Neuroendocrine synaptic vesicles are formed in vitro by both clathrin-dependent and clathrin-independent pathways

Endoplasmic reticulum stress impedes regulated secretion by governing key exocytotic and granulogenic molecular switches

Dense core vesicles (DCVs) and synaptic vesicles are specialised secretory vesicles in neurons and neuroendocrine cells, and abnormal release of their cargo is associated with various pathophysiologies. Endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress and inter-organellar communication are also associated with disease biology. To investigate the functional status of regulated exocytosis arising from the crosstalk of a stressed ER and DCVs, ER stress was modelled in PC12 neuroendocrine cells using thapsigargin. DCV exocytosis was severely compromised in ER-stressed PC12 cells and was reversed to varying magnitudes by ER stress attenuators. Experiments with tunicamycin, an independent ER stressor, yielded similar results. Concurrently, ER stress also caused impaired DCV exocytosis in insulin-secreting INS-1 cells. Molecular analysis revealed blunted SNAP25 expression, potentially attributed to augmented levels of ATF4, an inhibitor of CREB that binds to the CREB-binding site. The effects of loss of function of ATF4 in ER-stressed cells substantiated this attribution. Our studies revealed severe defects in DCV exocytosis in ER-stressed cells for the first time, mediated by reduced levels of key exocytotic and granulogenic switches regulated via the eIF2α (EIF2A)-ATF4 axis.

Role of adaptin protein complexes in intracellular trafficking and their impact on diseases

Adaptin proteins (APs) play a crucial role in intracellular cell trafficking. The 'classical' role of APs is carried out by AP1‒3, which bind to clathrin, cargo, and accessory proteins. Accordingly, AP1-3 are crucial for both vesicle formation and sorting. All APs consist of four subunits that are indispensable for their functions. In fact, based on studies using cells, model organism knockdown/knock-out, and human variants, each subunit plays crucial roles and contributes to the specificity of each AP. These studies also revealed that the sorting and intracellular trafficking function of AP can exert varying effects on pathology by controlling features such as cell development, signal transduction related to the apoptosis and proliferation pathways in cancer cells, organelle integrity, receptor presentation, and viral infection. Although the roles and functions of AP1‒3 are relatively well studied, the functions of the less abundant and more recently identified APs, AP4 and AP5, are still to be investigated. Further studies on these APs may enable a better understanding and targeting of specific diseases.APs known or suggested locations and functions.

Brefeldin A sensitive mechanisms contribute to endocytotic membrane retrieval and vesicle recycling in cerebellar granule cells

The recycling of synaptic vesicle (SV) proteins and transmitter release occur at multiple sites along the axon. These processes are sensitive to inhibition of the small GTP binding protein ARF1, which regulates the adaptor protein 1 and 3 complex (AP-1/AP-3). As the axon matures, SV recycling becomes restricted to the presynaptic bouton, and its machinery undergoes a complex process of maturation. We used the styryl dye FM1-43 to highlight differences in the efficiency of membrane recycling at different sites in cerebellar granule cells cultured for 7 days in vitro. We used Brefeldin A (BFA) to inhibit AP-1/AP-3-mediated recycling and to test the contribution of this pathway to the heterogeneity of the responses when these cells are strongly stimulated. Combining imaging techniques and ultrastructural analyses, we found a significant decrease in the density of functional boutons and an increase in the presence of endosome-like structures within the boutons of cells incubated with BFA prior to FM1-43 loading. Such effects were not observed when BFA was added 5 min after the end of the loading step, when endocytosis was almost fully completed. In this situation, vesicles were found closer to the active zone (AZ) in boutons exposed to BFA. Together, these data suggest that the AP-1/AP-3 pathway contributes to SV recycling, affecting different steps in all boutons but not equally, and thus being partly responsible for the heterogeneity of the different recycling efficiencies. Cover Image for this issue: doi. 10.1111/jnc.13801.

The secret life of extracellular vesicles in metal homeostasis and neurodegeneration

Biologically active metals such as copper, zinc and iron are fundamental for sustaining life in different organisms with the regulation of cellular metal homeostasis tightly controlled through proteins that coordinate metal uptake, efflux and detoxification. Many of the proteins involved in either uptake or efflux of metals are localised and function on the plasma membrane, traffic between intracellular compartments depending upon the cellular metal environment and can undergo recycling via the endosomal pathway. The biogenesis of exosomes also occurs within the endosomal system, with several major neurodegenerative disease proteins shown to be released in association with these vesicles, including the amyloid-β (Aβ) peptide in Alzheimer's disease and the infectious prion protein involved in Prion diseases. Aβ peptide and the prion protein also bind biologically active metals and are postulated to play important roles in metal homeostasis. In this review, we will discuss the role of extracellular vesicles in Alzheimer's and Prion diseases and explore their potential contribution to metal homeostasis.

The neural cell adhesion molecule promotes maturation of the presynaptic endocytotic machinery by switching synaptic vesicle recycling from adaptor protein 3 (AP-3)- to AP-2-dependent mechanisms

Newly formed synapses undergo maturation during ontogenetic development via mechanisms that remain poorly understood. We show that maturation of the presynaptic endocytotic machinery in CNS neurons requires substitution of the adaptor protein 3 (AP-3) with AP-2 at the presynaptic plasma membrane. In mature synapses, AP-2 associates with the intracellular domain of the neural cell adhesion molecule (NCAM). NCAM promotes binding of AP-2 over binding of AP-3 to presynaptic membranes, thus favoring the substitution of AP-3 for AP-2 during formation of mature synapses. The presynaptic endocytotic machinery remains immature in adult NCAM-deficient (NCAM-/-) mice accumulating AP-3 instead of AP-2 and its partner protein AP180 in synaptic membranes and vesicles. NCAM deficiency or disruption of the NCAM/AP-2 complex in wild-type (NCAM+/+) neurons by overexpression of AP-2 binding-defective mutant NCAM interferes with efficient retrieval of the synaptic vesicle v-SNARE synaptobrevin 2. Abnormalities in synaptic vesicle endocytosis and recycling may thus contribute to neurological disorders associated with mutations in NCAM.

Chemical-genetic disruption of clathrin function spares adaptor complex 3-dependent endosome vesicle biogenesis

Clathrin–AP-3 association is dispensable for AP-3 vesicle budding from endosomes, which suggests that AP-3–clathrin interactions differ from those by which AP-1 and AP-2 adaptors productively engage clathrin in vesicle biogenesis.

A role for clathrin in AP-3–dependent vesicle biogenesis has been inferred from biochemical interactions and colocalization between this adaptor and clathrin. The functionality of these molecular associations, however, is controversial. We comprehensively explore the role of clathrin in AP-3–dependent vesicle budding, using rapid chemical-genetic perturbation of clathrin function with a clathrin light chain–FKBP chimera oligomerizable by the drug AP20187. We find that AP-3 interacts and colocalizes with endogenous and recombinant FKBP chimeric clathrin polypeptides in PC12-cell endosomes. AP-3 displays, however, a divergent behavior from AP-1, AP-2, and clathrin chains. AP-3 cofractionates with clathrin-coated vesicle fractions isolated from PC12 cells even after clathrin function is acutely inhibited by AP20187. We predicted that AP20187 would inhibit AP-3 vesicle formation from endosomes after a brefeldin A block. AP-3 vesicle formation continued, however, after brefeldin A wash-out despite impairment of clathrin function by AP20187. These findings indicate that AP-3–clathrin association is dispensable for endosomal AP-3 vesicle budding and suggest that endosomal AP-3–clathrin interactions differ from those by which AP-1 and AP-2 adaptors productively engage clathrin in vesicle biogenesis.

Vesicular zinc regulates the Ca2+ sensitivity of a subpopulation of presynaptic vesicles at hippocampal mossy fiber terminals

Synaptic vesicles segregate into functionally diverse subpopulations within presynaptic terminals, yet there is no information about how this may occur. Here we demonstrate that a distinct subgroup of vesicles within individual glutamatergic, mossy fiber terminals contain vesicular zinc that is critical for the rapid release of a subgroup of synaptic vesicles during increased activity in mice. In particular, vesicular zinc dictates the Ca(2+) sensitivity of release during high-frequency firing. Intense synaptic activity alters the subcellular distribution of zinc in presynaptic terminals and decreases the number of zinc-containing vesicles. Zinc staining also appears in endosomes, an observation that is consistent with the preferential replenishment of zinc-enriched vesicles by bulk endocytosis. We propose that functionally diverse vesicle pools with unique membrane protein composition support different modes of transmission and are generated via distinct recycling pathways.

Supported native plasma membranes as platforms for the reconstitution and visualization of endocytic membrane budding

Cell-free assays represent an important complement to studies in living cells for the elucidation of mechanisms underlying the dynamics of biological membranes, such as budding, fission, and fusion reactions. Here we describe a method for the reconstitution of endocytosis, the process through which cells internalize portions of the plasma membrane along with extracellular material, under conditions that allow the visualization of individual budding events with high spatial and temporal resolution. The method, which is based on the generation of planar plasma membrane sheets attached to a glass substrate and their subsequent incubation with a cytosolic extract, results in a very robust formation of endocytic buds, which upon appropriate conditions undergo fission. The synchronization of the endocytic events and the accessibility of the material to a variety of manipulations make this experimental system a powerful tool for the molecular dissection of endocytosis.

SV31 is a Zn2+-binding synaptic vesicle protein

We recently identified in a proteomic screen a novel synaptic vesicle membrane protein of 31 kDa (SV31) of unknown function. According to its membrane topology and its phylogenetic relation SV31 may function as a vesicular transporter. Based on its amino acid sequence similarity to a prokaryotic heavy metal ion transporter we analyzed its metal ion-binding properties and show that recombinant SV31 binds the divalent cations Zn(2+) and Ni(2+) and to a minor extent Cu(2+), but not Fe(2+), Co(2+), Mn(2+), or Ca(2+). Zn(2+)-binding of SV31 in viable cells was verified following heterologous transfection of pheochromocytoma cells 12 (PC12) with recombinant red fluorescent SV31 (SV31-RFP) and the fluorescent zinc indicator FluoZin-3. Sucrose density gradient fractionation of SV31-RFP-transfected PC12 cells revealed a partial overlap of SV31-RFP with synaptic-like vesicle markers and the early endosome marker rab5. Immunocytochemical analysis demonstrated a punctuate distribution in the cell soma and in neuritic processes and in addition in a compartment in vicinity to the plasma membrane that was immunopositive also for synaptosomal-associated protein 25 (SNAP-25) and syntaxin1A. Our data suggest that SV31 represents a novel Zn(2+) -binding protein that in PC12 cells is targeted to endosomes and subpopulations of synaptic-like microvesicles.

Protein trafficking in immune cells

The majority of cells of the immune system are specialized secretory cells, whose function depends on regulated exocytosis. The latter is mediated by vesicular transport involving the sorting of specialized cargo into the secretory granules (SGs), thereby generating the transport vesicles; their transport along the microtubules and eventually their signal-dependent fusion with the plasma membrane. Each of these steps is tightly controlled by mechanisms, which involve the participation of specific sorting signals on the cargo proteins and their recognition by cognate adaptor proteins, posttranslational modifications of the cargo proteins and multiple GTPases and SNARE proteins. In some of the cells (i.e. mast cells, T killer cells) an intimate connection exists between the secretory system and the endocytic one, whereby the SGs are lysosome related organelles (LROs) also referred to as secretory lysosomes. Herein, we discuss these mechanisms in health and disease states.

CB(1) cannabinoid receptors and their associated proteins

CB1 receptors are G-protein coupled receptors (GPCRs) abundant in neurons, in which they modulate neurotransmission. The CB(1) receptor influence on memory and learning is well recognized, and disease states associated with CB(1) receptors are observed in addiction disorders, motor dysfunction, schizophrenia, and in bipolar, depression, and anxiety disorders. Beyond the brain, CB(1) receptors also function in liver and adipose tissues, vascular as well as cardiac tissue, reproductive tissues and bone. Signal transduction by CB(1) receptors occurs through interaction with Gi/o proteins to inhibit adenylyl cyclase, activate mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPK), inhibit voltage-gated Ca(2+) channels, activate K(+) currents (K(ir)), and influence Nitric Oxide (NO) signaling. CB(1) receptors are observed in internal organelles as well as plasma membrane. beta-Arrestins, adaptor protein AP-3, and G-protein receptor-associated sorting protein 1 (GASP1) modulate cellular trafficking. Cannabinoid Receptor Interacting Protein1a (CRIP1a) is an accessory protein whose function has not been delineated. Factor Associated with Neutral sphingomyelinase (FAN) regulates ceramide signaling. Such diversity in cellular signaling and modulation by interacting proteins suggests that agonists and allosteric modulators could be developed to specifically regulate unique, cell type-specific responses.

An AP-3-dependent mechanism drives synaptic-like microvesicle biogenesis in pancreatic islet beta-cells

Pancreatic islet beta-cells contain synaptic-like microvesicles (SLMVs). The origin, trafficking, and role of these SLMVs are poorly understood. In neurons, synaptic vesicle (SV) biogenesis is mediated by two different cytosolic adaptor protein complexes, a ubiquitous AP-2 complex and the neuron-specific AP-3B complex. Mice lacking AP-3B subunits exhibit impaired GABAergic (inhibitory) neurotransmission and reduced neuronal vesicular GABA transporter (VGAT) content. Since beta-cell maturation and exocytotic function seem to parallel that of the inhibitory synapse, we predicted that AP-3B-associated vesicles would be present in beta-cells. Here, we test the hypothesis that AP-3B is expressed in islets and mediates beta-cell SLMV biogenesis. A secondary aim was to test whether the sedimentation properties of INS-1 beta-cell microvesicles are identical to those of bona fide SLMVs isolated from PC12 cells. Our results show that the two neuron-specific AP-3 subunits beta3B and mu3B are expressed in beta-cells, the first time these proteins have been found to be expressed outside the nervous system. We found that beta-cell SLMVs share the same sedimentation properties as PC12 SLMVs and contain SV proteins that sort specifically to AP-3B-associated vesicles in the brain. Brefeldin A, a drug that interferes with AP-3-mediated SV biogenesis, inhibits the delivery of AP-3 cargoes to beta-cell SLMVs. Consistent with a role for AP-3 in the biogenesis of GABAergic SLMV in beta-cells, INS-1 cell VGAT content decreases upon inhibition of AP-3 delta-subunit expression. Our findings suggest that beta-cells and neurons share molecules and mechanisms important for mediating the neuron-specific membrane trafficking pathways that underlie synaptic vesicle formation.

The JIP3 scaffold protein UNC-16 regulates RAB-5 dependent membrane trafficking at C. elegans synapses

How endosomes contribute to the maintenance of vesicular structures at presynaptic terminals remains controversial and poorly understood. Here, we have investigated synaptic endosomal compartments in the presynaptic terminals of C. elegans GABAergic motor neurons. Using RAB reporters, we find that several subsynaptic compartments reside in, or near, presynaptic regions. Loss of function in the C. elegans JIP3 protein, UNC-16, causes a RAB-5-containing compartment to accumulate abnormally at presynaptic terminals. Ultrastructural analysis shows that synapses in unc-16 mutants contain reduced number of synaptic vesicles, accompanied by an increase in the size and number of cisternae. FRAP analysis revealed a slow recovery of RAB-5 in unc-16 mutants, suggestive of an impairment of RAB-5 activity state and local vesicular trafficking. Overexpression of RAB-5:GDP partially suppresses, whereas overexpression of RAB-5:GTP enhances, the synaptic defects of unc-16 mutants. Our data demonstrate a novel function of UNC-16 in the regulation of synaptic membrane trafficking and suggest that the synaptic RAB-5 compartment contributes to synaptic vesicle biogenesis or maintenance.

Aberrant trafficking of the high-affinity choline transporter in AP-3-deficient mice

The high-affinity choline transporter (CHT) is expressed in cholinergic neurons and efficiently transported to axon terminals where it controls the rate-limiting step in acetylcholine synthesis. Recent studies have shown that the majority of CHT is unexpectedly localized on synaptic vesicles (SV) rather than the presynaptic plasma membrane, establishing vesicular CHT trafficking as a basis for activity-dependent CHT regulation. Here, we analyse the intracellular distribution of CHT in the adaptor protein-3 (AP-3)-deficient mouse model mocha. In the mocha mouse, granular structures in cell bodies are intensely labelled with CHT antibody, indicating possible deficits in CHT trafficking from the cell body to the axon terminal. Western blot analyses reveal that CHT on SV in mocha mice is decreased by 30% compared with wild-type mice. However, no significant difference in synaptosomal choline uptake activity is detected, consistent with the existence of a large reservoir pool for CHT. To further characterize CHT trafficking, we established a PC12D-CHT cell line. In this line, CHT is found associated with a subpopulation of synaptophysin-positive synaptic-like microvesicles (SLMV). The amounts of CHT detected on SLMV are greatly reduced by treating the cell with agents that halt AP-dependent membrane trafficking. These results demonstrate that APs have important functions for CHT trafficking in neuronal cells.

Synaptic vesicle protein trafficking at the glutamate synapse

Expression of the integral and associated proteins of synaptic vesicles is subject to regulation over time, by region, and in response to activity. The process by which changes in protein levels and isoforms result in different properties of neurotransmitter release involves protein trafficking to the synaptic vesicle. How newly synthesized proteins are incorporated into synaptic vesicles at the presynaptic bouton is poorly understood. During synaptogenesis, synaptic vesicle proteins sort through the secretory pathway and are transported down the axon in precursor vesicles that undergo maturation to form synaptic vesicles. Changes in protein content of synaptic vesicles could involve the formation of new vesicles that either mix with the previous complement of vesicles or replace them, presumably by their degradation or inactivation. Alternatively, new proteins could individually incorporate into existing synaptic vesicles, changing their functional properties. Glutamatergic vesicles likely express many of the same integral membrane proteins and share certain common mechanisms of biogenesis, recycling, and degradation with other synaptic vesicles. However, glutamatergic vesicles are defined by their ability to package glutamate for release, a property conferred by the expression of a vesicular glutamate transporter (VGLUT). VGLUTs are subject to regional, developmental, and activity-dependent changes in expression. In addition, VGLUT isoforms differ in their trafficking, which may target them to different pathways during biogenesis or after recycling, which may in turn sort them to different vesicle pools. Emerging data indicate that differences in the association of VGLUTs and other synaptic vesicle proteins with endocytic adaptors may influence their trafficking. These observations indicate that independent regulation of synaptic vesicle protein trafficking has the potential to influence synaptic vesicle protein composition, the maintenance of synaptic vesicle pools, and the release of glutamate in response to changing physiological requirements.

Real-time imaging of discrete exocytic events mediating surface delivery of AMPA receptors

We directly resolved discrete exocytic fusion events mediating insertion of AMPA-type glutamate receptors (AMPARs) to the somatodendritic surface of rat hippocampal pyramidal neurons, in slice and dissociated cultures, using protein tagging with a pH-sensitive GFP (green fluorescent protein) variant and rapid (10 frames/s) fluorescence microscopy. AMPAR-containing exocytic events occurred under basal culture conditions in both the cell body and dendrites; potentiating chemical stimuli produced an NMDA receptor-dependent increase in the frequency of individual exocytic events. The number of AMPARs inserted per exocytic event, estimated using single-molecule analysis, was quite uniform but individual events differed significantly in kinetic properties affecting the subsequent surface distribution of receptors. "Transient" events, from which AMPARs dispersed laterally immediately after surface insertion, generated a pronounced but short-lived (dissipating within approximately 1 s) increase in surface AMPAR fluorescence extending locally (2-5 microm) from the site of exocytosis. "Persistent" events, from which inserted AMPARs dispersed slowly (typically over 5-10 s), affected local surface receptor concentration to a much smaller degree. Both modes of exocytic insertion occurred throughout the dendritic shaft, but remarkably, neither mode of insertion was observed directly into synaptic spines. AMPARs entered spines preferentially from transient events occurring in the adjoining dendritic shaft, driven apparently by mass action and short-range lateral diffusion, and locally delivered AMPARs remained mostly in the mobile fraction. These results suggest a highly dynamic mechanism for both constitutive and activity-dependent surface delivery of AMPARs, mediated by kinetically distinct exocytic modes that differ in propensity to drive lateral entry of receptors to nearby synapses.

C. elegans RPM-1 regulates axon termination and synaptogenesis through the Rab GEF GLO-4 and the Rab GTPase GLO-1

C. elegans RPM-1 (for Regulator of Presynaptic Morphology) is a member of a conserved protein family that includes Drosophila Highwire and mammalian Pam and Phr1. These are large proteins recently shown to regulate synaptogenesis through E3 ubiquitin ligase activities. Here, we report the identification of an RCC1-like guanine nucleotide exchange factor, GLO-4, from mass spectrometry analysis of RPM-1-associated proteins. GLO-4 colocalizes with RPM-1 at presynaptic terminals. Loss of function in glo-4 or in its target Rab GTPase, glo-1, causes neuronal defects resembling those in rpm-1 mutants. We show that the glo pathway functions downstream of rpm-1 and acts in parallel to fsn-1, a partner of RPM-1 E3 ligase function. We find that late endosomes are specifically disorganized at the presynaptic terminals of glo-4 mutants. Our data suggest that RPM-1 positively regulates a Rab GTPase pathway to promote vesicular trafficking via late endosomes.

What is the function of neuronal AP-3?

Neurotransmission requires the proper organization and rapid recycling of synaptic vesicles. Rapid retrieval has been suggested to occur either by kiss-and-stay or kiss-and-run mechanisms, whereas classical recycling is mediated by clathrin-dependent endocytosis. Molecular coats are key components in the selection of cargos, AP-2 (adaptor protein 2) playing a prominent role in synaptic vesicle endocytosis. Another coat protein, AP-3, has been implicated in synaptic vesicle biogenesis and in the generation of secretory and lysosomal-related organelles. In the present review, we will particularly focus on the recent data concerning the recycling of synaptic vesicles and the function of AP-3 and the v-SNARE (vesicular soluble N-ethylmaleimide-sensitive fusion protein-attachment protein receptor) TI-VAMP (tetanus neurotoxin-insensitive vesicle-associated membrane protein) in these processes. We propose that AP-3 plays an important regulatory role in neurons which contributes to the basal and stimulated exocytosis of synaptic vesicles.

Neuronal and non-neuronal functions of the AP-3 sorting machinery

Vesicles selectively exchange lipids, membrane proteins and luminal contents between organelles along the exocytic and endocytic routes. The repertoire of membrane proteins present in these vesicles is crucial for their targeting and function. Vesicle composition is determined at the time of their biogenesis by cytosolic coats. The heterotetrameric protein adaptor protein complex 3 (AP-3), a coat component, participates in the generation of a diverse group of secretory organelles and lysosome-related organelles. Recent work has shed light on the mechanisms that regulate AP-3 and the trafficking pathways controlled by this adaptor. Phenotypic analysis of organisms carrying genetic deficiencies in the AP-3 pathway highlight its role regulating the targeting of lysosomal, melanosomal and synaptic vesicle-specific membrane proteins. Synaptic vesicles from AP-3-deficient mice possess altered levels of neurotransmitter and ion transporters, molecules that ultimately define the type and amount of neurotransmitter stored in these vesicles. These findings reveal a complex picture of how AP-3 functions in multiple tissues, including neuronal tissue, and expose potential links between endocytic sorting mechanisms and the pathogenesis of psychiatric disorders such as schizophrenia.

Protein sorting in the synaptic vesicle life cycle

At early stages of differentiation neurons already contain many of the components necessary for synaptic transmission. However, in order to establish fully functional synapses, both the pre- and postsynaptic partners must undergo a process of maturation. At the presynaptic level, synaptic vesicles (SVs) must acquire the highly specialized complement of proteins, which make them competent for efficient neurotransmitter release. Although several of these proteins have been characterized and linked to precise functions in the regulation of the SV life cycle, a systematic and unifying view of the mechanisms underlying selective protein sorting during SV biogenesis remains elusive. Since SV components do not share common sorting motifs, their targeting to SVs likely relies on a complex network of protein-protein and protein-lipid interactions, as well as on post-translational modifications. Pleiomorphic carriers containing SV proteins travel and recycle along the axon in developing neurons. Nevertheless, SV components appear to eventually undertake separate trafficking routes including recycling through the neuronal endomembrane system and the plasmalemma. Importantly, SV biogenesis does not appear to be limited to a precise stage during neuronal differentiation, but it rather continues throughout the entire neuronal lifespan and within synapses. At nerve terminals, remodeling of the SV membrane results from the use of alternative exocytotic pathways and possible passage through as yet poorly characterized vacuolar/endosomal compartments. As a result of both processes, SVs with heterogeneous molecular make-up, and hence displaying variable competence for exocytosis, may be generated and coexist within the same nerve terminal.

BLOC-1 complex deficiency alters the targeting of adaptor protein complex-3 cargoes

Mutational analyses have revealed many genes that are required for proper biogenesis of lysosomes and lysosome-related organelles. The proteins encoded by these genes assemble into five distinct complexes (AP-3, BLOC-1-3, and HOPS) that either sort membrane proteins or interact with SNAREs. Several of these seemingly distinct complexes cause similar phenotypic defects when they are rendered defective by mutation, but the underlying cellular mechanism is not understood. Here, we show that the BLOC-1 complex resides on microvesicles that also contain AP-3 subunits and membrane proteins that are known AP-3 cargoes. Mouse mutants that cause BLOC-1 or AP-3 deficiencies affected the targeting of LAMP1, phosphatidylinositol-4-kinase type II alpha, and VAMP7-TI. VAMP7-TI is an R-SNARE involved in vesicle fusion with late endosomes/lysosomes, and its cellular levels were selectively decreased in cells that were either AP-3- or BLOC-1-deficient. Furthermore, BLOC-1 deficiency selectively altered the subcellular distribution of VAMP7-TI cognate SNAREs. These results indicate that the BLOC-1 and AP-3 protein complexes affect the targeting of SNARE and non-SNARE AP-3 cargoes and suggest a function of the BLOC-1 complex in membrane protein sorting.

Oligomerization and dissociation of AP-1 adaptors are regulated by cargo signals and by ArfGAP1-induced GTP hydrolysis

The mechanism of AP-1/clathrin coat formation was analyzed using purified adaptor proteins and synthetic liposomes presenting tyrosine sorting signals. AP-1 adaptors recruited in the presence of Arf1.GTP and sorting signals were found to oligomerize to high-molecular-weight complexes even in the absence of clathrin. The appendage domains of the AP-1 adaptins were not required for oligomerization. On GTP hydrolysis induced by the GTPase-activating protein ArfGAP1, the complexes were disassembled and AP-1 dissociated from the membrane. AP-1 stimulated ArfGAP1 activity, suggesting a role of AP-1 in the regulation of the Arf1 "GTPase timer." In the presence of cytosol, AP-1 could be recruited to liposomes without sorting signals, consistent with the existence of docking factors in the cytosol. Under these conditions, however, AP-1 remained monomeric, and recruitment in the presence of GTP was short-lived. Sorting signals allowed stable recruitment and oligomerization also in the presence of cytosol. These results suggest a mechanism whereby initial assembly of AP-1 with Arf1.GTP and ArfGAP1 on the membrane stimulates Arf1 GTPase activity, whereas interaction with cargo induces oligomerization and reduces the rate of GTP hydrolysis, thus contributing to efficient cargo sorting.

Phosphatidylinositol-4-kinase type II alpha is a component of adaptor protein-3-derived vesicles

A membrane fraction enriched in vesicles containing the adaptor protein (AP) -3 cargo zinc transporter 3 was generated from PC12 cells and was used to identify new components of these organelles by mass spectrometry. Proteins prominently represented in the fraction included AP-3 subunits, synaptic vesicle proteins, and lysosomal proteins known to be sorted in an AP-3-dependent way or to interact genetically with AP-3. A protein enriched in this fraction was phosphatidylinositol-4-kinase type IIalpha (PI4KIIalpha). Biochemical, pharmacological, and morphological analyses supported the presence of PI4KIIalpha in AP-3-positive organelles. Furthermore, the subcellular localization of PI4KIIalpha was altered in cells from AP-3-deficient mocha mutant mice. The PI4KIIalpha normally present both in perinuclear and peripheral organelles was substantially decreased in the peripheral membranes of AP-3-deficient mocha fibroblasts. In addition, as is the case for other proteins sorted in an AP-3-dependent way, PI4KIIalpha content was strongly reduced in nerve terminals of mocha hippocampal mossy fibers. The functional relationship between AP-3 and PI4KIIalpha was further explored by PI4KIIalpha knockdown experiments. Reduction of the cellular content of PI4KIIalpha strongly decreased the punctate distribution of AP-3 observed in PC12 cells. These results indicate that PI4KIIalpha is present on AP-3 organelles where it regulates AP-3 function.

Vglut1 and ZnT3 co-targeting mechanisms regulate vesicular zinc stores in PC12 cells

The lumenal ionic content of an organelle is determined by its complement of channels and transporters. These proteins reach their resident organelles by adaptor-dependent mechanisms. This concept is illustrated in AP-3 deficiencies, in which synaptic vesicle zinc is depleted because the synaptic-vesicle-specific zinc transporter 3 does not reach synaptic vesicles. However, whether zinc transporter 3 is the only membrane protein defining synaptic-vesicle zinc content remains unknown. To address this question, we examined whether zinc transporter 3 and the vesicular glutamate transporter Vglut1 (a transporter that coexists with zinc transporter 3 in brain nerve terminals) were co-targeted to synaptic-like microvesicle fractions in PC12 cells. Deconvolution microscopy and subcellular fractionation demonstrated that these two transporters were present on the same vesicles in PC12 cells. Vglut1 content in synaptic-like microvesicle fractions and brain synaptic vesicles was partially sensitive to pharmacological and genetic perturbation of AP-3 function. Whole-cell flow-cytometry analysis of PC12 cell lines expressing zinc transporter 3, Vglut1 or both showed that vesicular zinc uptake was increased by Vglut1 expression. Conversely, production of zinc transporter 3 increased the vesicular uptake of glutamate in a zinc-dependent fashion. Our results suggest that the coupling of zinc transporter 3 and Vglut1 transport mechanisms regulates neurotransmitter content in secretory vesicles.

Endosome function and dysfunction in Alzheimer's disease and other neurodegenerative diseases

Endocytosis is universally important in cell function. In the brain, the roles of endosomes are relatively more complex due to the unique polar morphology of neurons and specialized needs for inter-cellular communication. New evidence shows that endosome function is altered in a surprising range of neurodegenerative disorders, including in several inherited neurologic disorders where the causative mutations occur in genes that regulate endosome function. In Alzheimer's disease (AD), endosome abnormalities are among the earliest neuropathologic features to develop and have now been closely linked to genetic risk factors for AD, including APP triplication in Trisomy 21 (Down syndrome, DS) and ApoE4 genotype in sporadic AD. Recent findings on endosome regulation and developmental and late-onset neurodegenerative disease disorders are beginning to reveal how endocytic pathway impairment may lead to neuronal dysfunction and cell death in these disorders and may also promote amyloidogenesis in AD.

O-glycosylation is essential for intracellular targeting of synaptotagmins I and II in non-neuronal specialized secretory cells

We have examined the trafficking of synaptotagmin (Syt) I and II in the mast cell line rat basophilic leukemia (RBL-2H3). We demonstrate that both Syt I and Syt II travel through the plasma membrane and require endocytosis to reach their final intracellular localization. However, N- or C-terminal tagging of Syt II, but not of Syt I, prevents its internalization, trapping the tagged protein at the plasma membrane. Furthermore, a chimeric protein comprising a tagged luminal domain of Syt II fused with the remaining domains of Syt I also localizes to the plasma membrane, whereas a chimera consisting of tagged luminal domain of Syt I fused with Syt II colocalizes with Syt I on secretory granules. We also show that endocytosis of both Syt I and Syt II is strictly dependent on O-glycosylation processing, whereby O-glycosylation mutants of either protein fail to internalize and remain at the plasma membrane. Our results indicate that the luminal domains of Syt I and Syt II govern their internalization capacity from the plasma membrane and identify O-glycosylation as playing a crucial role in Syt trafficking in non-neuronal secretory cells.

Cycling of synaptic vesicles: how far? How fast!

Synaptic transmission is based on the regulated exocytotic fusion of synaptic vesicles filled with neurotransmitter. In order to sustain neurotransmitter release, these vesicles need to be recycled locally. Recent data suggest that two tracks for the cycling of synaptic vesicles coexist: a slow track in which vesicles fuse completely with the presynaptic plasma membrane, followed by clathrin-mediated recycling of the vesicular components, and a fast track that may correspond to the transient opening and closing of a fusion pore. In this review, we attempt to provide an overview of the components involved in both tracks of vesicle cycling, as well as to identify possible mechanistic links between these two pathways.

Cellugyrin induces biogenesis of synaptic-like microvesicles in PC12 cells

The four-transmembrane domain proteins synaptophysin and synaptogyrin represent the major constituents of synaptic vesicles. Our previous studies in PC12 cells demonstrated that synaptogyrin or its nonneuronal paralog cellugyrin targets efficiently to synaptic-like microvesicles (SLMVs) and dramatically increases the synaptophysin content of SLMVs (Belfort, G. M., and Kandror, K. V. (2003) J. Biol. Chem. 278, 47971-47978). Here, we explored the mechanism of these phenomena and found that ectopic expression of cellugyrin increases the number of SLMVs in PC12 cells. Mutagenesis studies revealed that cellugyrin's hydrophilic cytoplasmic domains are not involved in vesicle biogenesis, whereas small conserved hydrophobic hairpins in the first luminal loop and the carboxyl terminus of cellugyrin were found to be critical for the formation of SLMVs. In addition, the length but not the primary sequence of the second luminal loop was essential for SLMV biogenesis. We suggest that changing the length of this loop similar to disruption of the short hydrophobic hairpins alters the position of the vicinal transmembrane domains that may be crucial for protein function.

Interaction of neuronal calcium sensor-1 and ADP-ribosylation factor 1 allows bidirectional control of phosphatidylinositol 4-kinase beta and trans-Golgi network-plasma membrane traffic

We have identified a novel Ca(2+)-dependent interaction between neuronal calcium sensor-1 (NCS-1) and the GTPase ARF1. Both of these proteins are localized to the Golgi complex, and both regulate phosphatidylinositol 4-kinase IIIbeta (PI(4)Kbeta). Spatial and temporal control of phosphatidylinositol 4-phosphate levels through activation of PI(4)Kbeta is important for the recruitment of trafficking complexes to the trans-Golgi network (TGN) and vesicular traffic from this organelle. The NCS-1-ARF1 interaction and its specificity have been demonstrated through in vitro binding assays, in vitro enzyme assay, and through functional cellular assays. We show that NCS-1 can exert bidirectional effects to activate PI(4)Kbeta on its own or inhibit the activation by ARF1. NCS-1 was shown to modulate the effects of expression of ARF mutants that disrupt Golgi morphology and to recruit GDP-loaded ARF to the Golgi complex in a Ca(2+)-dependent manner. We demonstrate antagonist effects of NCS-1 and ARF on constitutive and regulated exocytosis. The NCS-1-ARF1 interaction provides evidence for functional cross-talk between Ca(2+)-dependent and ARF-dependent pathways in TGN to plasma membrane traffic.

Biochemical characterization of the coating mechanism of the endosomal donor compartment of synaptic vesicles

The heterotetrameric adaptor protein complex, AP-3, sorts proteins to both the endosome/lysosome and the synaptic vesicles. We have characterized the recruitment of pure AP-3 complex and ADP-ribosylation factor (ARF) onto the endosomal donor compartments that give rise to synaptic vesicles. We demonstrated that endosomes become heavier in a sucrose gradient after incubation with rat brain cytosol and a nonhydrolyzable GTP analog, GTPgammaS. This process requires a small GTPase, ARF-1. Furthermore, the endosomal coating is specific for AP-3 but not the AP-2 complex. This process requires only two soluble proteins AP-3 and ARF, with the recruitment of AP-3 being saturable at about 30 nM. These results establish that the synaptic vesicle's donor membrane is coated with AP-3 before vesiculation, in a coat-protein-specific and dose-dependent fashion.

AP-3-dependent mechanisms control the targeting of a chloride channel (ClC-3) in neuronal and non-neuronal cells

Adaptor protein (AP)-2 and AP-3-dependent mechanisms control the sorting of membrane proteins into synaptic vesicles. Mouse models deficient in AP-3, mocha, develop a neurological phenotype of which the central feature is an alteration of the luminal synaptic vesicle composition. This is caused by a severe reduction of vesicular levels of the zinc transporter 3 (ZnT3). It is presently unknown whether this mocha defect is restricted to ZnT3 or encompasses other synaptic vesicle proteins capable of modifying synaptic vesicle contents, such as transporters or channels. In this study, we identified a chloride channel, ClC-3, whose level in synaptic vesicles and hippocampal mossy fiber terminals was reduced in the context of the mocha AP-3 deficiency. In PC-12 cells, ClC-3 was present in transferrin receptor-positive endosomes, where it was targeted to synaptic-like microvesicles (SLMV) by a mechanism sensitive to brefeldin A, a signature of the AP-3-dependent route of SLMV biogenesis. ClC-3 was packed in SLMV along with the AP-3-targeted synaptic vesicle protein ZnT3. Co-segregation of ClC-3 and ZnT3 to common intracellular compartments was functionally significant as revealed by increased vesicular zinc transport with increased ClC3 expression. Our work has identified a synaptic vesicle protein in which trafficking to synaptic vesicles is regulated by AP-3. In addition, our findings indicate that ClC-3 and ZnT3 reside in a common vesicle population where they functionally interact to determine vesicle luminal composition.

The zinc transporter ZnT3 interacts with AP-3 and it is preferentially targeted to a distinct synaptic vesicle subpopulation

Synaptic vesicles (SV) are generated by two different mechanisms, one AP-2 dependent and one AP-3 dependent. It has been uncertain, however, whether these mechanisms generate SV that differ in molecular composition. We explored this hypothesis by analyzing the targeting of ZnT3 and synaptophysin both to PC12 synaptic-like microvesicles (SLMV) as well as SV isolated from wild-type and AP-3-deficient mocha brains. ZnT3 cytosolic tail interacted selectively with AP-3 in cell-free assays. Accordingly, pharmacological disruption of either AP-2- or AP-3-dependent SLMV biogenesis preferentially reduced synaptophysin or ZnT3 targeting, respectively; suggesting that these antigens were concentrated in different vesicles. As predicted, immuno-isolated SLMV revealed that ZnT3 and synaptophysin were enriched in different vesicle populations. Likewise, morphological and biochemical analyses in hippocampal neurons indicated that these two antigens were also present in distinct but overlapping domains. ZnT3 SV content was reduced in AP-3-deficient neurons, but synaptophysin was not altered in the AP-3 null background. Our evidence indicates that neuroendocrine cells assemble molecularly heterogeneous SV and suggests that this diversity could contribute to the functional variety of synapses.

Cellugyrin and synaptogyrin facilitate targeting of synaptophysin to a ubiquitous synaptic vesicle-sized compartment in PC12 cells

Cellugyrin represents a ubiquitously expressed four-transmembrane domain protein that is closely related to synaptic vesicle protein synaptogyrin and, more remotely, to synaptophysin. We report here that, in PC12 cells, cellugyrin is localized in synaptic-like microvesicles (SLMVs), along with synaptogyrin and synaptophysin. Upon overexpression of synaptophysin in PC12 cells, it is localized in rapidly sedimenting membranes and practically is not delivered to the SLMVs. On the contrary, the efficiency of the SLMV targeting of exogenously expressed cellugyrin and synaptogyrin is high. Moreover, expression of cellugyrin (or synaptogyrin) in PC12 cells dramatically and specifically increases SLMV targeting of endogenous synaptophysin. Finally, we utilized the SLMV purification scheme on a series of non-neuroendocrine cell types including the mouse fibroblast cell line 3T3-L1, the Chinese hamster ovary cell line CHO-K1, and the monkey kidney epithelial cell line COS7 and found that a cellugyrin-positive microvesicular compartment was present in all cell types tested. We suggest that synaptic vesicles have evolved from cellugyrin-positive ubiquitous microvesicles and that neuroendocrine SLMVs represent a step along that pathway of evolution.

An essential role of Rab5 in uniformity of synaptic vesicle size

Rab5 small GTPase is a famous regulator of endocytic vesicular transport from plasma membrane to early endosomes. In neurons, Rab5 is found not only on endocytic vesicles in cell bodies but also on synaptic vesicles in nerve terminals. However, the function of Rab5 on synaptic vesicles remains unclear. Here, we elucidate the function of Rab5 on synaptic vesicles with in vivo and in vitro experiments using Drosophila photoreceptor cells. Functional inhibition of Rab5 with Rab5N142I, a dominant negative version of Drosophila Rab5, induced enlargement of synaptic vesicles. This enlargement was, however, suppressed by enhancing synaptic vesicle recycling under light illumination. In addition, synaptic vesicles prepared from Rab5N142I-expressing flies exhibited homotypic fusion in vitro. These results indicate that Rab5 functions to keep the size of synaptic vesicles uniform by preventing their homotypic fusion. By contrast, Rab5 was not involved in the endocytic reformation of synaptic vesicles, contrary to expectation from its conventional function. Furthermore, we electrophysiologically and behaviourally showed that the function of Rab5 is essential for efficient signal transmission across synapses.

Structural requirements for interactions between leucine-sorting signals and clathrin-associated adaptor protein complex AP3

Cytoplasmic tails of LIMPII and the invariant chain contain similar leucine-based sorting signals, but the invariant chain interacts only with AP1 and AP2, whereas LIMPII interacts strongly with AP3. In a series of in vitro experiments, we investigated the effect of residues upstream of the leucine pairs and demonstrated that these residues determine adapter binding, and certain residues favor interactions with AP3. Furthermore, constructs that interacted stronger with AP3 interacted weakly with AP1 and vice versa. Exchanging residues upstream of the leucine-based signal in LIMPII with those of the invariant chain reduced LIMPII binding to AP3 in vitro, and in vivo the corresponding LIMPII mutant was rerouted via the plasma membrane like the invariant chain. These preferential interactions of different leucine signals with different AP complexes may thus be the determining step sorting proteins from the trans-Golgi network to their final destinations. Proteins that interact with AP3 are sorted directly to endosomes/lysosomes, whereas proteins that interact with AP1 are sorted via a different route. At the same time, constructs that exhibited specificity for either AP1 or AP3 might still interact with AP2, suggesting that AP2 may recognize a wider variety of leucine signals. This is consistent with the suggested role of AP2 in internalization of proteins containing general leucine-based signals, including proteins that have been missorted to the plasma membrane.

Signals involved in targeting membrane proteins to synaptic vesicles

1. Synaptic vesicles (SVs) mediate fast regulated secretion of classical neurotransmitters. In order to perform their task SVs rely on a restrict set of membrane proteins. The mechanisms responsible for targeting these proteins to the SV membrane are still poorly understood. 2. Likewise, little is known about the intracellular routes taken by these proteins in their way to SV membrane. Recently, several domains and motifs necessary for correct localization of SV proteins have been identified. 3. In this review we summarize the sequence motifs that have been identified in the cytoplasmic domains of SV proteins that are involved in endocytosis and targeting of SVs. We suggest that the vesicular acetylcholine transporter, a protein found predominantly in synaptic vesicles, is perhaps a model protein to understand the pathways and interactions that are used for synaptic vesicle targeting.

Regulation of acetylcholine synthesis and storage

Acetylcholine is one of the major modulators of brain functions and it is the main neurotransmitter at the peripheral nervous system. Modulation of acetylcholine release is crucial for nervous system function. Moreover, dysfunction of cholinergic transmission has been linked to a number of pathological conditions. In this manuscript, we review the cellular mechanisms involved with regulation of acetylcholine synthesis and storage. We focus on how phosphorylation of key cholinergic proteins can participate in the physiological regulation of cholinergic nerve-endings.

Mechanism of interaction between leucine-based sorting signals from the invariant chain and clathrin-associated adaptor protein complexes AP1 and AP2

The cytoplasmic tail of the invariant chain contains two leucine-based sorting signals, and each of those seems sufficient to route the invariant chain to its intracellular destination in either normal or polarized cells. It is believed that the intracellular routing of the invariant chain is mediated by its interactions with the clathrin-associated adaptor protein complexes AP1 and AP2. We () have previously demonstrated the in vitro interactions between the cytoplasmic tail of the invariant chain and AP1/AP2 complexes. These interactions were specific and depended on the critical leucine residues in the invariant chain's sorting signals. In the present study, we decided to investigate the molecular mechanism of these interactions. To this end, we constructed a set of glutathione S-transferase fusion proteins that contained the intact cytoplasmic tail of the invariant chain and its various mutants to define residues important for its interactions with AP1 and AP-2. Our results demonstrated the importance of several residues other than the critical leucine residues for such interactions. A strong correlation between in vitro binding of AP2 to the invariant chain and in vivo internalization of the invariant chain was observed, confirming the primary role of AP2 in recognition of endocytic signals. In addition, we demonstrated different requirements for AP1 and AP2 binding to cytoplasmic tail of the invariant chain, which may reflect that the different sorting pathways mediated by AP1 and AP2 involve their recognition of the primary structure of the sorting signal.

The beta-appendages of the four adaptor-protein (AP) complexes: structure and binding properties, and identification of sorting nexin 9 as an accessory protein to AP-2

Adaptor protein (AP) complexes are essential components for the formation of coated vesicles and the recognition of cargo proteins for intracellular transport. Each AP complex exposes two appendage domains with that function to bind regulatory accessory proteins in the cytosol. Secondary structure predictions, sequence alignments and CD spectroscopy were used to relate the beta-appendages of all human AP complexes to the previously published crystal structure of AP-2. The results suggested that the beta-appendages of AP-1, AP-2 and AP-3 have similar structures, consisting of two subdomains, whereas that of AP-4 lacks the inner subdomain. Pull-down and overlay assays showed partial overlap in the binding specificities of the beta-appendages of AP-1 and AP-2, whereas the corresponding domain of AP-3 displayed a unique binding pattern. That AP-4 may have a truncated, non-functional domain was indicated by its apparent inability to bind any proteins from cytosol. Of several novel beta-appendage-binding proteins detected, one that had affinity exclusively for AP-2 was identified as sorting nexin 9 (SNX9). SNX9, which contains a phox and an Src homology 3 domain, was found in large complexes and was at least partially associated with AP-2 in the cytosol. SNX9 may function to assist AP-2 in its role at the plasma membrane.

Synaptotagmin I-DeltaC2B. A novel synaptotagmin isoform with a single C2 domain in the bovine adrenal medulla

Synaptotagmin I is a 65 kDa type 1 membrane glycoprotein found in secretory organelles that plays a key role in regulated exocytosis. We have characterised two forms (long and short) of synaptotagmin I that are present in the bovine adrenal medulla. The long form is a type I integral membrane protein which has two cytoplasmic C2 domains and corresponds to the previously characterised full-length synaptotagmin I isoform. The short-form synaptotagmin I-DeltaC2B has the same structure in the lumenal and transmembrane sequences, but synaptotagmin I-DeltaC2B is truncated such that it only has a single cytoplasmic C2 domain. Analysis of synaptotagmin I-DeltaC2B expression indicates that synaptotagmin I-DeltaC2B is preferentially expressed in the bovine adrenal medulla. However, it is absent from the dense core chromaffin granules. Furthermore, when expressed in the rat pheochromocytoma cell line PC12 bovine synaptotagmin I-DeltaC2B is largely absent from dense core granules and synaptic-like microvesicles. Instead, indirect immunofluorescence microscopy reveals the intracellular location of synaptotagmin I-DeltaC2B to be the plasma membrane.

The beta-appendages of the four adaptor-protein (AP) complexes: structure and binding properties, and identification of sorting nexin 9 as an accessory protein to AP-2

Adaptor protein (AP) complexes are essential components for the formation of coated vesicles and the recognition of cargo proteins for intracellular transport. Each AP complex exposes two appendage domains with that function to bind regulatory accessory proteins in the cytosol. Secondary structure predictions, sequence alignments and CD spectroscopy were used to relate the beta-appendages of all human AP complexes to the previously published crystal structure of AP-2. The results suggested that the beta-appendages of AP-1, AP-2 and AP-3 have similar structures, consisting of two subdomains, whereas that of AP-4 lacks the inner subdomain. Pull-down and overlay assays showed partial overlap in the binding specificities of the beta-appendages of AP-1 and AP-2, whereas the corresponding domain of AP-3 displayed a unique binding pattern. That AP-4 may have a truncated, non-functional domain was indicated by its apparent inability to bind any proteins from cytosol. Of several novel beta-appendage-binding proteins detected, one that had affinity exclusively for AP-2 was identified as sorting nexin 9 (SNX9). SNX9, which contains a phox and an Src homology 3 domain, was found in large complexes and was at least partially associated with AP-2 in the cytosol. SNX9 may function to assist AP-2 in its role at the plasma membrane.

Localization of mRNAs for subfamily of guanine nucleotide-exchange proteins (GEP) for ARFs (ADP-ribosylation factors) in the brain of developing and mature rats under normal and postaxotomy conditions

ADP-ribosylation factors (ARFs) play important roles in vesicular trafficking and cytoskeletal regulation and its activation depends on guanine nucleotide-exchange proteins (GEPs). By way of in situ hybridization histochemistry, the localization of mRNAs for subfamily members of low-molecular-weight ARF-GEPs in the rat brain was studied at embryonic and postnatal stages. In the embryonic brain, the gene expression for msec7-1 was distinct in the ventricular zone while that for msec7-1, -3 and EFA6 in the mantle zone. In early postnatal brain, the expression for msec7-1, -2, -3 and EFA6 was seen widely in various loci of the gray matter with different intensity, and the expression of msec7-1 and -2 mRNAs was evident in the cerebellar external granule cell layer. In the adult brain, the gene expression for the four ARF-GEPs decreased more or less in most gray matter and the distinct expression was maintained mainly in the hippocampal and dentate neuronal layers and cerebellar cortex. The expression of EFA6 mRNA was also evident in the molecular layer of the hippocampus and dentate gyrus. No obvious gene expression for cytohesin-4 and ARF-GEP100 was detected in the brain at any stages of development. The present findings suggest that ARF-GEPs are differentially involved in some processes essential to neuronal differentiation and maturation in association with ARFs.

Assembly and function of AP-3 complexes in cells expressing mutant subunits

The mouse mutants mocha and pearl are deficient in the AP-3 delta and beta3A subunits, respectively. We have used cells from these mice to investigate both the assembly of AP-3 complexes and AP-3 function. In mocha cells, the beta3 and mu3 subunits coassemble into a heterodimer, whereas the sigma3 subunit remains monomeric. In pearl cells, the delta and sigma3 subunits coassemble into a heterodimer, whereas mu3 gets destroyed. The yeast two hybrid system was used to confirm these interactions, and also to demonstrate that the A (ubiquitous) and B (neuronal-specific) isoforms of beta3 and mu3 can interact with each other. Pearl cell lines were generated that express beta3A, beta3B, a beta3Abeta2 chimera, two beta3A deletion mutants, and a beta3A point mutant lacking a functional clathrin binding site. All six constructs assembled into complexes and were recruited onto membranes. However, only beta3A, beta3B, and the point mutant gave full functional rescue, as assayed by LAMP-1 sorting. The beta3Abeta2 chimera and the beta3A short deletion mutant gave partial functional rescue, whereas the beta3A truncation mutant gave no functional rescue. These results indicate that the hinge and/or ear domains of beta3 are important for function, but the clathrin binding site is not needed.

Identification of an axonal determinant in the C-terminus of the sodium channel Na(v)1.2

To obtain a better understanding of how hippocampal neurons selectively target proteins to axons, we assessed whether any of the large cytoplasmic regions of neuronal sodium channel Na(v)1.2 contain sufficient information for axonal compartmentalization. We show that addition of the cytoplasmic C-terminal region of Na(v)1.2 restricted the distribution of a dendritic-axonal reporter protein to axons. The analysis of mutants revealed that a critical segment of nine amino acids encompassing a di-leucine-based motif mediates axonal compartmentalization of chimera. In addition, the Na(v)1.2 C-terminus is recognized by the clathrin endocytic pathway both in non-neuronal cells and the somatodendritic domain of hippocampal neurons. The mutation of the di-leucine motif located within the nine amino acid sequence to alanines resulted in the loss of chimera compartmentalization in axons and of internalization. These data suggest that selective elimination by endocytosis in dendrites may account for the compartmentalized distribution of some proteins in axons.

Rab4 regulates formation of synaptic-like microvesicles from early endosomes in PC12 cells

Early endosomes in PC12 cells are an important site for the formation of synaptic-like microvesicles and constitutive recycling vesicles. By immunogold electron microscopy, the small GTPase rab4 was localized to early endosomes and numerous small vesicles in the cell periphery and Golgi area of PC12 cells. Overexpression of GTPase-deficient Q67Lrab4 increased the number of early endosome-associated and cytoplasmic vesicles, whereas expression of GDP-bound S22Nrab4 significantly increased the length of early endosomal tubules. In parallel, Q67Lrab4 induced a shift in rab4, VAMP2, and TfR label from early endosomes to peripheral vesicles, whereas S22Nrab4 increased early endosome labeling of all three proteins. These observations were corroborated by early endosome budding assays. Together, our data document a thus far unrecognized role for rab4 in the formation of synaptic-like microvesicles and add to our understanding of the formation of constitutive recycling vesicles from early endosomes.

The neuronal form of adaptor protein-3 is required for synaptic vesicle formation from endosomes

Heterotetrameric adaptor complexes vesiculate donor membranes. One of the adaptor protein complexes, AP-3, is present in two forms; one form is expressed in all tissues of the body, whereas the other is restricted to brain. Mice lacking both the ubiquitous and neuronal forms of AP-3 exhibit neurological disorders that are not observed in mice that are mutant only in the ubiquitous form. To begin to understand the role of neuronal AP-3 in neurological disease, we investigated its function in in vitro assays as well as its localization in neural tissue. In the presence of GTPgammaS both ubiquitous and neuronal forms of AP-3 can bind to purified synaptic vesicles. However, only the neuronal form of AP-3 can produce synaptic vesicles from endosomes in vitro. We also identified that the expression of neuronal AP-3 is limited to varicosities of neuronal-like processes and is expressed in most axons of the brain. Although the AP-2/clathrin pathway is the major route of vesicle production and the relatively minor neuronal AP-3 pathway is not necessary for viability, the absence of the latter could lead to the neurological abnormalities seen in mice lacking the expression of AP-3 in brain. In this study we have identified the first brain-specific function for a neuronal adaptor complex.

The neuronal form of adaptor protein-3 is required for synaptic vesicle formation from endosomes

Heterotetrameric adaptor complexes vesiculate donor membranes. One of the adaptor protein complexes, AP-3, is present in two forms; one form is expressed in all tissues of the body, whereas the other is restricted to brain. Mice lacking both the ubiquitous and neuronal forms of AP-3 exhibit neurological disorders that are not observed in mice that are mutant only in the ubiquitous form. To begin to understand the role of neuronal AP-3 in neurological disease, we investigated its function in in vitro assays as well as its localization in neural tissue. In the presence of GTPgammaS both ubiquitous and neuronal forms of AP-3 can bind to purified synaptic vesicles. However, only the neuronal form of AP-3 can produce synaptic vesicles from endosomes in vitro. We also identified that the expression of neuronal AP-3 is limited to varicosities of neuronal-like processes and is expressed in most axons of the brain. Although the AP-2/clathrin pathway is the major route of vesicle production and the relatively minor neuronal AP-3 pathway is not necessary for viability, the absence of the latter could lead to the neurological abnormalities seen in mice lacking the expression of AP-3 in brain. In this study we have identified the first brain-specific function for a neuronal adaptor complex.