacological action of Commiphora myrrh. It has been used traditionally for treating wounds, mouth ulcers, aches, fractures, stomach disorders, microbial infections, and inflammatory diseases. It is used as an antiseptic, astringent, anthelmintic, carminative, emmenagogue, and as an expectorant. Phytochemical studies have shown that it contains terpenoids (monoterpenoids, sesquiterpenoids, and volatile/essential oil), diterpenoids, triterpenoids, and steroids. Its essential oil has applications in cosmetics, aromatherapy, and perfumery. Research has shown that it exerts various biological activities such as anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, anti-microbial, neuroprotective, anti-diabetic, anti-cancer, analgesic, anti-parasitic, and recently, it was found to work against respiratory infections like COVID-19. With the advancement in drug development, hopefully, its rich phytochemical components can be explored for drug development as an insecticide due to its great anti-parasitic activity. Also, its interactions with drugs can be fully elucidated.This review highlights an updated information on the history, distribution, traditional uses, phytochemical components, pharmacology, and various biological activities of Commiphora myrrh. Graphical summary of the phytochemical and pharmacological update of Commiphora myrrh.

Phytochemical Composition of Commiphora Oleogum Resins and Their Cytotoxicity against Skin Cancer Cells

Oleogum resins of the genus Commiphora have been used in traditional medicines for centuries. More than 200 Commiphora species exhibit highly variable phytochemical compositions. A novel highly selective, sensitive, accurate HPLC-MS/MS method was developed and validated to quantify five characteristic phytosteroids and furanosesquiterpenoids, namely (E)-guggulsterone, (Z)-guggulsterone, curzerenone, furanoeudesma-1,3-diene, and myrrhone. The resulting contents and additionally GC analysis were used to classify and differentiate Commiphora oleogum resins of the species C. myrrha, C. erythraea, C. mukul, C. holtziana, C. confusa, and C. kua, as well as unspecified resins. Interestingly, a Commiphora sample from Ogaden, Ethiopia, comprised 446 ng/mg guggulsterones presumed to be unique to C. mukul from the Indian subcontinent. However, Commiphora from Ogaden differed considerably from C. mukul in respect to guggulsterones isomer’s ratio. Moreover, the cytotoxicity of Commiphora extracts, essential oils, botanical drugs containing Commiphora, and pure compounds against the epidermoid carcinoma A431, malignant melanoma RPMI-7951 and SK-MEL-28 cells was investigated in vitro. Thereby, especially C. mukul extract and C. myrrha essential oil exhibited high cytotoxicity against skin cancer cells with IC₅₀ of 2.9–10.9 µg/mL, but were less toxic to normal keratinocytes. In summary, Commiphora oleogum resins and its phytochemicals warrant further investigation aiming at chemotaxonomical classification as well as application in skin cancer treatment.

Counteracting Health Risks by Modulating Homeostatic Signaling

Homeostasis was initially conceptualized by Bernard and Cannon around a century ago as a steady state of physiological parameters that vary within a certain range, such as blood pH, body temperature, and heart rate^1,2. The underlying mechanisms that maintain homeostasis are explained by negative feedbacks that are executed by the neuronal, endocrine, and immune systems. At the cellular level, homeostasis, such as that of redox and energy steady state, also exists and is regulated by various cell signaling pathways. The induction of homeostatic mechanism is critical for human to adapt to various disruptive insults (stressors); while on the other hand, adaptation occurs at the expense of other physiological processes and thus runs the risk of collateral damages, particularly under conditions of chronic stress. Conceivably, anti-stress protection can be achieved by stressor-mimicking medicinals that elicit adaptive responses prior to an insult and thereby serve as health risk countermeasures; and in situations where maladaptation may occur, downregulating medicinals could be used to suppress the responses and prevent subsequent pathogenesis. Both strategies are preemptive interventions particularly suited for individuals who carry certain lifestyle, environmental, or genetic risk factors. In this article, we will define and characterize a new modality of prophylactic intervention that forestalls diseases via modulating homeostatic signaling. Moreover, we will provide evidence from the literature that support this concept and distinguish it from other homeostasis-related interventions such as adaptogen, hormesis, and xenohormesis.

Peedanil Gold, Herbo-Mineral Formulation, Moderates Cytokine Levels and Attenuates Pathophysiology in Monosodium Iodoacetate Induced Osteoarthritis in SD Rat Model

The inflammatory cartilaginous degeneration of the articular joints, mostly those of knee, hips and hands, is osteoarthritis (OA). The available treatment strategies for osteoarthritis are designed for pain relief, molecular targeting, cartilage regeneration and surgical intervention. However, meta-analysis of clinical trials has shown these strategies to be sub-optimal, thereby, eliciting a need for investigating alternative options. The herbo-mineral formulation, Peedanil Gold (PN-G) has been used against joint pains and inflammation. In the current study, anti-osteoarthritic effects of PN-G were investigated in rat model of OA, induced by intra-articular injection of monosodium-iodoacetate. PN-G treatment improved the clinical and Kellgren & Lawrence scores; and rescued the osteoarthritic rats from hyperalgesia and allodynia. Besides, PN-G treatment ameliorated joint inflammation and abrogated in vivo osteoarthritic pathology through effective cartilage regeneration, measured radiologically and histopathologically. PN-G also reduced the levels of interleukin-6 (IL-6) and interleukin-1 beta (IL-1β), in a dose dependent manner, in inflamed human macrophagic THP-1 cells, thereby, reaffirming its anti-inflammatory property at cytosafe concentrations. Ultra High performance liquid chromatography (UHPLC) revealed the presence of several analgesic and anti-inflammatory phytocompounds, like ellagic acid, guggulsterone E, guggulsterone Z, 5-(hydroxymethyl) furfural, corilagin, cinnamic acid, ferulic acid, gallic acid and protocatechuic acid in PN-G. In conclusion, this study has succinctly demonstrated that PN-G is capable of relieving the clinical symptoms of osteoarthritis, which is measurable through the established osteoarthritic serum biomarker, Cartilage Oligomeric Matrix Protein (COMP).

Structure-activity relationship and mechanistic study on guggulsterone derivatives; Discovery of new anti-pancreatic cancer candidate

Pancreatic cancer is one of the deadliest types of malignancies. A new intervention aiming to combat pancreatic cancer is targeting its extra-ordinary ability to tolerate nutrition starvation, a phenomenon known as "Austerity". As a part of a research program aiming to develop a new-generation of anticancer agents, known as "anti-austerity agents", guggulsterone derivatives (GSDs) were identified as unique anti-austerity agents in terms of potency and selectivity. These agents are able to exert preferential cytotoxic activity only under nutrient-deprived conditions with little or no toxicity under normal conditions. In the present study, a library of 14 GSDs was synthesized and screened against PANC-1 human pancreatic cells. Among tested compounds, GSD-11 showed the most potent activity with PC₅₀ a value of 0.72 μM. It also inhibited pancreatic cancer cell migration and colony formation in a concentration-dependent manner. A mechanistic study revealed that this compound can inhibit the activation of the Akt/mTOR signaling pathway. Therefore, GSD-11 could be a promising lead compound for the anticancer drug discovery against pancreatic cancer.

Plant Sterol-Poor Diet Is Associated with Pro-Inflammatory Lipid Mediators in the Murine Brain

Plant sterols (PSs) cannot be synthesized in mammals and are exclusively diet-derived. PSs cross the blood-brain barrier and may have anti-neuroinflammatory effects. Obesity is linked to lower intestinal uptake and blood levels of PSs, but its effects in terms of neuroinflammation—if any—remain unknown. We investigated the effect of high-fat diet-induced obesity on PSs in the brain and the effects of the PSs campesterol and β-sitosterol on in vitro microglia activation. Sterols (cholesterol, precursors, PSs) and polyunsaturated fatty acid-derived lipid mediators were measured in the food, blood, liver and brain of C57BL/6J mice. Under a PSs-poor high-fat diet, PSs levels decreased in the blood, liver and brain (>50%). This effect was reversible after 2 weeks upon changing back to a chow diet. Inflammatory thromboxane B2 and prostaglandin D2 were inversely correlated to campesterol and β-sitosterol levels in all brain regions. PSs content was determined post mortem in human cortex samples as well. In vitro, PSs accumulate in lipid rafts isolated from SIM-A9 microglia cell membranes. In summary, PSs levels in the blood, liver and brain were associated directly with PSs food content and inversely with BMI. PSs dampen pro-inflammatory lipid mediators in the brain. The identification of PSs in the human cortex in comparable concentration ranges implies the relevance of our findings for humans.

Influence of the Bioactive Diet Components on the Gene Expression Regulation

Diet bioactive components, in the concept of nutrigenetics and nutrigenomics, consist of food constituents, which can transfer information from the external environment and influence gene expression in the cell and thus the function of the whole organism. It is crucial to regard food not only as the source of energy and basic nutriments, crucial for living and organism development, but also as the factor influencing health/disease, biochemical mechanisms, and activation of biochemical pathways. Bioactive components of the diet regulate gene expression through changes in the chromatin structure (including DNA methylation and histone modification), non-coding RNA, activation of transcription factors by signalling cascades, or direct ligand binding to the nuclear receptors. Analysis of interactions between diet components and human genome structure and gene activity is a modern approach that will help to better understand these relations and will allow designing dietary guidances, which can help maintain good health.

Synthetic E-guggulsterone derivative GSD-1 inhibits NF-κB signaling and suppresses the metastatic potential of breast cancer cells

Guggulsterone (GS) [4,17(20)-pregnadiene-3,16-dione], is the main active phytosterol constituent in guggul, the gum resin of Commiphora wightii (Arnott.) Bhand./Commiphora mukul Engl. tree, and is known for its medicinal effects. In this study, we report that GSD-1, a structurally-related synthetic GS derivative, strongly inhibits NF-κB activation induced by TNF-α. GSD-1 prevented the nuclear translocation of p65 through the blockade of IκBα degradation and p65 phosphorylation, and further inhibited the activation of upstream kinases, including transforming growth factor-β activated kinase 1 (TAK1), IκB kinase (IKK) α, and IKKβ. Furthermore, GSD-1 inhibited the cell-intrinsic activation of NF-κB, and exerted its direct anti-cancer and anti-metastatic effects in both murine and human breast cancer cell lines. This study demonstrated GSD-1 to be an attractive compound to target NF-κB activation that has potential for treating breast cancer growth and metastasis.

Phytosterols: Targeting Neuroinflammation in Neurodegeneration

Plant-derived sterols, phytosterols, are well known for their cholesterol-lowering activity in serum and their anti-inflammatory activities. Recently, phytosterols have received considerable attention due to their beneficial effects on various non-communicable diseases, and recommended use as daily dietary components. The signaling pathways mediated in the brain by phytosterols have been evaluated, but little is known about their effects on neuroinflammation, and no clinical studies have been undertaken on phytosterols of interest. In this review, we discuss the beneficial roles of phytosterols, including their attenuating effects on inflammation, blood cholesterol levels, and hallmarks of the disease, and their regulatory effects on neuroinflammatory disease pathways. Despite recent advancements made in phytosterol pharmacology, some critical questions remain unanswered. Therefore, we have tried to highlight the potential of phytosterols as viable therapeutics against neuroinflammation and to direct future research with respect to clinical applications.

Differential roles of farnesoid X receptor (FXR) in modulating apoptosis in cancer cells

Cancer is one of the leading causes of mortality in the world. The conventional treatment strategies of cancer are surgery, radiation, and chemotherapy. However, in the advanced stage of the disease chemotherapy is the prime treatment and it is effective in only less than 10% of the patients. Therefore, there is an urgent need to find out novel therapeutic targets and delineate the mechanism of action of these targets for better management of this disease. Recent studies have shown that some of the proteins have differential role in different cancers. Therefore, it is pertinent that the targeting of these proteins should be based on the type of cancer. The nuclear receptor, FXR, is one of the vital proteins that regulate cell apoptosis. Besides, it also regulates other processes such as cell proliferation, angiogenesis, invasion, and migration. Studies suggest that the low or high expression of FXR is associated with the progression of carcinogenesis depending on the cancer types. Due to the diverse expression, it functions as both tumor suppressor and promoter. Previous studies suggest the overexpression of FXR in breast, lung, esophageal, and prostate cancer, which is related to poor survival and poor prognosis in patients. Therefore, targeting FXR with agonists and antagonists play different outcome in different cancers. Hence, this review describes the role of FXR in different cancers and the role of its inhibitors and activators for the prevention and treatment of various cancers.

The Role of Chronic Inflammation in Various Diseases and Anti-inflammatory Therapies Containing Natural Products

Chronic inflammation represents a long-term reaction of the body's immune system to noxious stimuli. Such a sustained inflammatory response sometimes results in lasting damage to healthy tissues and organs. In fact, chronic inflammation is implicated in the development and progression of various diseases, including cardiovascular diseases, respiratory diseases, metabolic diseases, neurodegenerative diseases, and even cancers. Targeting nonresolving inflammation thus provides new opportunities for treating relevant diseases. In this review, we will go over several chronic inflammation-associated diseases first with emphasis on the role of inflammation in their pathogenesis. Then, we will summarize a number of natural products that exhibit therapeutic effects against those diseases by acting on different markers in the inflammatory response. We envision that natural products will remain a rich resource for the discovery of new drugs treating diseases associated with chronic inflammation.

Potential of guggulsterone, a farnesoid X receptor antagonist, in the prevention and treatment of cancer

Cancer is one of the most dreadful diseases in the world with a mortality of 9.6 million annually. Despite the advances in diagnosis and treatment during the last couple of decades, it still remains a serious concern due to the limitations associated with currently available cancer management strategies. Therefore, alternative strategies are highly required to overcome these glitches. The importance of medicinal plants as primary healthcare has been well-known from time immemorial against various human diseases, including cancer. Commiphora wightii that belongs to Burseraceae family is one such plant which has been used to cure various ailments in traditional systems of medicine. This plant has diverse pharmacological properties such as antioxidant, antibacterial, antimutagenic, and antitumor which mostly owes to the presence of its active compound guggulsterone (GS) that exists in the form of Z- and E-isomers. Mounting evidence suggests that this compound has promising anticancer activities and was shown to suppress several cancer signaling pathways such as NF-κB/ERK/MAPK/AKT/STAT and modulate the expression of numerous signaling molecules such as the farnesoid X receptor, cyclin D1, survivin, caspases, HIF-1α, MMP-9, EMT proteins, tumor suppressor proteins, angiogenic proteins, and apoptotic proteins. The current review is an attempt to summarize the biological activities and diverse anticancer activities (both in vitro and in vivo) of the compound GS and its derivatives, along with its associated mechanism against various cancers.

Therapeutic Effect of Guggulsterone in Primary Cultured Orbital Fibroblasts Obtained From Patients with Graves' Orbitopathy

Purpose

Inflammation, hyaluronan production, and adipogenesis are the main pathological events leading to Graves' orbitopathy (GO). Guggulsterone (GS), a phytosterol found in the resin of the guggul plant, is a well-known treatment for several inflammatory disorders, such as arthritis, obesity, and hyperlipidemia. Here we investigated the effects of GS treatment on GO pathology.

Methods

Using primary cultures of orbital fibroblasts from GO patients and non-GO controls, we examined the effects of GS on hyaluronan production and the production of proinflammatory cytokines induced by interleukin (IL)-1β, using real-time reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction analysis, western blots, and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays. Further, adipogenic differentiation was evaluated by quantification of Oil Red O staining and assessment of protein levels of peroxisome proliferator activator gamma (PPARγ), CCAAT-enhancer-binding proteins (C/EBP) α and β, and sterol regulatory element-binding protein-1 (SREBP-1).

Results

Treatment with noncytotoxic concentrations of GS resulted in the dose-dependent inhibition of IL-1β-induced inflammatory cytokines, including IL-6, IL-8, MCP-1, and COX-2, at both mRNA and protein levels. The hyaluronan level was also significantly suppressed by GS. Moreover, GS significantly decreased the formation of lipid droplets and expression of PPARγ, C/EBP α/β, and SREBP-1 in a dose-dependent manner. GS pretreatment attenuated the phosphorylation of nuclear factor-kappa B induced by IL-1β.

Conclusions

Our data show significant inhibitory effects of GS on inflammation, production of hyaluronan, and adipogenesis in orbital fibroblasts. To our knowledge, this is the first in vitro preclinical evidence of the therapeutic effect of GS in GO.

Phytochemical Constituents of Guggul and their Biological Qualities

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In the herbal drug pharmaceutical industry, guggul is enjoying emergent consumer acceptance around the world. In the Indian market, more than fifty formulations of guggul have been introduced by well-known brands including Himalaya, Patanjali and Baidyanath Pharmaceuticals. Basically, guggul is the gum resin from Commiphora wightii (syn. Commiphora Mukul). It has been used to treat various ailments including obesity, osteoarthritis, arthritis, constipation, liver disorders, inflammation, anemia, diabetes, etc. Including medicinal properties, it is used as a good binding agent and mixed in various herbal formulations. To review the major phytochemical, medicinal properties and analytical methods involved in the detection of guggul by using the exhaustive bibliographic research by means of various scientific engines and databases. Guggul contained approximately 66 phytochemical including gallic acid, quercetin, and guggulsterones E and Z. These phytochemicals have a wide range of pharmacological activities such as antioxidant, antibacterial, antimutagenic, antivenom and antitumor. It has been noticed that the mode of action of guggulsterone has not been fully explored. Pharmacology and toxicological studies are very few. These works have shown huge literature gap, which is to be fulfilled through the detailed in-vivo and in-vitro studies.

An Evidence-based Review of Medicinal Plants used in Traditional Persian Medicine for Treatment of Osteoarthritis

Osteoarthritis (OA) is known to be the leading cause of pain and disability in the elderly. The prevalence of this disease in adults over 60 years was 9.6% in men and 18% in women. The therapeutic goals of this disease generally include pain relief with the least side effects, improvement of articular function and improvement of life, in which pharmacological and nonpharmacological treatments are performed in different protocols. Due to the common side effects of pain relievers and complaints after invasive joint surgeries, there is a growing interest in the use of Traditional and Complementary protocols in OA treatment. In this paper, different sources of Traditional Persian Medicine (TPM) were searched to obtain any evidence evaluating any medicinal plants in the management of OA. Over 250 effective medicinal plants for the treatment of OA have been introduced in these sources, and by searching electronic databases including PubMed and Scopus, we have found that of these plants, 39 have direct or indirect evidence in the treatment of this complication by different mechanism of actions such as effect on Body mass index (BMI), obesity and dyslipidemia, anti-inflammatory, anti-nociceptive and antioxidant activity. The most important medicinal plants with direct evidence in the management of OA are Allium sativum, Commiphora mukul, Linum usitatissimum, Matricaria chamomilla, Nigella sativa, Zingiber officinale, and Piper nigrum. Medicinal plants seem to be a valuable source for discovering and identifying new drugs for treatment of OA; however, since most of the studies are preclinical, further clinical trials are required to achieve more conclusive results.

Phytosterols and Inflammation

Besides the well-characterized effect of foods and supplements enriched with plant sterols/stanols on serum LDL-C concentrations, evidence is now emerging that phytosterols exert beneficial effects on non-lipid variables such as inflammatory and oxidative stress markers, coagulation parameters and endothelial function. This makes sterols and stanols an attractive alternative for dietary interventions in cardiovascular disease prevention, particularly in populations at low or medium risk. This review aims to summarize the current knowledge derived from experimental studies and human data on the anti-inflammatory effects of phytosterols/stanols and their relevance in promoting atheroprotection and preventing cardiovascular disease. The anti-inflammatory effects induced by plant sterols/stanols have been demonstrated in in vitro studies and in experimental animal models. However, not all the beneficial effects seen at an experimental level have translated into clinical benefit. Indeed, clinical studies that evaluate the association between phytosterols consumption and inflammatory variables (CRP and cytokines) are inconsistent and have not yet provided a solid answer. Plant sterols have been proposed as useful adjuncts to statin therapy to further reduce the risk of cardiovascular disease. However, there is limited available data and more research needs to be done.

Guggulsterone Activates Adipocyte Beiging through Direct Effects on 3T3-L1 Adipocytes and Indirect Effects Mediated through RAW264.7 Macrophages

Background: Plant-derived phytochemicals have been of emerging interest as anti-obesity compounds due to their apparent effects on promoting reduced lipid accumulation in adipocytes. Despite such promising evidence, little is known about the potential mechanisms behind their anti-obesity effects. The aim of this study is to establish potential anti-obesity effects of the phytochemical guggulsterone (GS). Methods: Mature 3T3-L1 adipocytes were treated with GS, derived from the guggul plant native in northern India, to investigate its effects on mitochondrial biogenesis and adipocyte “beiging.” Further, to explore the relationship between macrophages and adipocytes, 3T3-L1s were treated with conditioned media from GS-treated RAW264.7 macrophages. Markers of mitochondrial biogenesis and beiging were measured by western blot. Results: GS treatment in adipocytes resulted in increased mitochondrial density, biogenesis (PGC1α and PPARγ), and increased markers of a beige adipocyte phenotype (UCP1, TBX1, and β-3AR). This upregulation in mitochondrial expression was accompanied by increases oxygen consumption. In GS-treated macrophages, markers of M2 polarization were elevated (e.g., arginase and IL-10), along with increased catecholamine release into the media. Lastly, 3T3-L1 adipocytes treated with conditioned media from macrophages induced a 167.8% increase in UCP1 expression, suggestive of a role of macrophages in eliciting an anti-adipogenic response to GS. Conclusions: Results from this study provide the first mechanistic understanding of the anti-obesity effects of GS and suggests a role for both direct GS-signaling and indirect stimulation of M2 macrophage polarization in this model.

Raging the War Against Inflammation With Natural Products

Over the last few decade Non-Steroidal Anti-Inflammatory Drugs (NSAIDs) are the drugs of choice for treating numerous inflammatory diseases including rheumatoid arthritis. The NSAIDs produces anti-inflammatory activity via inhibiting cyclooxygenase enzyme, responsible for the conversation of arachidonic acid to prostaglandins. Likewise, cyclooxegenase-2 inhibitors (COX-2) selectively inhibit the COX-2 enzyme and produces significant anti-inflammatory, analgesic, and anti-pyretic activity without producing COX-1 associated gastrointestinal and renal side effects. In last two decades numerous selective COX-2 inhibitors (COXIBs) have been developed and approved for various inflammatory conditions. However, data from clinical trials have suggested that the prolong use of COX-2 inhibitors are also associated with life threatening cardiovascular side effects including ischemic heart failure and myocardial infection. In these scenario secondary metabolites from natural product offers a great hope for the development of novel anti-inflammatory compounds. Although majority of the natural product based compounds exhibit more selectively toward COX-1. However, the data suggest that slight structural modification can be helpful in developing COX-2 selective secondary metabolites with comparative efficacy and limited side effects. This review is an effort to highlight the secondary metabolites from terrestrial and marine source with significant COX-2 and COX-2 mediated PGE2 inhibitory activity, since it is anticipated that isolates with ability to inhibit COX-2 mediated PGE2 production would be useful in suppressing the inflammation and its classical sign and symptoms. Moreover, this review has highlighted the potential lead compounds including berberine, kaurenoic acid, α-cyperone, curcumin, and zedoarondiol for further development with the help of structure-activity relationship (SAR) studies and their current status.

Googling the Guggul (Commiphora and Boswellia) for Prevention of Chronic Diseases

Extensive research during last 2 decades has revealed that most drugs discovered today, although costs billions of dollars for discovery, and yet they are highly ineffective in their clinical response. For instance, the European Medicines Agency has approved 68 anti-cancer drugs, and out of which 39 has reached the market level with no indication of increased survival nor betterment of quality of life. Even when drugs did improve survival rate compared to available treatment strategies, most of these were found to be clinically insignificant. This is a fundamental problem with modern drug discovery which is based on thinking that most chronic diseases are caused by alteration of a single gene and thus most therapies are single gene-targeted therapies. However, extensive research has revealed that most chronic diseases are caused by multiple gene products. Although most drugs designed by man are mono-targeted therapies, however, those designed by "mother nature" and have been used for thousands of years, are "multi-targeted" therapies. In this review, we examine two agents that have been around for thousands of years, namely "guggul" from Commiphora and Boswellia. Although we are all familiar with the search engine "google," this is another type of "guggul" that has been used for centuries and being explored for its various biological activities. The current review summarizes the traditional uses, chemistry, in vitro and in vivo biological activities, molecular targets, and clinical trials performed with these agents.

CD8+ T cells mediate the antitumor activity of frankincense and myrrh in hepatocellular carcinoma

Background

Tumor-promoting inflammation is an emerging hallmark of cancer, which participates in both cancer progression and immune escape. Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is a typical inflammation-related cancer with an extremely poor prognosis. Frankincense and myrrh are anti-inflammation agents commonly used in clinic. The purpose of this study is to investigate whether extract of frankincense and myrrh (FM) downregulates inflammatory microenvironment of HCC and thereby restores antitumor immune responses.

Methods

The water-decocting FM was obtained and quantified. HCC cell lines HCCLM3 and Hepa1-6 were used to evaluate the efficacy of FM targeting NF-κB and STAT3 signaling with western blot and qRT-PCR analysis. CD8⁺NKG2D⁺ cells were derived from human peripheral blood and were used for evaluation of immune cells-mediated inflammation and oncolysis on HCCLM3 cells. The antitumor efficacy of FM was investigated both in immune compromised and immune competent mice bearing subcutaneous HCC. Mice received daily oral gavage of FM at 60 mg/kg. Immune activity within tumor microenvironment (TME) was assessed by ELISpot assay and flow cytometry, respectively. Depletion of CD8⁺ T cells or NK cells was achieved by intraperitoneal injection of respective neutralizing antibody.

Results

FM significantly inhibited the activation of NF-κB and STAT3 signaling in HCC cells induced by cytokines (TNF-α or IL-6) and in co-culture system with CD8⁺NKG2D⁺ cells. Furthermore, FM sensitized HCC cells to CD8⁺NKG2D⁺ cells-mediated oncolysis. In HCC-bearing mice, FM at a non-toxic dose failed to reduce tumor growth in immune compromised mice, whereas it significantly inhibited tumor growth and prolonged life span in immune competent mice. While the number of IFN-γ-producing cells within TME was increased in mice treated with FM, the infiltration of CD8⁺ T cells and NK cells was not increased. Finally, we identified that depletion of CD8⁺ T cells rather than NK cells abrogated the antitumor activity of FM.

Conclusions

Our results show for the first time that CD8⁺ T cells mediate the antitumor activity of FM at a non-toxic dose. This may provide new insights to this ancient mysterious prescription in cancer therapy, which offers a novel and practical therapeutic strategy and the possibilities of combined immunotherapy for HCC as well as other inflammation-related cancers in clinic.

Natural products as modulators of the nuclear receptors and metabolic sensors LXR, FXR and RXR

Nuclear receptors (NRs) represent attractive targets for the treatment of metabolic syndrome-related diseases. In addition, natural products are an interesting pool of potential ligands since they have been refined under evolutionary pressure to interact with proteins or other biological targets. This review aims to briefly summarize current basic knowledge regarding the liver X (LXR) and farnesoid X receptors (FXR) that form permissive heterodimers with retinoid X receptors (RXR). Natural product-based ligands for these receptors are summarized and the potential of LXR, FXR and RXR as targets in precision medicine is discussed.

Binding studies of guggulsterone-E to calf thymus DNA by multi-spectroscopic, calorimetric and molecular docking studies

Guggulsterone, a sterol found in plants is used as an ayurvedic medicine for many diseases such as obesity, internal tumors, ulcers etc. E and Z are two isoforms of guggulsterone, wherein guggulsterone-E (GUGE) has also been shown to have anticancer potential. Most of the anticancer drugs target nucleic acids. Therefore, we studied the mode of interaction between ctDNA and GUGE using UV-Vis, fluorescence and CD spectroscopy, isothermal calorimetry along with molecular docking studies. Hoechst 3325, ethidium bromide and rhodamine-B displacement experiments confirms that GUGE binds in the minor groove of DNA. ITC results further suggest these interactions to be feasible and spontaneous with hydrogen bond formation and van der waals interactions. Lastly, molecular docking also suggests GUGE to be a minor groove binder interacting through a single hydrogen bond formation between OH group of GUGE and nitrogen (N3) of adenosine (A6).

Phytochemicals as potential antidotes for targeting NF-κB in rheumatoid arthritis

Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is a chronic inflammatory autoimmune destructive arthropathy prevalent among people in the age group of 40-70 years. RA induces severe pain, swelling and stiffness of joints resulting in bone damage. RA leads to reduced life expectancy when left untreated. RA is characterized by synovial hyperplasia, infiltration of inflammatory cells resulting in formation of pannus. Synovial hyperplasia is mediated by proinflammatory cytokines, notably IL-1 and TNF-α. NF-κB is a predominant transcription factor in amplifying the inflammatory response. The translocation of activated NF-κB into the nucleus triggers the transcription of several genes that induce proinflammatory cytokine production. The inhibition of NF-κB translocation aids blocking the activation of proinflammatory cascades. The quest for more effective and side-effect free treatment for RA unveiled phytochemicals as efficacious and promising. Phytochemicals have been a source of therapeutic substances for many ailments from ancient times. Their therapeutic ability helps in developing potent and safe drugs targeting immune inflammatory diseases driven by NF-κB including RA. This review highlights the importance of NF-κB inflammatory cascade in RA so as to elucidate the crucial role of phytochemicals that inhibit the activity of NF-κB.

Evaluation of guggulsterone derivatives as novel kidney cell protective agents against cisplatin-induced nephrotoxicity

Guggulsterone derivatives were prepared using [3+2] click chemistry with aryl and alkyl acetylene. The series of derivatives were evaluated for their cellular protective effects on cisplatin-treated cultured LLC-PK1 kidney epithelial cells. Among the guggulsterone-triazole derivatives, compound 6g, which contains a hydroxyl methyl group, was the most active of all the derivatives. In an additional study, we determined that inhibition of the mitogen-activated protein kinase/caspase-3 signaling cascade by 6g mediates its protective effects against cytotoxicity in cultured LLC-PK1 cells.

Potential therapeutic targets of Guggulsterone in cancer

Natural compounds capable of inducing apoptosis in cancer cells have always been of considerable interest as potential anti-cancer agents. Many such compounds are under screening and development with their potential evolution as a clinical drug benefiting many of the cancer patients. Guggulsterone (GS), a phytosterol isolated gum resin of the tree Commiphora mukul has been widely used in Indian traditional medicine as a remedy for various diseses. GS has been shown to possess cancer chemopreventive and therapeutic potential as established by in vitro and in vivo studies. GS has been shown to target constitutively activated survival pathways such as PI3-kinase/AKT, JAK/STAT, and NFκB signaling pathways that are involved in the regulation of growth and inflammatory responses via regulation of antiapoptotic and inflammatory genes. The current review focuses on the molecular targets of GS, cellular responses, and the animal model studies in various cancers. The mechanistic action of GS in different types of cancers also forms a part of this review. The perspective of translating this natural compound into a clinically approved drug with its pros and cons is also discussed.

Effects of triphala and guggul aqueous extracts on inhibition of protein fibrillation and dissolution of preformed fibrils

Herbal preparations such as triphala and guggul aqueous extracts have ability to inhibit protein fibrillation which is known to be an important process responsible for many neurodegenerative and other diseases.

Estimation of Guggulsterone E and Z in the Guggul-based Commercial Formulations Using High-performance Thin-layer Chromatography

Background:

Guggulsterone (GS) is a plant steroid and bioactive compound present in gum Guggul of Commiphora wightii. An Indian herbal medicine system “Ayurveda” has a long history of use of gum Guggul and plant extract of C. wightii as medicine for the treatment of various illnesses. Complex nature, low availability, and inconsistency of phytoconstituents make its analysis of difficult tasks.

Aims:

In this work, six different Guggul-based herbal formulations were examined for estimation of GS and their isomers (E and Z) through high-performance thin-layer chromatography technique.

Materials and Methods:

For that various concentrations of standard E-GS and Z-GS (50 ng–250 ng/spot) with samples (20 μg/spot) were applied on silica gel coated aluminum plate and developed with the mobile phase of toluene: ethyl acetate: formic acid: methanol (6:2:1:0.5). The scanning was performed at 254 nm wavelength and the absorbance (scan) spectrum of E-GS and Z-GS peak was generated at 200 nm–400 nm wavelength range.

Results and Conclusions:

Rf value and scan spectrum pattern of the samples reveal that they contain either one form of GS (E-GS, Z-GS) or both. The quantity of E-GS and Z-GS within the samples was ranged from 0.230 ± 0.0040–0.926 ± 0.0168% to 0.537 ± 0.0026–0.723 ± 0.0177%, respectively.

Targeting arachidonic acid pathway by natural products for cancer prevention and therapy

Arachidonic acid (AA) pathway, a metabolic process, plays a key role in carcinogenesis. Hence, AA pathway metabolic enzymes phospholipase A₂s (PLA₂s), cyclooxygenases (COXs) and lipoxygenases (LOXs) and their metabolic products, such as prostaglandins and leukotrienes, have been considered novel preventive and therapeutic targets in cancer. Bioactive natural products are a good source for development of novel cancer preventive and therapeutic drugs, which have been widely used in clinical practice due to their safety profiles. AA pathway inhibitory natural products have been developed as chemopreventive and therapeutic agents against several cancers. Curcumin, resveratrol, apigenin, anthocyans, berberine, ellagic acid, eugenol, fisetin, ursolic acid, [6]-gingerol, guggulsteone, lycopene and genistein are well known cancer chemopreventive agents which act by targeting multiple pathways, including COX-2. Nordihydroguaiaretic acid and baicalein can be chemopreventive molecules against various cancers by inhibiting LOXs. Several PLA₂s inhibitory natural products have been identified with chemopreventive and therapeutic potentials against various cancers. In this review, we critically discuss the possible utility of natural products as preventive and therapeutic agents against various oncologic diseases, including prostate, pancreatic, lung, skin, gastric, oral, blood, head and neck, colorectal, liver, cervical and breast cancers, by targeting AA pathway. Further, the current status of clinical studies evaluating AA pathway inhibitory natural products in cancer is reviewed. In addition, various emerging issues, including bioavailability, toxicity and explorability of combination therapy, for the development of AA pathway inhibitory natural products as chemopreventive and therapeutic agents against human malignancy are also discussed.

Z-guggulsterone negatively controls microglia-mediated neuroinflammation via blocking IκB-α-NF-κB signals

Induction of pro-inflammatory factors is one of the characteristics of microglial activation and can be regulated by numerous active agents extracted from plants. Suppression of pro-inflammatory factors is beneficial to alleviate neuroinflammation. Z-guggulsterone, a compound extracted from the gum resin of the tree commiphora mukul, exhibits numerous anti-inflammatory effects. However, the role and mechanism of Z-guggulsterone in pro-inflammatory responses in microglia remains unclear. This study addressed this issue in in vitro murine microglia and in vivo neuroinflammation models. Results showed that Z-guggulsterone reduced inducible nitric oxide (iNOS) protein expression as well as nitric oxide (NO), tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) and interleukin-6 (IL-6) production in LPS-stimulated BV-2 cells. Z-guggulsterone also reduced the mRNA level of iNOS, TNF-α, and IL-6. Mechanistic studies revealed that Z-guggulsterone attenuated the LPS-induced degradation of inhibitor κ B-α (IκB-α) as well as the LPS-induced nuclear translocation of nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB). Z-guggulsterone, however, failed to reduce the LPS-induced increase in NF-κB phosphorylation level. These major findings were ascertained in primary microglia where the LPS-induced increases in iNOS expression, NO content, and IκB-α degradation were diminished by Z-guggulsterone treatment. In a mouse model of neuroinflammation, Z-guggulsterone exhibited significant anti-inflammatory effects, which were exemplified by the attenuation of microglial activation and neuroinflammation-induced behavioral abnormalities in Z-guggulsterone-treated mice. Taken together, these studies demonstrate that Z-guggulsterone attenuates the LPS-mediated induction of pro-inflammatory factors in microglia via inhibition of IκB-α-NF-κB signals, providing evidence to uncover the potential role of Z-guggulsterone in neuroinflammation-associated disorder therapies.

Guggulsterone and Its Role in Chronic Diseases

Guggulsterone is a plant sterol derived from gum resin of Commiphora wightii. The gum resin from guggul plants has been used for thousand years in Ayurveda to treat various disorders, including internal tumors, obesity, liver disorders, malignant sores and ulcers, urinary complaints, intestinal worms, leucoderma, sinuses, edema, and sudden paralytic seizures. Guggulsterone has been identified a bioactive components of this gum resin. This plant steroid has been reported to work as an antagonist of certain nuclear receptors, especially farnesoid X receptor, which regulates bile acids and cholesterol metabolism. Guggulsterone also mediates gene expression through the regulation of transcription factors, including nuclear factor-kappa B and signal transducer and activator of transcription 3, which plays important roles in the development of inflammation and tumorigenesis. Guggulsterone has been shown to downregulate the expression of proteins involved in anti-apoptotic, cell survival, cell proliferation, angiogenic, metastatic, and chemoresistant activities in tumor cells. This review aimed to clarify the cell signal pathways targeted by guggulsterone and the bioactivities of guggulsterone in animal models and humans.

Anti-arthritic activity of a classical Ayurvedic formulation Vatari Guggulu in rats

In India, Vatari Guggulu has been traditionally used in the Ayurvedic system of medicine to treat rheumatoid arthritis (RA). The current study was undertaken to evaluate anti-arthritic activity of alcoholic extract of Vatari Guggulu in rats. Arthritis was induced by administration of formaldehyde (2%v/v) or Complete Freund's Adjuvant (CFA) into the sub-plantar surface of left hind paw of the animals. The extract was administered to the rats by oral gavages in different doses. Joint swelling was measured in formaldehyde induced arthritis. Various physical, biochemical and histopathological parameters were determined in CFA induced arthritis. Vatari Guggulu extract (VGE) produced significant (P < 0.05) inhibition of joint swelling in both formaldehyde and CFA induced arthritis. The treatment also brought to normalcy the increased white blood cell (WBC) count, rheumatoid factor (RF), erythrocyte sedimentation rate (ESR), cholesterol, triglycerides and LDL with an enhancement of haemoglobin (Hb) levels and red blood cell (RBC) count. These effects were found to be dose dependent. These effects were comparable with standard drug indomethacin. Histo-pathological studies of the ankles of VGE treated animals exhibited significant improvements. VGE did not show any toxic symptoms even at a dose of 2000 mg/kg in acute toxicity studies on rats. Thus, Vatari Guggulu, a classical Ayurvedic formulation of the Indian System of Medicine, exhibited significant anti-arthritic activity in formaldehyde and CFA induced arthritis in rats. This study corroborates the claims of Ayurveda on Vatari Guggulu.

Carbon-Ion Irradiation Suppresses Migration and Invasiveness of Human Pancreatic Carcinoma Cells MIAPaCa-2 via Rac1 and RhoA Degradation

PURPOSE

To investigate the mechanisms underlying the inhibition of cancer cell migration and invasion by carbon (C)-ion irradiation.

METHODS AND MATERIALS

Human pancreatic cancer cells MIAPaCa-2, AsPC-1, and BxPC-3 were treated by x-ray (4 Gy) or C-ion (0.5, 1, 2, or 4 Gy) irradiation, and their migration and invasion were assessed 2 days later. The levels of guanosine triphosphate (GTP)-bound Rac1 and RhoA were determined by the active GTPase pull-down assay with or without a proteasome inhibitor, and the binding of E3 ubiquitin ligase to GTP-bound Rac1 was examined by immunoprecipitation.

RESULTS

Carbon-ion irradiation reduced the levels of GTP-bound Rac1 and RhoA, 2 major regulators of cell motility, in MIAPaCa-2 cells and GTP-bound Rac1 in AsPC-1 and BxPC-3 cells. Proteasome inhibition reversed the effect, indicating that C-ion irradiation induced Rac1 and RhoA degradation via the ubiquitin (Ub)-proteasome pathway. E3 Ub ligase X-linked inhibitor of apoptosis protein (XIAP), which directly targets Rac1, was selectively induced in C-ion--irradiated MIAPaCa-2 cells and coprecipitated with GTP-bound Rac1 in C-ion--irradiated cells, which was associated with Rac1 ubiquitination. Cell migration and invasion reduced by C-ion radiation were restored by short interfering RNA--mediated XIAP knockdown, indicating that XIAP is involved in C-ion--induced inhibition of cell motility.

CONCLUSION

In contrast to x-ray irradiation, C-ion treatment inhibited the activity of Rac1 and RhoA in MIAPaCa-2 cells and Rac1 in AsPC-1 and BxPC-3 cells via Ub-mediated proteasomal degradation, thereby blocking the motility of these pancreatic cancer cells.

Mitogen-activated protein kinases and Hedgehog-GLI signaling in cancer: A crosstalk providing therapeutic opportunities?

The Hedgehog-GLI (HH-GLI) signaling is of critical importance during embryonic development, where it regulates a number of cellular processes, including patterning, proliferation and differentiation. Its aberrant activation has been linked to several types of cancer. HH-GLI signaling is triggered by binding of ligands to the transmembrane receptor patched and is subsequently mediated by transcriptional effectors belonging to the GLI family, whose function is fine tuned by a series of molecular interactions and modifications. Several HH-GLI inhibitors have been developed and are in clinical trials. Similarly, the mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPK) are involved in a number of biological processes and play an important role in many diseases including cancer. Inhibiting molecules targeting MAPK signaling, especially those elicited by the MEK1/2-ERK1/2 pathway, have been developed and are moving into clinical trials. ERK1/2 may be activated as a consequence of aberrant activation of upstream signaling molecules or during development of drug resistance following treatment with kinase inhibitors such as those for PI3K or BRAF. Evidence of a crosstalk between HH-GLI and other oncogenic signaling pathways has been reported in many tumor types, as shown by recent reviews. Here we will focus on the interaction between HH-GLI and the final MAPK effectors ERK1/2, p38 and JNK in cancer in view of its possible implications for cancer therapy. Several reports highlight the existence of a consistent crosstalk between HH signaling and MAPK, especially with the MEK1/2-ERK1/2 pathway, and this fact should be taken into consideration for designing optimal treatment and prevent tumor relapse.

Guggulsterone, a plant-derived inhibitor of NF-TB, suppresses CDX2 and COX-2 expression and reduces the viability of esophageal adenocarcinoma cells

BACKGROUND/AIMS

Induction by bile acid of caudal type homeobox 2 (CDX2) and cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) expression via nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB) activation is a critical event in the development of Barrett's esophagus (BE) and esophageal adenocarcinoma (EAC). Guggulsterone (GS) is a plant sterol that inhibits NF-κB activity. Here, we evaluated whether GS has either or both chemopreventive or therapeutic effects against EAC.

METHODS

Two EAC cells lines were treated with deoxycholic acid (DCA) in the presence of GS or vehicle. The levels of transcription and translation of IκBα, CDX2, and COX-2 were determined. Prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) levels, cell viability, and cell cycle distribution were assessed as well.

RESULTS

GS inhibited DCA-induced IκBα phosphorylation. GS and the NF-κB inhibitor BAY11-7085 suppressed DCA-induced CDX2 and COX-2 expression in EAC cells. GS also suppressed basal transcription levels of CDX2 and COX-2 and reduced constitutive synthesis of COX-2 and PGE2. Further, GS reduced the viability of EAC cells, increased their numbers in the apoptotic sub-G1 fraction.

CONCLUSION

GS suppressed DCA-induced and NF-κB-dependent activation of CDX2 and COX-2 expression. Further, GS also reduced the viability of EAC cells. GS may serve as candidate for preventing and treating EAC and BE.

Inflammation and Oral Cancer: An Update Review on Targeted Therapies

In the recent past, numerous inflammation-mediated molecular pathways have been explored and studied as important events in carcinogenesis with respect to oral squamous cell carcinoma (OSCC). These pathways are engaged in numerous stages during tumorigenesis; which includes processes, like initiation, promotion, malignant conversion, invasion and metastasis. The inflammation-mediated/related carcinogenesis pathways reported in OSCC involves COX-2, epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR), p38a MAP kinase, NF-kB, STAT, RhoC, PPARy, etc. Many researchers are trying to target these pathways to explore more effective therapeutic interventions in OSCC. The aim of the present paper is to briefly discuss these pathways, with special emphasis on the therapeutic utilities. The therapeutic targets for the aforementioned pathways were searched in databases pubmed and scopus with no restriction to date of publication. Articles published in English medical literature on OSCC were selected for discussion. The recent combinations, modifications in dosage and frequency, or the use of new anti-inflammatory compounds, may exemplify the next generation care for OSCC.

Dietary phytochemicals alter epigenetic events and signaling pathways for inhibition of metastasis cascade: phytoblockers of metastasis cascade

Cancer metastasis is a multistep process in which a cancer cell spreads from the site of the primary lesion, passes through the circulatory system, and establishes a secondary tumor at a new nonadjacent organ or part. Inhibition of cancer progression by dietary phytochemicals (DPs) offers significant promise for reducing the incidence and mortality of cancer. Consumption of DPs in the diet has been linked to a decrease in the rate of metastatic cancer in a number of preclinical animal models and human epidemiological studies. DPs have been reported to modulate the numerous biological events including epigenetic events (noncoding micro-RNAs, histone modification, and DNA methylation) and multiple signaling transduction pathways (Wnt/β-catenin, Notch, Sonic hedgehog, COX-2, EGFR, MAPK-ERK, JAK-STAT, Akt/PI3K/mTOR, NF-κB, AP-1, etc.), which can play a key role in regulation of metastasis cascade. Extensive studies have also been performed to determine the molecular mechanisms underlying antimetastatic activity of DPs, with results indicating that these DPs have significant inhibitory activity at nearly every step of the metastatic cascade. DPs have anticancer effects by inducing apoptosis and by inhibiting cell growth, migration, invasion, and angiogenesis. Growing evidence has also shown that these natural agents potentiate the efficacy of chemotherapy and radiotherapy through the regulation of multiple signaling pathways. In this review, we discuss the variety of molecular mechanisms by which DPs regulate metastatic cascade and highlight the potentials of these DPs as promising therapeutic inhibitors of cancer.

Antiinflammatory effect of phytosterols in experimental murine colitis model: prevention, induction, remission study

Phytosterols, besides hypocholesterolemic effect, present anti-inflammatory properties. Little information is available about their efficacy in Inflammatory Bowel Disease (IBD). Therefore, we have evaluated the effect of a mixture of phytosterols on prevention/induction/remission in a murine experimental model of colitis. Phytosterols were administered x os before, during and after colitis induction with Dextran Sodium Sulfate (DSS) in mice. Disease Activity Index (DAI), colon length, histopathology score, 18F-FDG microPET, oxidative stress in the intestinal tissue (ileum and colon) and gallbladder ileum and colon spontaneous and carbachol (CCh) induced motility, plasma lipids and plasma, liver and biliary bile acids (BA) were evaluated. A similar longitudinal study was performed in a DSS colitis control group. Mice treated with DSS developed severe colitis as shown by DAI, colon length, histopathology score, 18F-FDG microPET, oxidative stress. Both spontaneous and induced ileal and colonic motility were severely disturbed. The same was observed with gallbladder. DSS colitis resulted in an increase in plasma cholesterol, and a modification of the BA pattern. Phytosterols feeding did not prevent colitis onset but significantly reduced the severity of the disease and improved clinical and histological remission. It had strong antioxidant effects, almost restored colon, ileal and gallbladder motility. Plasmatic levels of cholesterol were also reduced. DSS induced a modification in the BA pattern consistent with an increase in the intestinal BA deconjugating bacteria, prevented by phytosterols. Phytosterols seem a potential nutraceutical tool for gastrointestinal inflammatory diseases, combining metabolic systematic and local anti-inflammatory effects.

Commiphora mukul attenuates peripheral neuropathic pain induced by chronic constriction injury of sciatic nerve in rats

OBJECTIVE

The management of neuropathic pain remains unsatisfactory till date, despite immense advances in the therapeutic strategies. Commiphora mukul (CM), also known as Commiphora wightii, is well known in the traditional Indian system of medicine, and has been used to treat ailments such as obesity, bone fractures, arthritis, inflammation, cardiovascular diseases, and lipid disorders. The present study was performed to investigate the effect of CM on peripheral neuropathic pain in rats.

METHODS

Neuropathic pain was induced by the chronic constriction injury of the sciatic nerve. Following this, CM was orally administered for 2 weeks in doses of 50, 100, and 200 mg/kg, and pain assessment was performed by employing the behavioral tests for thermal hyperalgesia (hot-plate and tail-flick tests) and cold allodynia (acetone test).

RESULTS

Following the induction of neuropathic pain, significant development of thermal hyperalgesia and cold allodynia was observed. The administration of CM (50 mg/kg) did not have any effect on the hot-plate and tail-flick tests, but significant anti-allodynic effect was observed in the acetone test. Furthermore, administration of CM (100 mg/kg) caused significant decrease in pain as observed on the tail-flick and acetone tests, but not in the hot-plate test. CM in a dose of 200 mg/kg significantly modulated neuropathic pain as observed from the increased hot-plate and tail-flick latencies, and decreased paw withdrawal duration (in acetone test).

DISCUSSION

Therefore, the present study suggests that CM may be used in future as a treatment option for neuropathic pain.

Inhibition of MAPKs, Myc/Max, NFκB, and hypoxia pathways by Phyllanthus prevents proliferation, metastasis and angiogenesis in human melanoma (MeWo) cancer cell line

BACKGROUND

Melanoma is the most fatal form of skin cancer. Different signalling pathways and proteins will be differentially expressed to pace with the tumour growth. Thus, these signalling molecules and proteins are become potential targets to halt the progression of cancer. The present works were attempted to investigate the underlying molecular mechanisms of anticancer effects of Phyllanthus (P.amarus, P.niruri, P.urinaria and P.watsonii) on skin melanoma, MeWo cells.

METHODS

The ten cancer-related pathways reporter array was performed by transfection of plasmid construct of transcription factor-responsive reporter of each pathway in MeWo cells. The affected pathways in MeWo cells after treatment of Phyllanthus extracts were determined using luciferase assay. Western blot, 2D gel electrophoresis and mass spectrometry analysis were performed to identity and confirm the affected proteins and signalling molecules in treated cells.

RESULTS

The ten-pathway reporter array revealed five different cancer-related signalling pathways were altered by Phyllanthus species in MeWo cells; NFκB, Myc/Max, Hypoxia, MAPK/ERK and MAPK/JNK (p<0.05). Western blot revealed that their intracellular signalling molecules including pan-Ras, c-Raf, RSK, phospho-Elk1, c-myc, Akt, HIF-1α, Bcl-2, and VEGF were down-regulated with concurrent of up-regulation; Bax, phospho-JNK-1/2 and phospho-GSK3β, in MeWo cells upon Phyllanthus treatment (p<0.05). Proteomics-based approach was performed and MS/MS results revealed that 52 differential expressed proteins were identified (p<0.05) and involved in tumour growth, metastasis, apoptosis, glycogenesis and glycolysis, angiogenesis, protein synthesis and energy metabolism.

CONCLUSION

This study provides insight into the regulation on multiple survival signalling pathways by Phyllanthus in melanoma and might be a therapeutic target for cancer treatment.

Guggulipid of Commiphora mukul, with antiallodynic and antihyperalgesic activities in both sciatic nerve and spinal nerve ligation models of neuropathic pain

CONTEXT

Guggulipid is a neutral fraction of ethyl acetate extract of gum resin of the tree Commiphora mukul Engl. (Burseraceae) and used in Ayurvedic medicine for treatment of neurological disorders.

OBJECTIVES

The present study was undertaken to assess the antiallodynic and antihyperalgesic activities of guggulipid in rats.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The screening study included the CCI and L5-L6 SNL models of neuropathic pain. Guggulipid (100 and 50 mg/kg) or saline was administered intraperitoneally in a blinded, randomized manner from postoperative day (POD) 7 to 13. Paw withdrawal duration (PWD) to spontaneous pain, chemical allodynia and mechanical hyperalgesia and paw withdrawal latency (PWL) to mechanical allodynia and thermal hyperalgesia were tested before surgery, before and after guggulipid or saline administration (from POD7 to 13) and after the withdrawal of treatment (from POD14 to 20).

RESULTS

The activity profiles of the different doses of guggulipid were found to vary with time. In CCI rats, guggulipid (100 and 50 mg/kg) significantly (p < 0.05) reduced the spontaneous pain, mechanical allodynia and mechanical and thermal hyperalgesia responses and the LD50 of guggulipid was 1600 mg/kg. In SNL rats, both doses of guggulipid were found to be ineffective in reversing the spontaneous pain but showing antiallodynic and antihyperalgesic activity.

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION

The results demonstrated that guggulipid produce antinociception in the peripheral nerve injury (CCI and SNL) models of neuropathic pain. The underlying mechanisms are expected to be modulating microglial activation occurring due to peripheral nerve injury.

Targeting beta-catenin signaling to induce apoptosis in human breast cancer cells by z-guggulsterone and Gugulipid extract of Ayurvedic medicine plant Commiphora mukul

Background

z-Guggulsterone (z-Gug) and Gugulipid (GL) have been used to treat a variety of ailments. We now report their anti-cancer effect and mechanism against human breast cancer.

Methods

Using the human estrogen receptor-positive (MCF-7) and triple-negative (MDA-MB-231) breast cancer cells as well as the normal human mammary epithelial cell line (HMEC), we evaluated the anti-breast-cancer efficacy and apoptosis inducing activity of GL. We determined the cellular and molecular mechanism of GL-inhibited breast cancer cell growth.

Results

GL significantly inhibited growth of MCF-7 and MDA-MB-231 cells with an IC₅₀~2 μM at pharmacologically relevant concentrations standardized to its major active constituent z-Gug. The GL-induced growth inhibition correlated with apoptosis induction as evidenced by an increase in cytoplasmic histone-associated DNA fragmentation and caspase 3 activity. The GL-induced apoptosis was associated with down-regulation of the β-Catenin signaling pathway. The decreased expression of Wnt/β-Catenin targeting genes, such as cyclin D1, C-myc and survivin, and the inhibition of the activity of the transcription factor (T-cell factor 4, TCF-4) were observed in GL-treated breast cancer cells. The GL treatment resulted in a significant reduction of β-Catenin /TCF-4 complex in both of the cancer cells. The GL-induced apoptotic cell death was significantly enhanced by RNA Interference of β-Catenin and TCF-4. On the other hand, the normal human mammary epithelial cell HMEC, compared with the human breast cancer cells, is significantly more resistant to growth inhibition and apoptosis induction by GL.

Conclusion

The present study indicates that the β-Catenin signaling pathway is the target for GL-induced growth inhibition and apoptosis in human breast cancer.