Characterization of a novel intramolecular chaperone domain conserved in endosialidases and other bacteriophage tail spike and fiber proteins

Polysialic acid regulates glomerular microvasculature formation by interaction with VEGF-A188 in mice

Vascular endothelial growth factor A (VEGF-A) is a key signalling protein that stimulates blood vessel development and repair. Its tight control is essential for organ development and tissue homeostasis. However, the complex regulatory network for balanced bioavailability of VEGF-A is not fully understood. Here, we assessed the role of the glycocalyx component polysialic acid (polySia) for kidney development and its potential interactions with VEGF-A isoforms, in vitro and in vivo, using mouse models of polySia deficiency. PolySia acts as negative regulator of cell adhesion, but also may interact with extracellular components. In murine kidney, polySia was identified on nephron progenitor and endothelial cell subsets in developing nephrons with declining expression during maturation. Loss of polySia in Ncam-/- mice revealed the neural cell adhesion molecule NCAM as major protein carrier. Both polysialyltransferase-negative and Ncam-/- mice displayed impaired glomerular microvasculature development with reduced endothelial cell numbers, reminiscent to the phenotype of mice with impaired VEGF-A signalling. In vitro, immobilized polySia specifically interacted with the VEGF-A188 isoform demonstrating an isoform-specific direct interaction. Single cell RNA sequencing data analysis of newborn mouse kidneys implicated activation of VEGF-A-signalling in polysialyltransferase-positive endothelial cells. Consistently, loss of polySia resulted in diminished VEGFR2 activation in perinatal kidney and human endothelial cells. At transcriptional level, the expression of polysialyltransferases and known polySia carrier proteins is conserved in human developing kidney. Together, these data demonstrate a direct impact of polySia on VEGF-A signalling with the perspective that polysialylation could be a therapeutic target to ameliorate microvasculature repair after renal injury.

Therapeutic and Diagnostic Potential of a Novel K1 Capsule Dependent Phage, JSSK01, and Its Depolymerase in Multidrug-Resistant Escherichia coli Infections

Bacteriophages are viruses that have the potential to combat bacterial infections caused by antimicrobial-resistant bacterial strains. In this study, we investigated a novel lytic bacteriophage, vB_EcoS_JSSK01, isolated from sewage in Hualien, Taiwan, which effectively combats multidrug-resistant (MDR) Escherichia coli of the K1 capsular type. K1 E. coli is a major cause of severe extraintestinal infections, such as neonatal meningitis and urinary tract infections. Phage JSSK01 was found to have a genome size of 44,509 base pairs, producing approximately 123 particles per infected cell in 35 min, and was highly stable across a range of temperatures and pH. JSSK01 infected 59.3% of the MDR strains tested, and its depolymerase (ORF40) specifically degraded the K1 capsule in these bacteria. In a zebrafish model, JSSK01 treatment after infection significantly improved survival, with survival in the treated group reaching 100%, while that in the untreated group dropped to 10% after three days. The functional activity of depolymerase was validated using zone inhibition and agglutination tests. These results indicate that JSSK01 and its substrate-specific depolymerase have promising therapeutic and diagnostic applications against K1-encapsulated MDR E. coli infections.

Targeting Pseudomonas aeruginosa biofilm with an evolutionary trained bacteriophage cocktail exploiting phage resistance trade-offs

Spread of multidrug-resistant Pseudomonas aeruginosa strains threatens to render currently available antibiotics obsolete, with limited prospects for the development of new antibiotics. Lytic bacteriophages, the viruses of bacteria, represent a path to combat this threat. In vitro-directed evolution is traditionally applied to expand the bacteriophage host range or increase bacterial suppression in planktonic cultures. However, while up to 80% of human microbial infections are biofilm-associated, research towards targeted improvement of bacteriophages' ability to combat biofilms remains scarce. This study aims at an in vitro biofilm evolution assay to improve multiple bacteriophage parameters in parallel and the optimisation of bacteriophage cocktail design by exploiting a bacterial bacteriophage resistance trade-off. The evolved bacteriophages show an expanded host spectrum, improved antimicrobial efficacy and enhanced antibiofilm performance, as assessed by isothermal microcalorimetry and quantitative polymerase chain reaction, respectively. Our two-phage cocktail reveals further improved antimicrobial efficacy without incurring dual-bacteriophage-resistance in treated bacteria. We anticipate this assay will allow a better understanding of phenotypic-genomic relationships in bacteriophages and enable the training of bacteriophages against other desired pathogens. This, in turn, will strengthen bacteriophage therapy as a treatment adjunct to improve clinical outcomes of multidrug-resistant bacterial infections.

Functional domains of Acinetobacter bacteriophage tail fibers

A rapid increase in antimicrobial resistant bacterial infections around the world is causing a global health crisis. The Gram-negative bacterium Acinetobacter baumannii is categorized as a Priority 1 pathogen for research and development of new antimicrobials by the World Health Organization due to its numerous intrinsic antibiotic resistance mechanisms and ability to quickly acquire new resistance determinants. Specialized phage enzymes, called depolymerases, degrade the bacterial capsule polysaccharide layer and show therapeutic potential by sensitizing the bacterium to phages, select antibiotics, and serum killing. The functional domains responsible for the capsule degradation activity are often found in the tail fibers of select A. baumannii phages. To further explore the functional domains associated with depolymerase activity, tail-associated proteins of 71 sequenced and fully characterized phages were identified from published literature and analyzed for functional domains using InterProScan. Multisequence alignments and phylogenetic analyses were conducted on the domain groups and assessed in the context of noted halo formation or depolymerase characterization. Proteins derived from phages noted to have halo formation or a functional depolymerase, but no functional domain hits, were modeled with AlphaFold2 Multimer, and compared to other protein models using the DALI server. The domains associated with depolymerase function were pectin lyase-like (SSF51126), tailspike binding (cd20481), (Trans)glycosidases (SSF51445), and potentially SGNH hydrolases. These findings expand our knowledge on phage depolymerases, enabling researchers to better exploit these enzymes for therapeutic use in combating the antimicrobial resistance crisis.

Diversity of Salmonella enterica phages isolated from chicken farms in Kenya

IMPORTANCE

Non-typhoidal Salmonella enterica infections are one of the leading causes of diarrhoeal diseases that spread to humans from animal sources such as poultry. Hence, keeping poultry farms free of Salmonella is essential for consumer safety and for a better yield of animal products. However, the emergence of antibiotic resistance due to over usage has sped up the search for alternative biocontrol methods such as the use of bacteriophages. Isolation and characterization of novel bacteriophages are key to adapt phage-based biocontrol applications. Here, we isolated and characterized Salmonella phages from samples collected at chicken farms and slaughterhouses in Kenya. The genomic characterization of these phage isolates revealed that they belong to four ICTV (International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses) phage genera. All these phages are lytic and possibly suitable for biocontrol applications because no lysogenic genes or virulence factors were found in their genomes. Hence, we recommend further studies on these phages for their applications in Salmonella biocontrol.

Isolation of a widespread giant virus implicated in cryptophyte bloom collapse

Photosynthetic cryptophytes are ubiquitous protists that are major participants in the freshwater phytoplankton bloom at the onset of spring. Mortality due to change in environmental conditions and grazing have been recognized as key factors contributing to bloom collapse. In contrast, the role of viral outbreaks as factors terminating phytoplankton blooms remains unknown from freshwaters. Here, we isolated and characterized a cryptophyte virus contributing to the annual collapse of a natural cryptophyte spring bloom population. This viral isolate is also representative for a clade of abundant giant viruses (phylum Nucleocytoviricota) found in freshwaters all over the world.

Extending the enzymatic toolbox for heparosan polymerization, depolymerization, and detection

Heparosan is an acidic polysaccharide expressed as a capsule polymer by pathogenic and commensal bacteria, e.g. by E. coli K5. As a precursor in the biosynthesis of heparan sulfate and heparin, heparosan has a high biocompatibility and is thus of interest for pharmaceutical applications. However, due to its low immunogenicity, developing antibodies against heparosan and detecting the polymer in biological samples has been challenging. In this study, we exploited the enzyme repertoire of E. coli K5 and the E. coli K5-specific bacteriophage ΦK5B for the controlled synthesis and depolymerization of heparosan. A fluorescently labeled heparosan nonamer was used as a priming acceptor to study the elongation mechanism of the E. coli K5 heparosan polymerases KfiA and KfiC. We could demonstrate that the enzymes act in a distributive manner, producing labeled heparosan of low dispersity. The enzymatically synthesized heparosan was a useful tool to identify the tailspike protein KflB of ΦK5B as heparosan lyase and to characterize its endolytic depolymerization mechanism. Most importantly, using site-directed mutagenesis and rational construct design, we generated an inactive version of KflB for the detection of heparosan in ELISA-based assays, on blots, and on bacterial and mammalian cells.

Identification of three capsule depolymerases in a bacteriophage infecting Klebsiella pneumoniae capsular types K7, K20, and K27 and therapeutic application

BACKGROUND

Klebsiella pneumoniae capsular types K1, K2, K5, K20, K54, and K57 are prevalent hypervirulent types associated with community infections, and worrisomely, hypervirulent strains that acquired drug resistance have been found. In the search for alternative therapeutics, studies have been conducted on phages that infect K. pneumoniae K1, K2, K5, and K57-type strains and their phage-encoded depolymerases. However, phages targeting K. pneumoniae K20-type strains and capsule depolymerases capable of digesting K20-type capsules have rarely been reported. In this study, we characterized a phage that can infect K. pneumoniae K20-type strains, phage vB_KpnM-20.

METHODS

A phage was isolated from sewage water in Taipei, Taiwan, its genome was analyzed, and its predicted capsule depolymerases were expressed and purified. The host specificity and capsule-digesting activity of the capsule depolymerases were determined. The therapeutic effect of the depolymerase targeting K. pneumoniae K20-type strains was analyzed in a mouse infection model.

RESULTS

The isolated Klebsiella phage, vB_KpnM-20, infects K. pneumoniae K7, K20, and K27-type strains. Three capsule depolymerases, K7dep, K20dep, and K27dep, encoded by the phage were specific to K7, K20, and K27-type capsules, respectively. K20dep also recognized Escherichia coli K30-type capsule, which is highly similar to K. pneumoniae K20-type. The survival of K. pneumoniae K20-type-infected mice was increased following administration of K20dep.

CONCLUSIONS

The potential of capsule depolymerase K20dep for the treatment of K. pneumoniae infections was revealed using an in vivo infection model. In addition, K7dep, K20dep, and K27dep capsule depolymerases could be used for K. pneumoniae capsular typing.

Enterococcal bacteriophage: A survey of the tail associated lysin landscape

Bacteriophages are viruses that exclusively infect bacteria which require local degradation of cell barriers. This degradation is accomplished by various lysins located mainly within the phage tail structure. In this paper we surveyed and analysed the genomes of 506 isolated bacteriophage and prophage infecting or harboured within the genomes of the medically important Enterococcus faecalis and faecium. We highlight and characterise the major features of the genomes of phage in the morphological groups podovirus, siphovirus and myovirus, and explore their categorisation according to the new ICTV classifications, with a focus on putative extracellular lysins chiefly within tail modules. Our analysis reveals a range of potential cell-wall targeting enzyme domains that are part of tail, tape measure or other predicted base structures of these phages or prophages. These largely fall into protein domains targeting pentapeptide or glycosidic linkages within peptidoglycan but also potentially the enterococcal polysaccharide antigen (EPA) and wall teichoic acids of these species (i.e., Pectinesterases and Phosphodiesterases). Notably, there is a great variety of domain architectures that reveal the diversity of evolutionary solutions to attack the Enterococcus cell wall. Despite this variety, most phage and prophage possess a putative endopeptidase (70%), reflecting the ubiquity of this cell surface barrier. We also identified a predicted lytic transglycosylase domain belonging to the glycosyl hydrolase (GH) family 23 and present exclusively within tape measure proteins. Our data also reveal distinct features of the genomes of podo-, sipho- and myo-type viruses that most likely relate to their size and complexity. Overall, we lay a foundation for expression of recombinant TAL proteins and engineering of enterococcal and other phage that will be invaluable for researchers in this field.

Overview of the Properties of Glutamic Peptidases That Are Present in Plant and Bacterial Pathogens and Play a Role in Celiac Disease and Cancer

Seven peptidase (proteinase) families─aspartic, cysteine, metallo, serine, glutamic, threonine, and asparagine─are in the peptidase database MEROPS, version 12.4 (https://www.ebi.ac.uk/merops/). The glutamic peptidase family is assigned two clans, GA and GB, and comprises six subfamilies. This perspective summarizes the unique features of their representatives. (1) G1, scytalidoglutamic peptidase, has a β-sandwich structure containing catalytic residues glutamic acid (E) and glutamine (Q), thus the name eqolisin. Most family members are pepstatin-insensitive and act as plant pathogens. (2) G2, preneck appendage protein, originates in phages, is a transmembrane protein, and its catalytic residues consist of glutamic and aspartic acids. (3) G3, strawberry mottle virus glutamic peptidase, originates in viruses and has a β-sandwich structure with catalytic residues E and Q. Neprosin has propyl endopeptidase activity, is associated with celiac disease, has a β-sandwich structure, and contains catalytic residues E-E and Q-tryptophan. (4) G4, Tiki peptidase, of the erythromycin esterase family, is a transmembrane protein, and its catalytic residues are E-histidine pairs. (5) G5, RCE1 peptidase, is associated with cancer, is a transmembrane protein, and its catalytic residues are E-histidine and asparagine-histidine. Microcystinase, a bacterial toxin, is a transmembrane protein with catalytic residues E-histidine and asparagine-histidine. (6) G6, Ras/Rap1-specific peptidase, is a bacterial pathogen, a transmembrane protein, and its catalytic residues are E-histidine pairs. This family's common features are that their catalytic residues consist of a glutamic acid and another (variable) amino acid and that they exhibit a diversity of biological functions─plant and bacterial pathogens and involvement in celiac disease and cancer─that suggests they are viable drug targets.

Magnetic microbead enzyme-linked immunoassay based on phage encoded protein RBP 41-mediated for rapid and sensitive detection of Salmonella in food matrices

Rapid and sensitive quantitative detection methods are required to monitor and detect Salmonella throughout the food supply chain and early prevention of foodborne disease outbreaks. In this study, a magnetic microbead enzyme-linked immunoassay (MELISA) based on phage receptor binding protein was developed for rapid enrichment and detection of Salmonella in complex food matrices. RBP 41 from phage T102 acted as a species-specific recognition element for Salmonella by exploiting its strong binding capacity to Salmonella surface receptors. RBP 41-MBs were prepared by coupling recombinant RBP 41 with MBs and used to separate and enrich Salmonella cells from spiked food samples. The captured complexes were further integrated with ELISA procedures by HRP-labeled anti-Salmonella antibody for rapid and accurate detection of Salmonella. The whole method took <1.5 h and the detection limit was 10 CFU/mL. Therefore, MELISA was successfully developed for the detection of Salmonella in various spiked food samples (skim milk, lettuce, and chicken breast). The ELISA reaction process of this method was carried out on magnetic beads. It simplified the process of the traditional ELISA method and reduces the reaction time. This study expanded the use of phage-associated proteins and demonstrated the promising prospects for practical applications in the detection of foodborne pathogens.

Characterization of Novel Bacteriophage vB_KpnP_ZX1 and Its Depolymerases with Therapeutic Potential for K57 Klebsiella pneumoniae Infection

A novel temperate phage vB_KpnP_ZX1 was isolated from hospital sewage samples using the clinically derived K57-type Klebsiella pneumoniae as a host. Phage vB_KpnP_ZX1, encoding three lysogen genes, the repressor, anti-repressor, and integrase, is the fourth phage of the genus Uetakevirus, family Podoviridae, ever discovered. Phage vB_KpnP_ZX1 did not show ideal bactericidal effect on K. pneumoniae 111-2, but TEM showed that the depolymerase Dep_ZX1 encoded on the short tail fiber protein has efficient capsule degradation activity. In vitro antibacterial results show that purified recombinant Dep_ZX1 can significantly prevent the formation of biofilm, degrade the formed biofilm, and improve the sensitivity of the bacteria in the biofilm to the antibiotics kanamycin, gentamicin, and streptomycin. Furthermore, the results of animal experiments show that 50 µg Dep_ZX1 can protect all K. pneumoniae 111-2-infected mice from death, whereas the control mice infected with the same dose of K. pneumoniae 111-2 all died. The degradation activity of Dep_ZX1 on capsular polysaccharide makes the bacteria weaken their resistance to immune cells, such as complement-mediated serum killing and phagocytosis, which are the key factors for its therapeutic action. In conclusion, Dep_ZX1 is a promising anti-virulence agent for the K57-type K. pneumoniae infection or biofilm diseases.

Potential of bacteriophage proteins as recognition molecules for pathogen detection

Bacterial pathogens are leading causes of infections with high mortality worldwide having a great impact on healthcare systems and the food industry. Gold standard methods for bacterial detection mainly rely on culture-based technologies and biochemical tests which are laborious and time-consuming. Regardless of several developments in existing methods, the goal of achieving high sensitivity and specificity, as well as a low detection limit, remains unaccomplished. In past years, various biorecognition elements, such as antibodies, enzymes, aptamers, or nucleic acids, have been widely used, being crucial for the pathogens detection in different complex matrices. However, these molecules are usually associated with high detection limits, demand laborious and costly production, and usually present cross-reactivity. (Bacterio)phage-encoded proteins, especially the receptor binding proteins (RBPs) and cell-wall binding domains (CBDs) of endolysins, are responsible for the phage binding to the bacterial surface receptors in different stages of the phage lytic cycle. Due to their remarkable properties, such as high specificity, sensitivity, stability, and ability to be easily engineered, they are appointed as excellent candidates to replace conventional recognition molecules, thereby contributing to the improvement of the detection methods. Moreover, they offer several possibilities of application in a variety of detection systems, such as magnetic, optical, and electrochemical. Herein we provide a review of phage-derived bacterial binding proteins, namely the RBPs and CBDs, with the prospect to be employed as recognition elements for bacteria. Moreover, we summarize and discuss the various existing methods based on these proteins for the detection of nosocomial and foodborne pathogens.

Development of Phage Cocktails to Treat E. coli Catheter-Associated Urinary Tract Infection and Associated Biofilms

High rates of antimicrobial resistance and formation of biofilms makes treatment of Escherichia coli catheter-associated urinary tract infections (CAUTI) particularly challenging. CAUTI affect 1 million patients per year in the United States and are associated with morbidity and mortality, particularly as an etiology for sepsis. Phage have been proposed as a potential therapeutic option. Here, we report the development of phage cocktails that lyse contemporary E. coli strains isolated from the urine of patients with spinal cord injury (SCI) and display strong biofilm-forming properties. We characterized E. coli phage against biofilms in two in vitro CAUTI models. Biofilm viability was measured by an MTT assay that determines cell metabolic activity and by quantification of colony forming units. Nine phage decreased cell viability by >80% when added individually to biofilms of two E. coli strains in human urine. A phage cocktail comprising six phage lyses 82% of the strains in our E. coli library and is highly effective against young and old biofilms and against biofilms on silicon catheter materials. Using antibiotics together with our phage cocktail prevented or decreased emergence of E. coli resistant to phage in human urine. We created an anti-biofilm phage cocktail with broad host range against E. coli strains isolated from urine. These phage cocktails may have therapeutic potential against CAUTI.

Viral Proteins Involved in the Adsorption Process of Deep-Purple, a Siphovirus Infecting Members of the Bacillus cereus Group

The infection of a bacterium by a tailed phage starts from the adsorption process, which consists of a specific and strong interaction between viral proteins called receptor binding proteins (RBPs) and receptors located on the bacterial surface. In addition to RBPs, other tail proteins, such as evolved distal tail (evoDit) proteins and tail lysins, harboring carbohydrate binding modules (CBMs) have been shown to facilitate the phage adsorption by interacting with host polysaccharides. In this work, the proteins involved in the adsorption of Deep-Purple, a siphovirus targeting bacteria of the Bacillus cereus group, were studied. Bioinformatic analysis of Deep-Purple tail protein region revealed that it contains two proteins presenting CBM domains: Gp28, an evoDit protein, and Gp29, the potential RBP. The implication of both proteins in the adsorption of Deep-Purple particles was confirmed through cell wall decoration assays. Interestingly, whereas RBP-Gp29 exhibited the same host spectrum as Deep-Purple, evoDit-Gp28 was able to bind to many B. cereus group strains, including some that are not sensitive to the phage infection. Using immunogold microscopy, both proteins were shown to be located in the phage baseplate. Additionally, an in silico analysis of the tail regions encoded by several Siphoviridae infecting the B. cereus group was performed. It revealed that although the tail organization displayed by Deep-Purple is the most prevalent, different tail arrangements are observed, suggesting that distinct baseplate organization and adsorption mechanisms are encountered in siphoviruses targeting the B. cereus group.

IMPORTANCE The B. cereus group is a complex cluster of closely related species, among which certain strains can be pathogenic (i.e., Bacillus anthracis, Bacillus cereussensu stricto, and Bacillus cytotoxicus). Nowadays, phages are receiving increasing attention for applications in controlling and detecting such pathogens. Thus, understanding the molecular mechanisms governing the phage adsorption to its bacterial host is paramount as this step is a key determinant of the phage host spectrum. Until now, the knowledge regarding the adsorption process of tailed phage targeting the B. cereus groups was mainly restricted to the phage gamma infecting B. anthracis. With this work, we provide novel insights into the adsorption of Deep-Purple, a siphovirus infecting the B. cereus group. We showed that this phage recognizes polysaccharides and relies on two different viral proteins for its successful adsorption.

Phenotypic and Genomic Comparison of Klebsiella pneumoniae Lytic Phages: vB_KpnM-VAC66 and vB_KpnM-VAC13

Klebsiella pneumoniae is a human pathogen that worsens the prognosis of many immunocompromised patients. Here, we annotated and compared the genomes of two lytic phages that infect clinical strains of K. pneumoniae (vB_KpnM-VAC13 and vB_KpnM-VAC66) and phenotypically characterized vB_KpnM-VAC66 (time of adsorption of 12 min, burst size of 31.49 ± 0.61 PFU/infected cell, and a host range of 20.8% of the tested strains). Transmission electronic microscopy showed that vB_KpnM-VAC66 belongs to the Myoviridae family. The genomic analysis of the phage vB_KpnM-VAC66 revealed that its genome encoded 289 proteins. When compared to the genome of vB_KpnM-VAC13, they showed a nucleotide similarity of 97.56%, with a 93% of query cover, and the phylogenetic study performed with other Tevenvirinae phages showed a close common ancestor. However, there were 21 coding sequences which differed. Interestingly, the main differences were that vB_KpnM-VAC66 encoded 10 more homing endonucleases than vB_KpnM-VAC13, and that the nucleotidic and amino-acid sequences of the L-shaped tail fiber protein were highly dissimilar, leading to different three-dimensional protein predictions. Both phages differed significantly in their host range. These viruses may be useful in the development of alternative therapies to antibiotics or as a co-therapy increasing its antimicrobial potential, especially when addressing multidrug resistant (MDR) pathogens.

Unpuzzling Friunavirus-Host Interactions One Piece at a Time: Phage Recognizes Acinetobacter pittii via a New K38 Capsule Depolymerase

Acinetobacter pittii is a species that belong to the Acinetobacter calcoaceticus-baumannii complex, increasingly recognized as major nosocomial bacterial pathogens, often associated with multiple drug-resistances. The capsule surrounding the bacteria represents a main virulence factor, helping cells avoid phage predation and host immunity. Accordingly, a better understanding of the phage infection mechanisms is required to efficiently develop phage therapy against Acinetobacter of different capsular types. Here, we report the isolation of the novel A. pittii-infecting Fri1-like phage vB_Api_3043-K38 (3043-K38) of the Podoviridae morphotype, from sewage samples. Its 41,580 bp linear double-stranded DNA genome harbours 53 open reading frames and 302 bp of terminal repeats. We show that all studied Acinetobacter Fri1-like viruses have highly similar genomes, which differentiate only at the genes coding for tailspike, likely to adapt to different host receptors. The isolated phage 3043-K38 specifically recognizes an untapped Acinetobacter K38 capsule type via a novel tailspike with K38 depolymerase activity. The recombinant K38 depolymerase region of the tailspike (center-end region) forms a thermostable trimer, and quickly degrades capsules. When the K38 depolymerase is applied to the cells, it makes them resistant to phage predation. Interestingly, while K38 depolymerase treatments do not synergize with antibiotics, it makes bacterial cells highly susceptible to the host serum complement. In summary, we characterized a novel phage-encoded K38 depolymerase, which not only advances our understanding of phage-host interactions, but could also be further explored as a new antibacterial agent against drug-resistant Acinetobacter.

Crystal structure of the MyRF ICA domain with its upstream β-helical stalk reveals the molecular mechanisms underlying its trimerization and self-cleavage

Myelin gene regulatory factor (MyRF), a novel membrane transcription factor expressed on the endoplasmic reticulum membrane, functions as a trimer. The trimerization of MyRF is associated with a fragment between the DNA binding domain and transmembrane domain that shares homology with the triple-β-helix and intramolecular chaperone autocleavage (ICA) domain of phage tailspike proteins. The molecular details of these domains in eukaryotes have not been elucidated. Here, we present the crystal structure of the MyRF ICA domain with its upstream β-helical stalk, determined at 2.4Å resolution. The structure showed that its upstream β-helical stalk is different from the triple β-helix reported before. This is the first structure of the mammalian protein with a triple β-helix. Structure analysis demonstrated that the triple α-helical coiled-coil formed at the MyRF ICA domain C-terminal was the main driving force for the trimerization. Additionally, our findings showed that MyRF was cleaved via a highly conserved serine-lysine catalytic dyad mechanism and that cleavage would be activated only if the ICA domains were organized as trimers. In contrast to the viral ICA domain, almost no interaction was found between the MyRF ICA domain and its upstream neighboring β-helix of the stalk; thus, activation of self-cleavage may not be triggered by the upstream region of the ICA domain, contrary to the observations made in phages. These findings provided an important insight into the molecular mechanisms of MyRF trimerization and self-cleavage.

Structural and functional characterization of the receptor binding proteins of Escherichia coli O157 phages EP75 and EP335

Bacteriophages (phages) are widely used as biocontrol agents in food and as antibacterial agents for treatment of food production plant surfaces. An important feature of such phages is broad infectivity towards a given pathogenic species. Phages attach to the surfaces of bacterial cells using receptor binding proteins (RBPs), namely tail fibers or tailspikes (TSPs). The binding range of RBPs is the primary determinant of phage host range and infectivity, and therefore dictates a phage's suitability as an antibacterial agent. Phages EP75 and EP335 broadly infect strains of E. coli serotype O157. To better understand host recognition by both phages, here we focused on characterizing the structures and functions of their RBPs. We identified two distinct tail fibers in the genome of the podovirus EP335: gp12 and gp13. Using fluorescence microscopy, we reveal how gp13 recognizes strains of E. coli serotypes O157 and O26. Phage EP75 belongs to the Kuttervirus genus within the Ackermannviridae family and features a four TSP complex (TSPs 1-4) that is universal among such phages. We demonstrate enzymatic activity of TSP1 (gp167) and TSP2 (gp168) toward the O18A and O157 O-antigens of E. coli, respectively, as well as TSP3 activity (gp169.1) against O4, O7, and O9 Salmonella O-antigens. TSPs of EP75 present high similarity to TSPs from E. coli phages CBA120 (TSP2) and HK620 (TSP1) and Salmonella myovirus Det7 (TSP3), which helps explain the cross-genus infectivity observed for EP75.

The LRR-TM protein PAN-1 interacts with MYRF to promote its nuclear translocation in synaptic remodeling

Neural circuits develop through a plastic phase orchestrated by genetic programs and environmental signals. We have identified a leucine-rich-repeat domain transmembrane protein PAN-1 as a factor required for synaptic rewiring in C. elegans. PAN-1 localizes on cell membrane and binds with MYRF, a membrane-bound transcription factor indispensable for promoting synaptic rewiring. Full-length MYRF was known to undergo self-cleavage on ER membrane and release its transcriptional N-terminal fragment in cultured cells. We surprisingly find that MYRF trafficking to cell membrane before cleavage is pivotal for C. elegans development and the timing of N-MYRF release coincides with the onset of synaptic rewiring. On cell membrane PAN-1 and MYRF interact with each other via their extracellular regions. Loss of PAN-1 abolishes MYRF cell membrane localization, consequently blocking myrf-dependent neuronal rewiring process. Thus, through interactions with a cooperating factor on the cell membrane, MYRF may link cell surface activities to transcriptional cascades required for development.

Reprogramming bacteriophage host range: design principles and strategies for engineering receptor binding proteins

Bacteriophages (phages) use specialized tail machinery to deliver proteins and genetic material into a bacterial cell during infection. Attached at the distal ends of their tails are receptor binding proteins (RBPs) that recognize specific molecules exposed on host bacteria surfaces. Since the therapeutic capacity of naturally occurring phages is often limited by narrow host ranges, there is significant interest in expanding their host range via directed evolution or structure-guided engineering of their RBPs. Here, we describe the design principles of different RBP engineering platforms and draw attention to the mechanisms linking RBP binding and the correct spatial and temporal attachment of the phage to the bacterial surface. A deeper understanding of these mechanisms will directly benefit future engineering of more effective phage-based therapeutics.

Jumbo Phages: A Comparative Genomic Overview of Core Functions and Adaptions for Biological Conflicts

Jumbo phages have attracted much attention by virtue of their extraordinary genome size and unusual aspects of biology. By performing a comparative genomics analysis of 224 jumbo phages, we suggest an objective inclusion criterion based on genome size distributions and present a synthetic overview of their manifold adaptations across major biological systems. By means of clustering and principal component analysis of the phyletic patterns of conserved genes, all known jumbo phages can be classified into three higher-order groups, which include both myoviral and siphoviral morphologies indicating multiple independent origins from smaller predecessors. Our study uncovers several under-appreciated or unreported aspects of the DNA replication, recombination, transcription and virion maturation systems. Leveraging sensitive sequence analysis methods, we identify novel protein-modifying enzymes that might help hijack the host-machinery. Focusing on host–virus conflicts, we detect strategies used to counter different wings of the bacterial immune system, such as cyclic nucleotide- and NAD⁺-dependent effector-activation, and prevention of superinfection during pseudolysogeny. We reconstruct the RNA-repair systems of jumbo phages that counter the consequences of RNA-targeting host effectors. These findings also suggest that several jumbo phage proteins provide a snapshot of the systems found in ancient replicons preceding the last universal ancestor of cellular life.

Alteromonas Myovirus V22 Represents a New Genus of Marine Bacteriophages Requiring a Tail Fiber Chaperone for Host Recognition

Marine phages play a variety of critical roles in regulating the microbial composition of our oceans. Despite constituting the majority of genetic diversity within these environments, there are relatively few isolates with complete genome sequences or in-depth analyses of their host interaction mechanisms, such as characterization of their receptor binding proteins (RBPs). Here, we present the 92,760-bp genome of the Alteromonas-targeting phage V22. Genomic and morphological analyses identify V22 as a myovirus; however, due to a lack of sequence similarity to any other known myoviruses, we propose that V22 be classified as the type phage of a new Myoalterovirus genus within the Myoviridae family. V22 shows gene homology and synteny with two different subfamilies of phages infecting enterobacteria, specifically within the structural region of its genome. To improve our understanding of the V22 adsorption process, we identified putative RBPs (gp23, gp24, and gp26) and tested their ability to decorate the V22 propagation strain, Alteromonas mediterranea PT11, as recombinant green fluorescent protein (GFP)-tagged constructs. Only GFP-gp26 was capable of bacterial recognition and identified as the V22 RBP. Interestingly, production of functional GFP-gp26 required coexpression with the downstream protein gp27. GFP-gp26 could be expressed alone but was incapable of host recognition. By combining size-exclusion chromatography with fluorescence microscopy, we reveal how gp27 is not a component of the final RBP complex but instead is identified as a new type of phage-encoded intermolecular chaperone that is essential for maturation of the gp26 RBP.IMPORTANCE Host recognition by phage-encoded receptor binding proteins (RBPs) constitutes the first step in all phage infections and the most critical determinant of host specificity. By characterizing new types of RBPs and identifying their essential chaperones, we hope to expand the repertoire of known phage-host recognition machineries. Due to their genetic plasticity, studying RBPs and their associated chaperones can shed new light onto viral evolution affecting phage-host interactions, which is essential for fields such as phage therapy or biotechnology. In addition, since marine phages constitute one of the most important reservoirs of noncharacterized genetic diversity on the planet, their genomic and functional characterization may be of paramount importance for the discovery of novel genes with potential applications.

Functional mechanism and pathogenic potential of MYRF ICA domain mutations implicated in birth defects

Myrf is a membrane-bound transcription factor that plays a key role in various biological processes. The Intramolecular Chaperone Auto-processing (ICA) domain of Myrf forms a homo-trimer, which carries out the auto-cleavage of Myrf. The ICA homo-trimer-mediated auto-cleavage of Myrf is a prerequisite for its transcription factor function in the nucleus. Recent exome sequencing studies have implicated two MYRF ICA domain mutations (V679A and R695H) in a novel syndromic form of birth defects. It remains unknown whether and how the two mutations impact the transcription factor function of Myrf and, more importantly, how they are pathogenic for congenital anomalies. Here, we show that V679A and R695H cripple the ICA domain, blocking the auto-cleavage of Myrf. Consequently, Myrf-V679A and Myrf-R695H do not exhibit any transcriptional activity. Molecular modeling suggests that V679A and R695H abrogate the auto-cleavage function of the ICA homo-trimer by destabilizing its homo-trimeric assembly. We also found that the ICA homo-trimer can tolerate one copy of Myrf-V679A or Myrf-R695H for its auto-cleavage function, indicating that V679A and R695H are not dominant negatives. Thus, if V679A and R695H in a heterozygous state caused birth defects, it would be via haploinsufficiency of MYRF.

Yersinia Phages and Food Safety

One of the human- and animal-pathogenic species in genus Yersinia is Yersinia enterocolitica, a food-borne zoonotic pathogen that causes enteric infections, mesenteric lymphadenitis, and sometimes sequelae such as reactive arthritis and erythema nodosum. Y. enterocolitica is able to proliferate at 4 C, making it dangerous if contaminated food products are stored under refrigeration. The most common source of Y. enterocolitica is raw pork meat. Microbiological detection of the bacteria from food products is hampered by its slow growth rate as other bacteria overgrow it. Bacteriophages can be exploited in several ways to increase food safety with regards to contamination by Y. enterocolitica. For example, Yersinia phages could be useful in keeping the contamination of food products under control, or, alternatively, the specificity of the phages could be exploited in developing rapid and sensitive diagnostic tools for the identification of the bacteria in food products. In this review, we will discuss the present state of the research on these topics.

Modeling the Architecture of Depolymerase-Containing Receptor Binding Proteins in Klebsiella Phages

Klebsiella pneumoniae carries a thick polysaccharide capsule. This highly variable chemical structure plays an important role in its virulence. Many Klebsiella bacteriophages recognize this capsule with a receptor binding protein (RBP) that contains a depolymerase domain. This domain degrades the capsule to initiate phage infection. RBPs are highly specific and thus largely determine the host spectrum of the phage. A majority of known Klebsiella phages have only one or two RBPs, but phages with up to 11 RBPs with depolymerase activity and a broad host spectrum have been identified. A detailed bioinformatic analysis shows that similar RBP domains repeatedly occur in K. pneumoniae phages with structural RBP domains for attachment of an RBP to the phage tail (anchor domain) or for branching of RBPs (T4gp10-like domain). Structural domains determining the RBP architecture are located at the N-terminus, while the depolymerase is located in the center of protein. Occasionally, the RBP is complemented with an autocleavable chaperone domain at the distal end serving for folding and multimerization. The enzymatic domain is subjected to an intense horizontal transfer to rapidly shift the phage host spectrum without affecting the RBP architecture. These analyses allowed to model a set of conserved RBP architectures, indicating evolutionary linkages.

Elucidating the transactivation domain of the pleiotropic transcription factor Myrf

Myrf is a newly discovered membrane-bound transcription factor that plays an essential role in as diverse organisms as human, worm, and slime mold. Myrf is generated as a type-II membrane protein in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER). It forms homo-oligomers to undergo auto-cleavage that releases Myrf N-terminal fragment from the ER membrane as a homo-trimer. The homo-trimer of Myrf N-terminal fragments enters the nucleus and binds the Myrf motif to activate transcription. Despite its prominent role as a transcriptional activator, little is known about the transactivation domain of Myrf. Here, we report that the N-terminal-most (NTM) domain of Myrf is required for transcriptional activity and, when fused to a Gal4 fragment, enables it to activate transcription. The transactivation function of the NTM domain did not require homo-trimerization. We also discovered that the NTM domain can be sumoylated at three lysine residues (K123, K208, and K276), with K276 serving as the main acceptor. K276 sumoylation repressed the transactivation function of the NTM domain without affecting the stability or nuclear localization of Myrf N-terminal fragment. In sum, this study identifies the NTM domain as the transactivation domain of Myrf and the potential regulatory impact of its K276 sumoylation.

Proteolytic Cleavage-Mechanisms, Function, and "Omic" Approaches for a Near-Ubiquitous Posttranslational Modification

Proteases enzymatically hydrolyze peptide bonds in substrate proteins, resulting in a widespread, irreversible posttranslational modification of the protein's structure and biological function. Often regarded as a mere degradative mechanism in destruction of proteins or turnover in maintaining physiological homeostasis, recent research in the field of degradomics has led to the recognition of two main yet unexpected concepts. First, that targeted, limited proteolytic cleavage events by a wide repertoire of proteases are pivotal regulators of most, if not all, physiological and pathological processes. Second, an unexpected in vivo abundance of stable cleaved proteins revealed pervasive, functionally relevant protein processing in normal and diseased tissue-from 40 to 70% of proteins also occur in vivo as distinct stable proteoforms with undocumented N- or C-termini, meaning these proteoforms are stable functional cleavage products, most with unknown functional implications. In this Review, we discuss the structural biology aspects and mechanisms of catalysis by different protease classes. We also provide an overview of biological pathways that utilize specific proteolytic cleavage as a precision control mechanism in protein quality control, stability, localization, and maturation, as well as proteolytic cleavage as a mediator in signaling pathways. Lastly, we provide a comprehensive overview of analytical methods and approaches to study activity and substrates of proteolytic enzymes in relevant biological models, both historical and focusing on state of the art proteomics techniques in the field of degradomics research.

Targeting polysialic acid-abundant cancers using oncolytic adenoviruses with fibers fused to active bacteriophage borne endosialidase

Genetic replacement of adenoviral fiber knobs by ligands that enable tumor specific targeting of oncolytic adenoviruses is challenging because the fiber knob contributes to virus assembly. Here, we present a novel concept by describing stable recombinant adenoviruses with tumor specific infection mode. The fiber knob was replaced by endosialidaseNF (endoNF), the tailspike protein of bacteriophage K1F. EndoNF recognizes polysialic acid, an oncofetal antigen characteristic for high malignant tumors of neuroendocrine origin. An intramolecular chaperone contained in endoNF warrants folding and compensates for the knob function in virus assembly. Obtained recombinant viruses demonstrated polysialic acid dependent infection modes, strong oncolytic capacity with polysialic acid positive cells in culture and a high potential to inhibit tumor growth in a therapeutic mouse model of subcutaneous neuroblastoma. With a single genetic manipulation we achieved ablation of the fiber knob, introduction of a tumor specific ligand, and folding control over the chimeric fiber construct.

Therapeutic Application of Phage Capsule Depolymerases against K1, K5, and K30 Capsulated E. coli in Mice

Capsule depolymerase enzymes offer a promising class of new antibiotics. In vivo studies are encouraging but it is unclear how well this type of phage product will generalize in therapeutics, or whether different depolymerases against the same capsule function similarly. Here, in vivo efficacy was tested using cloned bacteriophage depolymerases against Escherichia coli strains with three different capsule types: K1, K5, and K30. When treating infections with the cognate capsule type in a mouse thigh model, the previously studied K1E depolymerase rescued poorly, whereas K1F, K1H, K5, and K30 depolymerases rescued well. K30 gp41 was identified as the catalytically active protein. In contrast to the in vivo studies, K1E enzyme actively degraded K1 capsule polysaccharide in vitro and sensitized K1 bacteria to serum killing. The only in vitro correlate of poor K1E performance in vivo was that the purified enzyme did not form the expected trimer. K1E appeared as an 18-mer which might limit its in vivo distribution. Overall, depolymerases were easily identified, cloned from phage genomes, and as purified proteins they proved generally effective.

Homo-trimerization is essential for the transcription factor function of Myrf for oligodendrocyte differentiation

Myrf is a key transcription factor for oligodendrocyte differentiation and central nervous system myelination. We and others have previously shown that Myrf is generated as a membrane protein in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER), and that it undergoes auto-processing to release its N-terminal fragment from the ER, which enters the nucleus to work as a transcription factor. These previous studies allow a glimpse into the unusual complexity behind the biogenesis and function of the transcription factor domain of Myrf. Here, we report that Myrf N-terminal fragments assemble into stable homo-trimers before ER release. Consequently, Myrf N-terminal fragments are released from the ER only as homo-trimers. Our re-analysis of a previous genetic screening result in Caenorhabditis elegans shows that homo-trimerization is essential for the biological functions of Myrf N-terminal fragment, and that the region adjacent to the DNA-binding domain is pivotal to its homo-trimerization. Further, our computational analysis uncovered a novel homo-trimeric DNA motif that mediates the homo-trimeric DNA binding of Myrf N-terminal fragments. Importantly, we found that homo-trimerization defines the DNA binding specificity of Myrf N-terminal fragments. In sum, our study elucidates the molecular mechanism governing the biogenesis and function of Myrf N-terminal fragments and its physiological significance.

Structure of the Receptor-Binding Carboxy-Terminal Domain of the Bacteriophage T5 L-Shaped Tail Fibre with and without Its Intra-Molecular Chaperone

Bacteriophage T5, a Siphovirus belonging to the order Caudovirales, has a flexible, three-fold symmetric tail, to which three L-shaped fibres are attached. These fibres recognize oligo-mannose units on the bacterial cell surface prior to infection and are composed of homotrimers of the pb1 protein. Pb1 has 1396 amino acids, of which the carboxy-terminal 133 residues form a trimeric intra-molecular chaperone that is auto-proteolyzed after correct folding. The structure of a trimer of residues 970–1263 was determined by single anomalous dispersion phasing using incorporated selenomethionine residues and refined at 2.3 Å resolution using crystals grown from native, methionine-containing, protein. The protein inhibits phage infection by competition. The phage-distal receptor-binding domain resembles a bullet, with the walls formed by partially intertwined beta-sheets, conferring stability to the structure. The fold of the domain is novel and the topology unique to the pb1 structure. A site-directed mutant (Ser1264 to Ala), in which auto-proteolysis is impeded, was also produced, crystallized and its 2.5 Å structure solved by molecular replacement. The additional chaperone domain (residues 1263–1396) consists of a central trimeric alpha-helical coiled-coil flanked by a mixed alpha-beta domain. Three long beta-hairpin tentacles, one from each chaperone monomer, extend into long curved grooves of the bullet-shaped domain. The chaperone-containing mutant did not inhibit infection by competition.

Evolution of the CNS myelin gene regulatory program

Myelin is a specialized subcellular structure that evolved uniquely in vertebrates. A myelinated axon conducts action potentials many times faster than an unmyelinated axon of the same diameter; for the same conduction speed, the unmyelinated axon would need a much larger diameter and volume than its myelinated counterpart. Hence myelin speeds information transfer and saves space, allowing the evolution of a powerful yet portable brain. Myelination in the central nervous system (CNS) is controlled by a gene regulatory program that features a number of master transcriptional regulators including Olig1, Olig2 and Myrf. Olig family genes evolved from a single ancestral gene in non-chordates. Olig2, which executes multiple functions with regard to oligodendrocyte identity and development in vertebrates, might have evolved functional versatility through post-translational modification, especially phosphorylation, as illustrated by its evolutionarily conserved serine/threonine phospho-acceptor sites and its accumulation of serine residues during more recent stages of vertebrate evolution. Olig1, derived from a duplicated copy of Olig2 in early bony fish, is involved in oligodendrocyte development and is critical to remyelination in bony vertebrates, but is lost in birds. The origin of Myrf orthologs might be the result of DNA integration between an invading phage or bacterium and an early protist, producing a fusion protein capable of self-cleavage and DNA binding. Myrf seems to have adopted new functions in early vertebrates - initiation of the CNS myelination program as well as the maintenance of mature oligodendrocyte identity and myelin structure - by developing new ways to interact with DNA motifs specific to myelin genes. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled SI: Myelin Evolution.

Contrasting genomic patterns and infection strategies of two co-existing Bacteroidetes podovirus genera

Bacterial viruses (phages) are abundant, ecologically important biological entities. However, our understanding of their impact is limited by model systems that are primarily not well represented in nature, e.g. Enterophages and their hosts. Here, we investigate genomic characteristics and infection strategies among six aquatic Bacteroidetes phages that represent two genera of exceptionally large (∼70-75 kb genome) podoviruses, which were isolated from the same seawater sample using Cellulophaga baltica as host. Quantitative host range studies reveal that these genera have contrasting narrow (specialist) and broad (generalist) host ranges, with one-step growth curves revealing reduced burst sizes for the generalist phages. Genomic comparisons suggest candidate genes in each genus that might explain this host range variation, as well as provide hypotheses about receptors in the hosts. One generalist phage, φ38:1, was more deeply characterized, as its infection strategy switched from lytic on its original host to either inefficient lytic or lysogenic on an alternative host. If lysogenic, this phage was maintained extrachromosomally in the alternative host and could not be induced by mitomycin C. This work provides fundamental knowledge regarding phage-host ranges and their genomic drivers while also exploring the 'host environment' as a driver for switching phage replication mode.

Crystallization of the C-terminal domain of the bacteriophage T5 L-shaped fibre

Tails of bacteriophage T5 (a member of the Siphoviridae family) were studied by electron microscopy. For the distal parts of the L-shaped tail fibres, which are involved in host cell receptor binding, a low-resolution volume was calculated. Several C-terminal fragments of the fibre were expressed and purified. Crystals of two of them were obtained that belonged to space groups P63 and R32 and diffracted synchrotron radiation to 2.3 and 2.9 Å resolution, respectively. A single-wavelength anomalous dispersion data set to 2.5 Å resolution was also collected from a selenomethionine-derivatized crystal of one of the fragments, which belonged to space group C2.

A new kind of membrane-tethered eukaryotic transcription factor that shares an auto-proteolytic processing mechanism with bacteriophage tail-spike proteins

MrfA, a transcription factor that regulates Dictyostelium prestalk cell differentiation, is an orthologue of the metazoan myelin gene regulatory factor (MRF) proteins. We show that the MRFs contain a predicted transmembrane domain, suggesting that they are synthesised as membrane-tethered proteins that are then proteolytically released. We confirm this for MrfA but report a radically different mode of processing from that of paradigmatic tethered transcriptional regulators, which are cleaved within the transmembrane domain by a dedicated protease. Instead, an auto-proteolytic cleavage mechanism, previously only described for the intramolecular chaperone domains of bacteriophage tail-spike proteins, processes MrfA and, by implication, the metazoan MRF proteins. We also present evidence that the auto-proteolysis of MrfA occurs rapidly and constitutively in the ER and that its specific role in prestalk cell differentiation is conferred by the regulated nuclear translocation of the liberated fragment.

Insights into bacteriophage T5 structure from analysis of its morphogenesis genes and protein components

Bacteriophage T5 represents a large family of lytic Siphoviridae infecting Gram-negative bacteria. The low-resolution structure of T5 showed the T=13 geometry of the capsid and the unusual trimeric organization of the tail tube, and the assembly pathway of the capsid was established. Although major structural proteins of T5 have been identified in these studies, most of the genes encoding the morphogenesis proteins remained to be identified. Here, we combine a proteomic analysis of T5 particles with a bioinformatic study and electron microscopic immunolocalization to assign function to the genes encoding the structural proteins, the packaging proteins, and other nonstructural components required for T5 assembly. A head maturation protease that likely accounts for the cleavage of the different capsid proteins is identified. Two other proteins involved in capsid maturation add originality to the T5 capsid assembly mechanism: the single head-to-tail joining protein, which closes the T5 capsid after DNA packaging, and the nicking endonuclease responsible for the single-strand interruptions in the T5 genome. We localize most of the tail proteins that were hitherto uncharacterized and provide a detailed description of the tail tip composition. Our findings highlight novel variations of viral assembly strategies and of virion particle architecture. They further recommend T5 for exploring phage structure and assembly and for deciphering conformational rearrangements that accompany DNA transfer from the capsid to the host cytoplasm.

A Bacteriophage tailspike domain promotes self-cleavage of a human membrane-bound transcription factor, the myelin regulatory factor MYRF

Myelination of the central nervous system (CNS) is critical to vertebrate nervous systems for efficient neural signaling. CNS myelination occurs as oligodendrocytes terminally differentiate, a process regulated in part by the myelin regulatory factor, MYRF. Using bioinformatics and extensive biochemical and functional assays, we find that MYRF is generated as an integral membrane protein that must be processed to release its transcription factor domain from the membrane. In contrast to most membrane-bound transcription factors, MYRF proteolysis seems constitutive and independent of cell- and tissue-type, as we demonstrate by reconstitution in E. coli and yeast. The apparent absence of physiological cues raises the question as to how and why MYRF is processed. By using computational methods capable of recognizing extremely divergent sequence homology, we identified a MYRF protein domain distantly related to bacteriophage tailspike proteins. Although occurring in otherwise unrelated proteins, the phage domains are known to chaperone the tailspike proteins' trimerization and auto-cleavage, raising the hypothesis that the MYRF domain might contribute to a novel activation method for a membrane-bound transcription factor. We find that the MYRF domain indeed serves as an intramolecular chaperone that facilitates MYRF trimerization and proteolysis. Functional assays confirm that the chaperone domain-mediated auto-proteolysis is essential both for MYRF's transcriptional activity and its ability to promote oligodendrocyte maturation. This work thus reveals a previously unknown key step in CNS myelination. These data also reconcile conflicting observations of this protein family, different members of which have been identified as transmembrane or nuclear proteins. Finally, our data illustrate a remarkable evolutionary repurposing between bacteriophages and eukaryotes, with a chaperone domain capable of catalyzing trimerization-dependent auto-proteolysis in two entirely distinct protein and cellular contexts, in one case participating in bacteriophage tailspike maturation and in the other activating a key transcription factor for CNS myelination.

Membrane-bound transcription factors are synthesized as integral membrane proteins, but are proteolytically cleaved in response to relevant cues, untethering their transcription factor domains from the membrane to control gene expression in the nucleus. Here, we find that the myelin regulatory factor MYRF, a major transcriptional regulator of oligodendrocyte differentiation and central nervous system myelination, is also a membrane-bound transcription factor. In marked contrast to most well-known membrane-bound transcription factors, cleavage of MYRF appears to be unconditional. Surprisingly, this processing is performed by a protein domain shared with bacteriophages in otherwise unrelated proteins, where the domain is critical to the folding and proteolytic maturation of virus tailspikes. In addition to revealing a previously unknown key step in central nervous system myelination, this work also illustrates a remarkable example of evolutionary repurposing between bacteriophages and eukaryotes, with the same protein domain capable of catalyzing trimerization-dependent auto-proteolysis in two completely distinct protein and cellular contexts.

MYRF is a membrane-associated transcription factor that autoproteolytically cleaves to directly activate myelin genes

Oligodendrocyte development and myelination rely on an unusual membrane-associated transcription factor that shares functional domains with bacteriophage proteins.

The myelination of axons is a crucial step during vertebrate central nervous system (CNS) development, allowing for rapid and energy efficient saltatory conduction of nerve impulses. Accordingly, the differentiation of oligodendrocytes, the myelinating cells of the CNS, and their expression of myelin genes are under tight transcriptional control. We previously identified a putative transcription factor, Myelin Regulatory Factor (Myrf), as being vital for CNS myelination. Myrf is required for the generation of CNS myelination during development and also for its maintenance in the adult. It has been controversial, however, whether Myrf directly regulates transcription, with reports of a transmembrane domain and lack of nuclear localization. Here we show that Myrf is a membrane-associated transcription factor that undergoes an activating proteolytic cleavage to separate its transmembrane domain-containing C-terminal region from a nuclear-targeted N-terminal region. Unexpectedly, this cleavage event occurs via a protein domain related to the autoproteolytic intramolecular chaperone domain of the bacteriophage tail spike proteins, the first time this domain has been found to play a role in eukaryotic proteins. Using ChIP-Seq we show that the N-terminal cleavage product directly binds the enhancer regions of oligodendrocyte-specific and myelin genes. This binding occurs via a defined DNA-binding consensus sequence and strongly promotes the expression of target genes. These findings identify Myrf as a novel example of a membrane-associated transcription factor and provide a direct molecular mechanism for its regulation of oligodendrocyte differentiation and CNS myelination.

Oligodendrocytes are a highly specialized cell type that surround axons of the vertebrate central nervous system with myelin, electrically insulating them and allowing rapid and energy-efficient propagation of nerve signals. We previously identified a protein, MYRF, that is required for the final stages of oligodendrocyte differentiation and myelination. Although we proposed that MYRF might act as a transcription factor, it remains uncertain whether this is true, given that MYRF and related proteins contain a transmembrane domain that might preclude localization to the nucleus. Here, we show that the MYRF protein undergoes an activating cleavage event to release the functional transcription factor from the transmembrane domain that otherwise anchors it to the endoplasmic reticulum. Unexpectedly, this cleavage event is mediated by a portion of MYRF that is related to a self-cleaving domain found in bacteriophage proteins. This distinguishes it from other membrane-associated transcription factors that are cleaved via regulated proteolysis within the membrane bilayer. We find that the N-terminal product of MYRF cleavage directly binds to a wide range of genes involved in myelination, stimulating their expression. Many of these MYRF binding sites identify previously uncharacterized enhancers for these myelin genes.

Biochemical and biophysical characterization of the sialyl-/hexosyltransferase synthesizing the meningococcal serogroup W135 heteropolysaccharide capsule

Neisseria meningitidis (Nm) is a leading cause of bacterial meningitis and sepsis. Crucial virulence determinants of pathogenic Nm strains are the polysaccharide capsules that support invasion by hindering complement attack. In NmW-135 and NmY the capsules are built from the repeating units (→ 6)-α-D-Gal-(1 → 4)-α-Neu5Ac-(2 →)n and (→ 6)-α-D-Glc-(1 → 4)-α-Neu5Ac-(2 →)n, respectively. These unusual heteropolymers represent unique examples of a conjugation between sialic acid and hexosyl-sugars in a polymer chain. Moreover, despite the various catalytic strategies needed for sialic acid and hexose transfer, single enzymes (SiaDW-135/Y) have been identified to form these heteropolymers. Here we used SiaDW-135 as a model system to delineate structure-function relationships. In size exclusion chromatography active SiaDW-135 migrated as a monomer. Fold recognition programs suggested two separate glycosyltransferase domains, both containing a GT-B-fold. Based on conserved motifs predicted folds could be classified as a hexosyl- and sialyltransferase. To analyze enzyme properties and interplay of the two identified glycosyltransferase domains, saturation transfer difference NMR and mutational studies were carried out. Simultaneous and independent binding of UDP-Gal and CMP-Sia was seen in the absence of an acceptor as well as when the catalytic cycle was allowed to proceed. Enzyme variants with only one functionality were generated by site-directed mutagenesis and shown to complement each other in trans when combined in an in vitro test system. Together the data strongly suggests that SiaDW-135 has evolved by fusion of two independent ancestral genes encoding sialyl- and galactosyltransferase activity.

A multivalent adsorption apparatus explains the broad host range of phage phi92: a comprehensive genomic and structural analysis

Bacteriophage phi92 is a large, lytic myovirus isolated in 1983 from pathogenic Escherichia coli strains that carry a polysialic acid capsule. Here we report the genome organization of phi92, the cryoelectron microscopy reconstruction of its virion, and the reinvestigation of its host specificity. The genome consists of a linear, double-stranded 148,612-bp DNA sequence containing 248 potential open reading frames and 11 putative tRNA genes. Orthologs were found for 130 of the predicted proteins. Most of the virion proteins showed significant sequence similarities to proteins of myoviruses rv5 and PVP-SE1, indicating that phi92 is a new member of the novel genus of rv5-like phages. Reinvestigation of phi92 host specificity showed that the host range is not limited to polysialic acid-encapsulated Escherichia coli but includes most laboratory strains of Escherichia coli and many Salmonella strains. Structure analysis of the phi92 virion demonstrated the presence of four different types of tail fibers and/or tailspikes, which enable the phage to use attachment sites on encapsulated and nonencapsulated bacteria. With this report, we provide the first detailed description of a multivalent, multispecies phage armed with a host cell adsorption apparatus resembling a nanosized Swiss army knife. The genome, structure, and, in particular, the organization of the baseplate of phi92 demonstrate how a bacteriophage can evolve into a multi-pathogen-killing agent.

Endosialidases: Versatile Tools for the Study of Polysialic Acid

Polysialic acid is an α2,8-linked N-acetylneuraminic acid polymer found on the surface of both bacterial and eukaryotic cells. Endosialidases are bacteriophage-borne glycosyl hydrolases that specifically cleave polysialic acid. The crystal structure of an endosialidase reveals a trimeric mushroom-shaped molecule which, in addition to the active site, harbors two additional polysialic acid binding sites. Folding of the protein crucially depends on an intramolecular C-terminal chaperone domain that is proteolytically released in an intramolecular reaction. Based on structural data and previous considerations, an updated catalytic mechanism is discussed. Endosialidases degrade polysialic acid in a processive mode of action, and a model for its mechanism is suggested. The review summarizes the structural and biochemical elucidations of the last decade and the importance of endosialidases in biochemical and medical applications. Active endosialidases are important tools in studies on the biological roles of polysialic acid, such as the pathogenesis of septicemia and meningitis by polysialic acid-encapsulated bacteria, or its role as a modulator of the adhesion and interactions of neural and other cells. Endosialidase mutants that have lost their polysialic acid cleaving activity while retaining their polysialic acid binding capability have been fused to green fluorescent protein to provide an efficient tool for the specific detection of polysialic acid.

The C-terminal cysteine annulus participates in auto-chaperone function for Salmonella phage P22 tailspike folding and assembly

Elongated trimeric adhesins are a distinct class of proteins employed by phages and viruses to recognize and bind to their host cells, and by bacteria to bind to their target cells and tissues. The tailspikes of E. coli phage K1F and Bacillus phage Ø29 exhibit auto-chaperone activity in their trimeric C-terminal domains. The P22 tailspike is structurally homologous to those adhesins. Though there are no disulfide bonds or reactive cysteines in the native P22 tailspikes, a set of C-terminal cysteines are very reactive in partially folded intermediates, implying an unusual local conformation in the domain. This is likely to be involved in the auto-chaperone function. We examined the unusual reactivity of C-terminal tailspike cysteines during folding and assembly as a potential reporter of auto-chaperone function. Reaction with IAA blocked productive refolding in vitro, but not off-pathway aggregation. Two-dimensional PAGE revealed that the predominant intermediate exhibiting reactive cysteine side chains was a partially folded monomer. Treatment with reducing reagent promoted native trimer formation from these species, consistent with transient disulfide bonds in the auto-chaperone domain. Limited enzymatic digestion and mass spectrometry of folding and assembly intermediates indicated that the C-terminal domain was compact in the protrimer species. These results indicate that the C-terminal domain of the P22 tailspike folds itself and associates prior to formation of the protrimer intermediate, and not after, as previously proposed. The C-terminal cysteines and triple β-helix domains apparently provide the staging for the correct auto-chaperone domain formation, needed for alignment of P22 tailspike native trimer.

Short noncontractile tail machines: adsorption and DNA delivery by podoviruses

Tailed dsDNA bacteriophage virions bind to susceptible cells with the tips of their tails and then deliver their DNA through the tail into the cells to initiate infection. This chapter discusses what is known about this process in the short-tailed phages (Podoviridae). Their short tails require that many of these virions adsorb to the outer layers of the cell and work their way down to the outer membrane surface before releasing their DNA. Interestingly, the receptor-binding protein of many short-tailed phages (and some with long tails) has an enzymatic activity that cleaves their polysaccharide receptors. Reversible adsorption and irreversible adsorption to primary and secondary receptors are discussed, including how sequence divergence in tail fiber and tailspike proteins leads to different host specificities. Upon reaching the outer membrane of Gram-negative cells, some podoviral tail machines release virion proteins into the cell that help the DNA efficiently traverse the outer layers of the cell and/or prepare the cell cytoplasm for phage genome arrival. Podoviruses utilize several rather different variations on this theme. The virion DNA is then released into the cell; the energetics of this process is discussed. Phages like T7 and N4 deliver their DNA relatively slowly, using enzymes to pull the genome into the cell. At least in part this mechanism ensures that genes in late-entering DNA are not expressed at early times. On the other hand, phages like P22 probably deliver their DNA more rapidly so that it can be circularized before the cascade of gene expression begins.

Evolution of mosaically related tailed bacteriophage genomes seen through the lens of phage P22 virion assembly

The mosaic composition of the genomes of dsDNA tailed bacteriophages (Caudovirales) is well known. Observations of this mosaicism have generally come from comparisons of small numbers of often rather distantly related phages, and little is known about the frequency or detailed nature of the processes that generate this kind of diversity. Here we review and examine the mosaicism within fifty-seven clusters of virion assembly genes from bacteriophage P22 and its "close" relatives. We compare these orthologous gene clusters, discuss their surprising diversity and document horizontal exchange of genetic information between subgroups of the P22-like phages as well as between these phages and other phage types. We also point out apparent restrictions in the locations of mosaic sequence boundaries in this gene cluster. The relatively large sample size and the fact that phage P22 virion structure and assembly are exceptionally well understood make the conclusions especially informative and convincing.

Knitting and snipping: chaperones in β-helix folding

Hallmarks of proteins containing β-helices are their increased stability and rigidity and their aggregation prone folding pathways. While parallel β-helices fold independently, the folding and assembly of many triple β-helices depends on a registration signal in order to adopt the correct three-dimensional structure. In some cases this is a mere trimerization domain, in others specialized chaperones are required. Recently, the crystal structures of two classes of intramolecular chaperones of β-helical proteins have been determined. Both mediate the assembly of large tailspike proteins and release themselves after maturation; however, they differ substantially in their structure and autoproteolytic release mechanisms.