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Nangpal P, Nagpal NL, Angrish N, Khare G. Model systems to study Mycobacterium tuberculosis infections: an overview of scientific potential and impediments. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2025; 15:1572547. [PMID: 40406522 PMCID: PMC12095297 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2025.1572547] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/07/2025] [Accepted: 04/04/2025] [Indexed: 05/26/2025] Open
Abstract
Despite years of global efforts to combat tuberculosis (TB), Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb), the causative agent of this disease, continues to haunt the humankind making TB elimination a distant task. To comprehend the pathogenic nuances of this organism, various in vitro, ex vivo and in vivo experimental models have been employed by researchers. This review focuses on the salient features as well as pros and cons of various model systems employed for TB research. In vitro and ex vivo macrophage infection models have been extensively used for studying Mtb physiology. Animal models have provided us with great wealth of information and have immensely contributed to the understanding of TB pathogenesis and host responses during infection. Additionally, they have been used for evaluation of anti-mycobacterial drug therapy as well as for determining the efficacy of potential vaccine candidates. Advancements in various 'omics' based approaches have enhanced our understanding about the host-pathogen interface. Although animal models have been the cornerstone to TB research, none of them is ideal that gives us a complete picture of human infection, disease and progression. Further, the review also discusses about the newer systems including three dimensional (3D)-tissue models, lung-on-chip infection model, in vitro TB granuloma model and their limitations for studying TB. Thus, converging information gained from various in vitro and ex vivo models in tandem with in vivo experiments will ultimately bridge the gap that exists in understanding human TB.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Garima Khare
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Delhi, New Delhi, India
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Lyu J, Narum DE, Baldwin SL, Larsen SE, Bai X, Griffith DE, Dartois V, Naidoo T, Steyn AJC, Coler RN, Chan ED. Understanding the development of tuberculous granulomas: insights into host protection and pathogenesis, a review in humans and animals. Front Immunol 2024; 15:1427559. [PMID: 39717773 PMCID: PMC11663721 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2024.1427559] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/04/2024] [Accepted: 11/18/2024] [Indexed: 12/25/2024] Open
Abstract
Granulomas, organized aggregates of immune cells which form in response to Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb), are characteristic but not exclusive of tuberculosis (TB). Despite existing investigations on TB granulomas, the determinants that differentiate host-protective granulomas from granulomas that contribute to TB pathogenesis are often disputed. Thus, the goal of this narrative review is to help clarify the existing literature on such determinants. We adopt the a priori view that TB granulomas are host-protective organelles and discuss the molecular and cellular determinants that induce protective granulomas and those that promote their failure. While reports about protective TB granulomas and their failure may initially seem contradictory, it is increasingly recognized that either deficiencies or excesses of the molecular and cellular components in TB granuloma formation may be detrimental to the host. More specifically, insufficient or excessive expression/representation of the following components have been reported to skew granulomas toward the less protective phenotype: (i) epithelioid macrophages; (ii) type 1 adaptive immune response; (iii) type 2 adaptive immune response; (iv) tumor necrosis factor; (v) interleukin-12; (vi) interleukin-17; (vii) matrix metalloproteinases; (viii) hypoxia in the TB granulomas; (ix) hypoxia inducible factor-1 alpha; (x) aerobic glycolysis; (xi) indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase activity; (xii) heme oxygenase-1 activity; (xiii) immune checkpoint; (xiv) leukotriene A4 hydrolase activity; (xv) nuclear-factor-kappa B; and (xvi) transforming growth factor-beta. Rather, more precise and timely coordinated immune responses appear essential for eradication or containment of Mtb infection. Since there are several animal models of infection with Mtb, other species within the Mtb complex, and the surrogate Mycobacterium marinum - whether natural (cattle, elephants) or experimental (zebrafish, mouse, guinea pig, rabbit, mini pig, goat, non-human primate) infections - we also compared the TB granulomatous response and other pathologic lung lesions in various animals infected with one of these mycobacteria with that of human pulmonary TB. Identifying components that dictate the formation of host-protective granulomas and the circumstances that result in their failure can enhance our understanding of the macrocosm of human TB and facilitate the development of novel remedies - whether they be direct therapeutics or indirect interventions - to efficiently eliminate Mtb infection and prevent its pathologic sequelae.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jiwon Lyu
- Division of Pulmonary and Critical Medicine, Soon Chun Hyang University Cheonan Hospital, Seoul, Republic of Korea
- Department of Academic Affairs, National Jewish Health, Denver, CO, United States
| | - Drew E. Narum
- Department of Academic Affairs, National Jewish Health, Denver, CO, United States
| | - Susan L. Baldwin
- Center for Global Infectious Diseases, Seattle Children’s Research Institute, Seattle, WA, United States
| | - Sasha E. Larsen
- Center for Global Infectious Diseases, Seattle Children’s Research Institute, Seattle, WA, United States
| | - Xiyuan Bai
- Department of Academic Affairs, National Jewish Health, Denver, CO, United States
- Division of Pulmonary Sciences and Critical Care Medicine, University of Colorado School of Medicine, Aurora, CO, United States
| | - David E. Griffith
- Department of Medicine, National Jewish Health, Denver, CO, United States
| | - Véronique Dartois
- Center for Discovery and Innovation, Hackensack Meridian School of Medicine, Nutley, NJ, United States
| | - Threnesan Naidoo
- Departments of Forensic & Legal Medicine and Laboratory Medicine & Pathology, Faculty of Medicine & Health Sciences, Walter Sisulu University, Mthatha, South Africa
| | - Adrie J. C. Steyn
- Africa Health Research Institute, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, South Africa
- Department of Microbiology and Centers for AIDS Research and Free Radical Biology, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL, United States
| | - Rhea N. Coler
- Center for Global Infectious Diseases, Seattle Children’s Research Institute, Seattle, WA, United States
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Washington School of Medicine, Seattle, WA, United States
- Department of Global Health, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, United States
| | - Edward D. Chan
- Department of Academic Affairs, National Jewish Health, Denver, CO, United States
- Division of Pulmonary Sciences and Critical Care Medicine, University of Colorado School of Medicine, Aurora, CO, United States
- Department of Medicine, Rocky Mountain Regional Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Aurora, CO, United States
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Abstract
In 1955, René Dubos famously expressed his "second thoughts on the germ theory", attributing infectious diseases to various "changing circumstances" that weaken the host by unknown mechanisms. He rightly stressed that only a small minority of individuals infected by almost any microbe develop clinical disease. Intriguingly, though, he did not mention the abundant and elegant findings reported from 1905 onward that unambiguously pointed to host genetic determinants of infection outcome in plants and animals, including human inborn errors of immunity. Diverse findings over the next 50 y corroborated and extended these earlier genetic and immunological observations that René Dubos had neglected. Meanwhile, the sequential advent of immunosuppression- and HIV-driven immunodeficiencies unexpectedly provided a mechanistic basis for his own views. Collectively, these two lines of evidence support a host theory of infectious diseases, with inherited and acquired immunodeficiencies as the key determinants of severe infection outcome, relegating the germ to an environmental trigger that reveals an underlying and preexisting cause of disease and death.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jean-Laurent Casanova
- HHMI, New York, NY10065
- St. Giles Laboratory of Human Genetics of Infectious Diseases, The Rockefeller University, New York, NY10065
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Andreakos E, Abel L, Vinh DC, Kaja E, Drolet BA, Zhang Q, O'Farrelly C, Novelli G, Rodríguez-Gallego C, Haerynck F, Prando C, Pujol A, Su HC, Casanova JL, Spaan AN. A global effort to dissect the human genetic basis of resistance to SARS-CoV-2 infection. Nat Immunol 2022; 23:159-164. [PMID: 34667308 PMCID: PMC8524403 DOI: 10.1038/s41590-021-01030-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/13/2021] [Accepted: 08/12/2021] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
SARS-CoV-2 infections display tremendous interindividual variability, ranging from asymptomatic infections to life-threatening disease. Inborn errors of, and autoantibodies directed against, type I interferons (IFNs) account for about 20% of critical COVID-19 cases among SARS-CoV-2-infected individuals. By contrast, the genetic and immunological determinants of resistance to infection per se remain unknown. Following the discovery that autosomal recessive deficiency in the DARC chemokine receptor confers resistance to Plasmodium vivax, autosomal recessive deficiencies of chemokine receptor 5 (CCR5) and the enzyme FUT2 were shown to underlie resistance to HIV-1 and noroviruses, respectively. Along the same lines, we propose a strategy for identifying, recruiting, and genetically analyzing individuals who are naturally resistant to SARS-CoV-2 infection.
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Grants
- UM1 HG006504 NHGRI NIH HHS
- UL1 TR001863 NCATS NIH HHS
- UL1 TR001866 NCATS NIH HHS
- R01 AI088364 NIAID NIH HHS
- R01 AI163029 NIAID NIH HHS
- U24 HG008956 NHGRI NIH HHS
- European Union’s Horizon 2020 research and innovation program (Marie Sklodowska-Curie grant No. 789645)
- European Commission’s Horizon 2020 research and innovation program (IMMUNAID, grant No. 779295, CURE, grant No. 767015 and TO_AITION grant No. 848146) and the Hellenic Foundation for Research and Innovation (INTERFLU, no. 1574)
- National Institutes of Health (NIH) (R01AI088364), the National Center for Advancing Translational Sciences (NCATS), NIH Clinical and Translational Science Award (CTSA) program (UL1TR001866), a Fast Grant from Emergent Ventures, Mercatus Center at George Mason University, the Yale Center for Mendelian Genomics and the GSP Coordinating Center funded by the National Human Genome Research Institute (NHGRI) (UM1HG006504 and U24HG008956), the Fisher Center for Alzheimer’s Research Foundation, the Meyer Foundation, the French National Research Agency (ANR) under the “Investments for the Future” program (ANR-10-IAHU-01), the Integrative Biology of Emerging Infectious Diseases Laboratory of Excellence (ANR-10-LABX-62-IBEID), the French Foundation for Medical Research (FRM) (EQU201903007798), the FRM and ANR GENCOVID project (ANR-20-COVI-0003), ANRS-COV05, the Fondation du Souffle, the Square Foundation, Grandir - Fonds de solidarité pour l’enfance, the SCOR Corporate Foundation for Science, the Howard Hughes Medical Institute, the Rockefeller University, the St. Giles Foundation, Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale (INSERM) and the University of Paris
- Science Foundation Ireland COVID-19 Program
- Regione Lazio (Research Group Projects 2020) No. A0375-2020-36663, GecoBiomark
- Horizon 2020 program grant no. 824110 (EasiGenomics grant no. COVID-19/PID12342) and CERCA Program/Generalitat de Catalunya
- Intramural Research Program of the National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health
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Affiliation(s)
- Evangelos Andreakos
- Laboratory of Immunobiology, Center for Clinical, Experimental Surgery and Translational Research, Biomedical Research Foundation of the Academy of Athens, Athens, Greece.
| | - Laurent Abel
- St. Giles Laboratory of Human Genetics of Infectious Diseases, Rockefeller Branch, The Rockefeller University, New York, NY, USA
- Laboratory of Human Genetics of Infectious Diseases, Necker Branch, INSERM U1163, Necker Hospital for Sick Children, Paris, France
- University of Paris, Imagine Institute, Paris, France
| | - Donald C Vinh
- Department of Medicine, Division of Infectious Diseases, McGill University Health Centre, Montréal, Québec, Canada
- Infectious Disease Susceptibility Program, Research Institute, McGill University Health Centre, Montréal, Québec, Canada
| | | | - Beth A Drolet
- Department of Dermatology, School of Medicine and Public Health, University of Wisconsin, Madison, WI, USA
| | - Qian Zhang
- St. Giles Laboratory of Human Genetics of Infectious Diseases, Rockefeller Branch, The Rockefeller University, New York, NY, USA
- Laboratory of Human Genetics of Infectious Diseases, Necker Branch, INSERM U1163, Necker Hospital for Sick Children, Paris, France
- University of Paris, Imagine Institute, Paris, France
| | - Cliona O'Farrelly
- Comparative Immunology Group, School of Biochemistry and Immunology, Trinity Biomedical Sciences Institute, Trinity College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland
| | - Giuseppe Novelli
- Department of Biomedicine and Prevention, University of Rome Tor Vergata, Rome, Italy
| | - Carlos Rodríguez-Gallego
- Department of Immunology, Hospital Universitario de Gran Canaria Dr. Negrín, Canarian Health System, Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, Las Palmas, Spain
- Department of Clinical Sciences, University Fernando Pessoa Canarias, Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, Las Palmas, Spain
| | - Filomeen Haerynck
- Department of Pediatric Immunology and Pulmonology, Centre for Primary Immunodeficiency Ghent (CPIG), PID Research Laboratory, Jeffrey Modell Diagnosis and Research Centre, Ghent University Hospital, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Carolina Prando
- Faculdades Pequeno Príncipe, Instituto de Pesquisa Pelé Pequeno Príncipe, Curitiba, Brazil
| | - Aurora Pujol
- Neurometabolic Diseases Laboratory, Bellvitge Biomedical Research Institute (IDIBELL), L'Hospitalet de Llobregat, Barcelona, Spain
- Catalan Institution of Research and Advanced Studies (ICREA), Barcelona, Spain
- Center for Biomedical Research on Rare Diseases U759 (CIBERER), ISCIII, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Helen C Su
- Intramural Research Program, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Jean-Laurent Casanova
- St. Giles Laboratory of Human Genetics of Infectious Diseases, Rockefeller Branch, The Rockefeller University, New York, NY, USA
- Laboratory of Human Genetics of Infectious Diseases, Necker Branch, INSERM U1163, Necker Hospital for Sick Children, Paris, France
- University of Paris, Imagine Institute, Paris, France
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute, New York, NY, USA
| | - András N Spaan
- St. Giles Laboratory of Human Genetics of Infectious Diseases, Rockefeller Branch, The Rockefeller University, New York, NY, USA.
- Department of Medical Microbiology, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht, The Netherlands.
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Abstract
This manuscript describes the infection of mice and guinea pigs with mycobacteria via various routes, as well as necropsy methods for the determination of mycobacterial loads within target organs. Additionally, methods for cultivating mycobacteria and preparing stocks are described. The protocols outlined are primarily used for M. tuberculosis, but can also be used for the study of other non-tuberculosis mycobacterial species. A wide variety of animal models have been used to test new vaccines, drugs, and the impact of cigarette exposure. © 2020 Wiley Periodicals LLC. Basic Protocol 1: Aerosol infection of mice with mycobacteria Basic Protocol 2: Aerosol infection of guinea pig with mycobacteria using a Madison chamber Alternate Protocol 1: Cigarette exposure prior to infection of mice with mycobacteria Alternate Protocol 2: Intravenous infection of mice with mycobacteria Basic Protocol 3: Necropsy methods for animals experimentally infected with mycobacteria Basic Protocol 4: Following the course of infection Basic Protocol 5: Measuring the animal immune response to infection Support Protocol: Cultivation of mycobacteria for use in animal experiments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Edward D Chan
- Department of Medicine, Rocky Mountain Regional Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Departments of Medicine and Academic Affairs, National Jewish Health, Division of Pulmonary Sciences and Critical Care Medicine, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Denver, Colorado
| | - Deepshikha Verma
- Mycobacteria Research Laboratories, Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Pathology, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado
| | - Diane J Ordway
- Mycobacteria Research Laboratories, Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Pathology, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado
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Möller M, Kinnear CJ, Orlova M, Kroon EE, van Helden PD, Schurr E, Hoal EG. Genetic Resistance to Mycobacterium tuberculosis Infection and Disease. Front Immunol 2018; 9:2219. [PMID: 30319657 PMCID: PMC6170664 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2018.02219] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/26/2018] [Accepted: 09/07/2018] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Natural history studies of tuberculosis (TB) have revealed a spectrum of clinical outcomes after exposure to Mycobacterium tuberculosis, the cause of TB. Not all individuals exposed to the bacterium will become diseased and depending on the infection pressure, many will remain infection-free. Intriguingly, complete resistance to infection is observed in some individuals (termed resisters) after intense, continuing M. tuberculosis exposure. After successful infection, the majority of individuals will develop latent TB infection (LTBI). This infection state is currently (and perhaps imperfectly) defined by the presence of a positive tuberculin skin test (TST) and/or interferon gamma release assay (IGRA), but no detectable clinical disease symptoms. The majority of healthy individuals with LTBI are resistant to clinical TB, indicating that infection is remarkably well-contained in these non-progressors. The remaining 5-15% of LTBI positive individuals will progress to active TB. Epidemiological investigations have indicated that the host genetic component contributes to these infection and disease phenotypes, influencing both susceptibility and resistance. Elucidating these genetic correlates is therefore a priority as it may translate to new interventions to prevent, diagnose or treat TB. The most successful approaches in resistance/susceptibility investigation have focused on specific infection and disease phenotypes and the resister phenotype may hold the key to the discovery of actionable genetic variants in TB infection and disease. This review will not only discuss lessons from epidemiological studies, but will also focus on the contribution of epidemiology and functional genetics to human genetic resistance to M. tuberculosis infection and disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marlo Möller
- Division of Molecular Biology and Human Genetics, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, DST-NRF Centre of Excellence for Biomedical Tuberculosis Research, South African Medical Research Council Centre for Tuberculosis Research, Stellenbosch University, Cape Town, South Africa
| | - Craig J. Kinnear
- Division of Molecular Biology and Human Genetics, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, DST-NRF Centre of Excellence for Biomedical Tuberculosis Research, South African Medical Research Council Centre for Tuberculosis Research, Stellenbosch University, Cape Town, South Africa
| | - Marianna Orlova
- Program in Infectious Diseases and Immunity in Global Health, The Research Institute of the McGill University Health Centre, Montreal, QC, Canada
- McGill International TB Centre, McGill University, Montreal, QC, Canada
- Departments of Medicine and Human Genetics, McGill University, Montreal, QC, Canada
| | - Elouise E. Kroon
- Division of Molecular Biology and Human Genetics, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, DST-NRF Centre of Excellence for Biomedical Tuberculosis Research, South African Medical Research Council Centre for Tuberculosis Research, Stellenbosch University, Cape Town, South Africa
| | - Paul D. van Helden
- Division of Molecular Biology and Human Genetics, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, DST-NRF Centre of Excellence for Biomedical Tuberculosis Research, South African Medical Research Council Centre for Tuberculosis Research, Stellenbosch University, Cape Town, South Africa
| | - Erwin Schurr
- Program in Infectious Diseases and Immunity in Global Health, The Research Institute of the McGill University Health Centre, Montreal, QC, Canada
- McGill International TB Centre, McGill University, Montreal, QC, Canada
- Departments of Medicine and Human Genetics, McGill University, Montreal, QC, Canada
| | - Eileen G. Hoal
- Division of Molecular Biology and Human Genetics, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, DST-NRF Centre of Excellence for Biomedical Tuberculosis Research, South African Medical Research Council Centre for Tuberculosis Research, Stellenbosch University, Cape Town, South Africa
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Arrazuria R, Juste RA, Elguezabal N. Mycobacterial Infections in Rabbits: From the Wild to the Laboratory. Transbound Emerg Dis 2016; 64:1045-1058. [PMID: 26799551 DOI: 10.1111/tbed.12474] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/18/2015] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Tuberculous mycobacterial diseases such as leprosy and tuberculosis are ancient diseases that currently continue threatening human health in some countries. Non-tuberculous mycobacterial (NTM) infections cause a series of well-defined pathological entities, as well as some opportunistic diseases that have also increased worldwide, being more common among immunocompromised patients but rising also in immunocompetent individuals. Reports on natural infections by mycobacteria in rabbits are scarce and mainly involve NTM such as Mycobacterium avium subsp. avium in pigmy rabbits in the United States and Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis in wild rabbits in Europe. Rabbits have been used as laboratory animals through the years, both to generate immunological reagents and as infection models. Mycobacterial infection models have been developed in this animal species showing different susceptibility patterns to mycobacteria in laboratory conditions. The latent tuberculosis model and the cavitary tuberculosis model have been widely used to elucidate pathogenic mechanisms and to evaluate chemotherapy and vaccination strategies. Rabbits have also been used as bovine paratuberculosis infection models. This review aimed to gather both wildlife and experimental infection data on mycobacteriosis in rabbits to assess their role in the spread of these infections as well as their potential use in the experimental study of mycobacterial pathogenesis and treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- R Arrazuria
- Animal Health Department, NEIKER-Instituto Vasco de Investigación y Desarrollo Agrario, Derio, Bizkaia, Spain
| | - R A Juste
- Animal Health Department, NEIKER-Instituto Vasco de Investigación y Desarrollo Agrario, Derio, Bizkaia, Spain
| | - N Elguezabal
- Animal Health Department, NEIKER-Instituto Vasco de Investigación y Desarrollo Agrario, Derio, Bizkaia, Spain
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Peng X, Knouse JA, Hernon KM. Rabbit Models for Studying Human Infectious Diseases. Comp Med 2015; 65:499-507. [PMID: 26678367 PMCID: PMC4681244] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/06/2015] [Revised: 06/03/2015] [Accepted: 06/28/2015] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
Using an appropriate animal model is crucial for mimicking human disease conditions, and various facets including genetics, anatomy, and pathophysiology should be considered before selecting a model. Rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus) are well known for their wide use in production of antibodies, eye research, atherosclerosis and other cardiovascular diseases. However, a systematic description of the rabbit as primary experimental models for the study of various human infectious diseases is unavailable. This review focuses on the human infectious diseases for which rabbits are considered a classic or highly appropriate model, including AIDS (caused by HIV1), adult T-cell leukemia-lymphoma (human T-lymphotropic virus type 1), papilloma or carcinoma (human papillomavirus) , herpetic stromal keratitis (herpes simplex virus type 1), tuberculosis (Mycobacterium tuberculosis), and syphilis (Treponema pallidum). In addition, particular aspects of the husbandry and care of rabbits used in studies of human infectious diseases are described.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xuwen Peng
- Department of Comparative Medicine, College of Medicine, Pennsylvania State University, Hershey, Pennsylvania, USA.
| | - John A Knouse
- Department of Comparative Medicine, College of Medicine, Pennsylvania State University, Hershey, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Krista M Hernon
- Department of Comparative Medicine, College of Medicine, Pennsylvania State University, Hershey, Pennsylvania, USA
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Myllymäki H, Niskanen M, Oksanen KE, Rämet M. Animal models in tuberculosis research - where is the beef? Expert Opin Drug Discov 2015; 10:871-83. [PMID: 26073097 DOI: 10.1517/17460441.2015.1049529] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/30/2023]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Tuberculosis (TB) is a major global health problem, and new drugs and vaccines are urgently needed. As clinical trials in humans require tremendous resources, preclinical drug and vaccine development largely relies on valid animal models that recapitulate the pathology of human disease and the immune responses of the host as closely as possible. AREAS COVERED This review describes the animal models used in TB research, the most widely used being mice, guinea pigs and nonhuman primates. In addition, rabbits and cattle provide models with a disease pathology resembling that of humans. Invertebrate models, including the fruit fly and the Dictyostelium amoeba, have also been used to study mycobacterial infections. Recently, the zebrafish has emerged as a promising model for studying mycobacterial infections. The zebrafish model also facilitates the large-scale screening of drug and vaccine candidates. EXPERT OPINION Animal models are needed for TB research and provide valuable information on the mechanisms of the disease and on ways of preventing it. However, the data obtained in animal studies need to be carefully interpreted and evaluated before making assumptions concerning humans. With an increasing understanding of disease mechanisms, animal models can be further improved to best serve research goals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Henna Myllymäki
- BioMediTech, University of Tampere , FIN 33014 Tampere , Finland
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Pathogenesis of Pulmonary Tuberculosis: an Interplay of Tissue-Damaging and Macrophage-Activating Immune Responses-Dual Mechanisms That Control Bacillary Multiplication. Tuberculosis (Edinb) 2014. [DOI: 10.1128/9781555818357.ch27] [Citation(s) in RCA: 70] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
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12
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Via LE, Weiner DM, Schimel D, Lin PL, Dayao E, Tankersley SL, Cai Y, Coleman MT, Tomko J, Paripati P, Orandle M, Kastenmayer RJ, Tartakovsky M, Rosenthal A, Portevin D, Eum SY, Lahouar S, Gagneux S, Young DB, Flynn JL, Barry CE. Differential virulence and disease progression following Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex infection of the common marmoset (Callithrix jacchus). Infect Immun 2013; 81:2909-19. [PMID: 23716617 PMCID: PMC3719573 DOI: 10.1128/iai.00632-13] [Citation(s) in RCA: 89] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/22/2013] [Accepted: 05/23/2013] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Existing small-animal models of tuberculosis (TB) rarely develop cavitary disease, limiting their value for assessing the biology and dynamics of this highly important feature of human disease. To develop a smaller primate model with pathology similar to that seen in humans, we experimentally infected the common marmoset (Callithrix jacchus) with diverse strains of Mycobacterium tuberculosis of various pathogenic potentials. These included recent isolates of the modern Beijing lineage, the Euro-American X lineage, and M. africanum. All three strains produced fulminant disease in this animal with a spectrum of progression rates and clinical sequelae that could be monitored in real time using 2-deoxy-2-[(18)F]fluoro-d-glucose (FDG) positron emission tomography (PET)/computed tomography (CT). Lesion pathology at sacrifice revealed the entire spectrum of lesions observed in human TB patients. The three strains produced different rates of progression to disease, various extents of extrapulmonary dissemination, and various degrees of cavitation. The majority of live births in this species are twins, and comparison of results from siblings with different infecting strains allowed us to establish that the infection was highly reproducible and that the differential virulence of strains was not simply host variation. Quantitative assessment of disease burden by FDG-PET/CT provided an accurate reflection of the pathology findings at necropsy. These results suggest that the marmoset offers an attractive small-animal model of human disease that recapitulates both the complex pathology and spectrum of disease observed in humans infected with various M. tuberculosis strain clades.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laura E. Via
- Tuberculosis Research Section, Laboratory of Clinical Infectious Diseases, National Institute for Allergy and Infectious Disease, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland, USA
| | - Danielle M. Weiner
- Tuberculosis Research Section, Laboratory of Clinical Infectious Diseases, National Institute for Allergy and Infectious Disease, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland, USA
| | - Daniel Schimel
- Tuberculosis Research Section, Laboratory of Clinical Infectious Diseases, National Institute for Allergy and Infectious Disease, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland, USA
| | - Philana Ling Lin
- Children's Hospital of Pittsburgh of UPMC, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Emmanuel Dayao
- Tuberculosis Research Section, Laboratory of Clinical Infectious Diseases, National Institute for Allergy and Infectious Disease, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland, USA
| | - Sarah L. Tankersley
- Tuberculosis Research Section, Laboratory of Clinical Infectious Diseases, National Institute for Allergy and Infectious Disease, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland, USA
| | - Ying Cai
- Tuberculosis Research Section, Laboratory of Clinical Infectious Diseases, National Institute for Allergy and Infectious Disease, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland, USA
| | - M. Teresa Coleman
- Department of Radiology, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Jaime Tomko
- University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Department of Microbiology and Molecular Genetics, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA
| | | | | | | | - Michael Tartakovsky
- Office of Cyber Infrastructure and Computational Biology, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Disease, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland, USA
| | - Alexander Rosenthal
- Office of Cyber Infrastructure and Computational Biology, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Disease, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland, USA
| | - Damien Portevin
- MRC National Institute for Medical Research, London, United Kingdom
| | - Seok Yong Eum
- International Tuberculosis Research Center, Changwon, South Korea
| | | | - Sebastien Gagneux
- Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, Basel, Switzerland
- University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Douglas B. Young
- MRC National Institute for Medical Research, London, United Kingdom
| | - JoAnne L. Flynn
- University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Department of Microbiology and Molecular Genetics, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Clifton E. Barry
- Tuberculosis Research Section, Laboratory of Clinical Infectious Diseases, National Institute for Allergy and Infectious Disease, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland, USA
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13
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Infection dynamics and response to chemotherapy in a rabbit model of tuberculosis using [¹⁸F]2-fluoro-deoxy-D-glucose positron emission tomography and computed tomography. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2012; 56:4391-402. [PMID: 22687508 DOI: 10.1128/aac.00531-12] [Citation(s) in RCA: 86] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/15/2023] Open
Abstract
With a host of new antitubercular chemotherapeutics in development, methods to assess the activity of these agents beyond mouse efficacy are needed to prioritize combinations for clinical trials. Lesions in Mycobacterium tuberculosis-infected rabbits are hypoxic, with histopathologic features that closely resemble those of human tuberculous lesions. Using [(18)F]2-fluoro-deoxy-d-glucose ([(18)F]FDG) positron emission tomography-computed tomography (PET-CT) imaging, we studied the dynamics of tuberculosis infection in rabbits, revealing an initial inflammatory response followed by a consolidative chronic disease. Five weeks after infection, as much as 23% of total lung volume was abnormal, but this was contained and to some extent reversed naturally by 9 weeks. During development of this chronic state, individual lesions in the same animal had very different fates, ranging from complete resolution to significant progression. Lesions that remained through the initial stage showed an increase in volume and tissue density over time by CT. Initiation of chemotherapy using either isoniazid (INH) or rifampin (RIF) during chronic infection reduced bacterial load with quantitative changes in [(18)F]FDG uptake, lesion density and total lesion volume measured by CT. The [(18)F]FDG PET uptake in lesions was significantly reduced with as little as 1 week of treatment, while the volume and density of lesions changed more slowly. The results from this study suggest that rabbits may be a useful surrogate species for evaluating novel chemotherapies and understanding changes in both PET and CT scans in human clinical trials.
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14
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Abstract
Mycobacterium tuberculosis is an old enemy of the human race, with evidence of infection observed as early as 5000 years ago. Although more host-restricted than Mycobacterium bovis, which can infect all warm-blooded vertebrates, M. tuberculosis can infect, and cause morbidity and mortality in, several veterinary species as well. As M. tuberculosis is one of the earliest described bacterial pathogens, the literature describing this organism is vast and overwhelming. This review strives to distill what is currently known about this bacterium and the disease it causes for the veterinary pathologist.
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Affiliation(s)
- K Sakamoto
- Department of Pathology, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Georgia, 501 D. W. Brooks Dr, Athens, GA 30602-7388, USA.
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15
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Abstract
This unit describes the infection of mice and guinea pigs with mycobacteria via various routes, as well as necropsy methods for the determination of mycobacterial loads within target organs. Additionally, methods for cultivating mycobacteria and preparing stocks are described. The protocols outlined are primarily used for M. tuberculosis, but can also be used for the study of other non-tuberculosis mycobacterial species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Diane J Ordway
- Mycobacteria Research Laboratories, Department of Microbiology, Immunology, and Pathology, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado, USA
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16
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Hunter RL. Pathology of post primary tuberculosis of the lung: an illustrated critical review. Tuberculosis (Edinb) 2011; 91:497-509. [PMID: 21733755 PMCID: PMC3215852 DOI: 10.1016/j.tube.2011.03.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 161] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/22/2011] [Revised: 03/22/2011] [Accepted: 03/24/2011] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Post primary tuberculosis occurs in immunocompetent adults, is restricted to the lungs and accounts for 80% of all clinical cases and nearly 100% of transmission of infection. The supply of human tissues with post primary tuberculosis plummeted with the introduction of antibiotics decades before the flowering of research using molecular methods in animal models. Unfortunately, the paucity of human tissues prevented validation of the models. As a result, it is a paradigm of contemporary research that caseating granulomas are the characteristic lesion of all tuberculosis and that cavities form when they erode into bronchi. This differs from descriptions of the preantibiotic era when many investigators had access to thousands of cases. They reported that post primary tuberculosis begins as an exudative reaction: a tuberculous lipid pneumonia of foamy alveolar macrophages that undergoes caseation necrosis and fragmentation to produce cavities. Granulomas in post primary disease arise only in response to old caseous pneumonia and produce fibrosis, not cavities. We confirmed and extended these observations with study of 104 cases of untreated tuberculosis. In addition, studies of the lungs of infants and immunosuppressed adults revealed a second type of tuberculous pneumonia that seldom produces cavities. Since the concept that cavities arise from caseating granulomas was supported by studies of animals infected with Mycobacterium bovis, we investigated its pathology. We found that M. bovis does not produce post primary tuberculosis in any species. It only produces an aggressive primary tuberculosis that can develop small cavities by erosion of caseating granulomas. Consequently, a key unresolved question in the pathogenesis of tuberculosis is identification of the mechanisms by which Mycobacterium tuberculosis establish a localized safe haven in alveolar macrophages in an otherwise solidly immune host where it can develop conditions for formation of cavities and transmission to new hosts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert L Hunter
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of Texas, Houston Medical School, MSB 2.136, 6431 Fannin, Houston, TX 77030, USA.
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17
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Perspectives on clinical and preclinical testing of new tuberculosis vaccines. Clin Microbiol Rev 2010; 23:781-94. [PMID: 20930073 DOI: 10.1128/cmr.00005-10] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/29/2023] Open
Abstract
This review hopes to improve the selection of new tuberculosis (TB) vaccines by providing several perspectives on the immunization of humans, mice, guinea pigs, rabbits, and monkeys which have not usually been considered. (i) In human TB vaccine trials, the low rate of healing of Mycobacterium bovis BCG lesions (used as the control group) would distinguish individuals who might be helped by vaccination from the 95% who do not need it and would make these trials more conclusive. (ii) The rabbit immune response to Mycobacterium tuberculosis is much more effective in arresting tuberculosis than those of other laboratory animals, so pulmonary tubercle counting in rabbits should be included in all preclinical TB vaccine testing. (iii) Both delayed-type hypersensitivity (DTH) and cell-mediated immunity (CMI) are necessary to control the growth of M. tuberculosis. The testing of new TB vaccines in mice or in guinea pigs may not detect important antigens needed for human immunization. Mice respond poorly to tuberculin-like antigens that cause DTH. Guinea pigs respond poorly to antigens that cause CMI. Rabbits and humans respond well to both DTH and CMI antigens. Since monkeys are very susceptible to M. tuberculosis, they may not be as useful as rabbits for preclinical vaccine evaluation. (iv) Critical antigens (possibly ESAT-6 or CFP-10) might increase the immunity of the host to a greater extent than that produced by a natural M. tuberculosis infection and therefore would be useful in both prophylaxis and immunotherapy. Such critical antigens would increase the host's ability to neutralize key components of M. tuberculosis that enable it to survive in both laboratory animals and humans.
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18
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Granuloma encapsulation is a key factor for containing tuberculosis infection in minipigs. PLoS One 2010; 5:e10030. [PMID: 20386605 PMCID: PMC2850319 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0010030] [Citation(s) in RCA: 83] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/21/2010] [Accepted: 03/15/2010] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
A transthoracic infection involving a low dose of Mycobacterium tuberculosis has been used to establish a new model of infection in minipigs. The 20-week monitoring period showed a marked Th1 response and poor humoral response for the whole infection. A detailed histopathological analysis was performed after slicing the formalin-fixed whole lungs of each animal. All lesions were recorded and classified according to their microscopic aspect, their relationship with the intralobular connective network and their degree of maturity in order to obtain a dissemination ratio (DR) between recent and old lesions. CFU counts and evolution of the DR with time showed that the proposed model correlated with a contained infection, decreasing from week 9 onwards. These findings suggest that the infection induces an initial Th1 response, which is followed by local fibrosis and encapsulation of the granulomas, thereby decreasing the onset of new lesions. Two therapeutic strategies were applied in order to understand how they could influence the model. Thus, chemotherapy with isoniazid alone helped to decrease the total number of lesions, despite the increase in DR after week 9, with similar kinetics to those of the control group, whereas addition of a therapeutic M. tuberculosis fragment-based vaccine after chemotherapy increased the Th1 and humoral responses, as well as the number of lesions, but decreased the DR. By providing a local pulmonary structure similar to that in humans, the mini-pig model highlights new aspects that could be key to a better understanding tuberculosis infection control in humans.
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19
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Dannenberg AM. Liquefaction and cavity formation in pulmonary TB: a simple method in rabbit skin to test inhibitors. Tuberculosis (Edinb) 2009; 89:243-7. [PMID: 19559651 DOI: 10.1016/j.tube.2009.05.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/12/2009] [Revised: 05/21/2009] [Accepted: 05/24/2009] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
To control tuberculosis in the world today an additional approach would be most welcomed. Preventing (or reducing) pulmonary cavity formation is one such approach that has been almost completely neglected. Pulmonary cavity formation and the extracellular growth of tubercle bacilli in cavities cause bronchial spread of the disease in adult patients and spread of the bacillus to the environment where they infect other people. Therefore, cavity formation perpetuates tuberculosis in mankind. If no cavities form, the patient is much less infectious. Also, cavity formation often allows the tubercle bacillus to multiply (extracellularly) to tremendous numbers. Therefore, in humans almost all multidrug-resistant tubercle bacilli develop in cavities. This communication reviews the literature on liquefaction and cavity formation, and lists some of the responsible hydrolytic enzymes. It also describes a simple method to identify inhibitory pharmaceuticals, i.e., to observe their effect on the liquefaction and ulceration of skin lesions produced in rabbits by ascending concentrations of live or dead tubercle bacilli.
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Affiliation(s)
- Arthur M Dannenberg
- Department of Environmental Health Sciences, Molecular microbiology and Immunology, and Department of Epidemiology, Bloomberg School of Public Health, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD 21205, USA.
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20
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COSTA A, FERRARIS GM. Researches on the Ionic Exchanges between the Blood and Transudates, by Means of I131. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2009; 151:499-504. [PMID: 14398137 DOI: 10.1111/j.0954-6820.1955.tb10318.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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21
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Converse PJ, Karakousis PC, Klinkenberg LG, Kesavan AK, Ly LH, Allen SS, Grosset JH, Jain SK, Lamichhane G, Manabe YC, McMurray DN, Nuermberger EL, Bishai WR. Role of the dosR-dosS two-component regulatory system in Mycobacterium tuberculosis virulence in three animal models. Infect Immun 2009; 77:1230-7. [PMID: 19103767 PMCID: PMC2643651 DOI: 10.1128/iai.01117-08] [Citation(s) in RCA: 114] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/06/2008] [Revised: 10/11/2008] [Accepted: 12/14/2008] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The Mycobacterium tuberculosis dosR gene (Rv3133c) is part of an operon, Rv3134c-Rv3132c, and encodes a response regulator that has been shown to be upregulated by hypoxia and other in vitro stress conditions and may be important for bacterial survival within granulomatous lesions found in tuberculosis. DosR is activated in response to hypoxia and nitric oxide by DosS (Rv3132c) or DosT (Rv2027c). We compared the virulence levels of an M. tuberculosis dosR-dosS deletion mutant (DeltadosR-dosS [DeltadosR-S]), a dosR-complemented strain, and wild-type H37Rv in rabbits, guinea pigs, and mice infected by the aerosol route and in a mouse hollow-fiber model that may mimic in vivo granulomatous conditions. In the mouse and the guinea pig models, the DeltadosR-S mutant exhibited a growth defect. In the rabbit, the DeltadosR-S mutant did not replicate more than the wild type. In the hollow-fiber model, the mutant phenotype was not different from that of the wild-type strain. Our analyses reveal that the dosR and dosS genes are required for full virulence and that there may be differences in the patterns of attenuation of this mutant between the animal models studied.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paul J Converse
- Center for Tuberculosis Research, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland 21231, USA.
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22
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Dharmadhikari AS, Nardell EA. What animal models teach humans about tuberculosis. Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol 2008; 39:503-8. [PMID: 18556589 DOI: 10.1165/rcmb.2008-0154tr] [Citation(s) in RCA: 82] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Animal models have become standard tools for the study of a wide array of human infectious diseases. Although there are no true animal reservoirs for Mycobacterium tuberculosis, many different animal species are susceptible to infection with this organism and have served as valuable tools for the study of tuberculosis (TB). The most commonly used experimental animal models of TB are the mouse, rabbit, and guinea pig. Although substantial differences in TB susceptibility and disease manifestations exist between these species, they have contributed significantly to the understanding of TB immunopathogenesis, host genetic influence on infection, efficacy of antimicrobial therapy, and host/pathogen interactions that determine the outcome or severity of infection. Among the three species, mice are relatively resistant to TB infection, followed by rabbits and then guinea pigs, which are extremely vulnerable to infection. Mice are most often used in experiments on immune responses to TB infection and drug regimens against TB. Rabbits, unlike the other two animal models, develop cavitary TB and offer a means to study the factors leading to this form of the disease. Guinea pigs, due to their high susceptibility to infection, have been ideal for studies on airborne transmission and vaccine efficacy. In addition to these three species, TB research has occasionally involved nonhuman primates and cattle models. Current concepts in TB pathogenesis have also been derived from animal studies involving experimentally induced infections with related mycobacteria (e.g., Mycobacterium bovis) whose manifestations in select animal hosts mimic human TB.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ashwin S Dharmadhikari
- Division of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, Department of Medicine, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Boston, MA 02114, USA.
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23
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Mendez S, Hatem CL, Kesavan AK, Lopez-Molina J, Pitt MLM, Dannenberg AM, Manabe YC. Susceptibility to tuberculosis: composition of tuberculous granulomas in Thorbecke and outbred New Zealand White rabbits. Vet Immunol Immunopathol 2008; 122:167-74. [PMID: 18155300 PMCID: PMC2323443 DOI: 10.1016/j.vetimm.2007.11.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/26/2007] [Revised: 11/01/2007] [Accepted: 11/01/2007] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
We sought to characterize the lung cellular immune responses to inhaled Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb) of the susceptible inbred Thorbecke rabbit (the genomically sequenced strain, now unavailable) and compare it to outbred, Mtb-resistant, New Zealand White rabbits. Using Mtb CDC1551, we confirmed that the inbred rabbits allowed establishment of infection with this low virulence strain, compared to poor establishment in outbred rabbits. With a more virulent strain, Mtb Erdman, that establishes infection well in both rabbit strains, we analyzed granulomas from rabbit lungs 5 weeks after aerosol infection. The lung granulomas of inbred rabbits had significantly higher frequencies of cells expressing MHC Class II and CD11b, and lower frequencies of CD8+ T cells than the outbred controls. Macrophage-sized cells expressing MHC Class II in inbred rabbit granulomas showed significantly decreased intensity of expression, suggesting impaired maturation. Although the inbred dermal tuberculin reactions were decreased, the in vitro IFN-gamma mRNA responses of hilar node lymphocytes to tuberculin were higher than those of outbred rabbits. Further delineation of the outbred rabbit's resistant immune response to Mtb infection is warranted.
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Affiliation(s)
- Susana Mendez
- JA Baker Institute for Animal Health, Cornell Veterinary College, Ithaca, New York 14853
| | - Christine L. Hatem
- Department of Medicine, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, 720 Rutland Street, Baltimore MD 21205
| | - Anup K. Kesavan
- Department of Medicine, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, 720 Rutland Street, Baltimore MD 21205
| | - Javier Lopez-Molina
- Department of Medicine, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, 720 Rutland Street, Baltimore MD 21205
| | - M. Louise M. Pitt
- Aerobiology and Product Evaluation, U.S. Army Medical Research Institute of Infectious Diseases, Fort Detrick, Frederick, Maryland 21702-5011
| | - Arthur M. Dannenberg
- International Health, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, 615 N. Wolfe Street, Baltimore, Maryland 21205
- Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, 615 N. Wolfe Street, Baltimore, Maryland 21205
| | - Yukari C. Manabe
- Department of Medicine, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, 720 Rutland Street, Baltimore MD 21205
- International Health, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, 615 N. Wolfe Street, Baltimore, Maryland 21205
- Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, 615 N. Wolfe Street, Baltimore, Maryland 21205
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24
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Clay H, Davis JM, Beery D, Huttenlocher A, Lyons SE, Ramakrishnan L. Dichotomous role of the macrophage in early Mycobacterium marinum infection of the zebrafish. Cell Host Microbe 2007; 2:29-39. [PMID: 18005715 PMCID: PMC3115716 DOI: 10.1016/j.chom.2007.06.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 181] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/12/2007] [Revised: 04/24/2007] [Accepted: 06/06/2007] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
In tuberculosis, infecting mycobacteria are phagocytosed by macrophages, which then migrate into deeper tissue and recruit additional cells to form the granulomas that eventually contain infection. Mycobacteria are exquisitely adapted macrophage pathogens, and observations in the mouse model of tuberculosis have suggested that mycobacterial growth is not inhibited in macrophages until adaptive immunity is induced. Using the optically transparent and genetically tractable zebrafish embryo-Mycobacterium marinum model of tuberculosis, we have directly examined early infection in the presence and absence of macrophages. The absence of macrophages led rapidly to higher bacterial burdens, suggesting that macrophages control infection early and are not an optimal growth niche. However, we show that macrophages play a critical role in tissue dissemination of mycobacteria. We propose that residence within macrophages represents an evolutionary trade-off for pathogenic mycobacteria that slows their early growth but provides a mechanism for tissue dissemination.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hilary Clay
- Molecular and Cellular Biology Graduate Program, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195, USA
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25
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Hunter RL, Jagannath C, Actor JK. Pathology of postprimary tuberculosis in humans and mice: contradiction of long-held beliefs. Tuberculosis (Edinb) 2007; 87:267-78. [PMID: 17369095 DOI: 10.1016/j.tube.2006.11.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 132] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/16/2006] [Revised: 11/17/2006] [Accepted: 11/30/2006] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Tuberculosis remains one of the world's leading infectious causes of death. Approximately 80% of all disease is due to postprimary (secondary) tuberculosis in the lung. Unfortunately, tissues of developing lesions are seldom available and there are no recognized models of postprimary tuberculosis. In the preantibiotic era when tissues were more abundant, several investigators described early postprimary tuberculosis as a lipid pneumonia quite different from the caseating granulomas commonly described today. We used histopathologic, immunohistochemical and acid fast stains to examine tissues from several people with untreated primary and postprimary tuberculosis and compared the findings with those of mice with reactivation tuberculosis. The results confirmed that developing postprimary tuberculosis begins as a lipid pneumonia accompanied by bronchial obstruction in which infection is restricted to foamy alveolar macrophages. Cavities result from a combination of caseation of tuberculous pneumonia and microvascular occlusion characteristic of delayed type hypersensitivity (DTH). Reactivation tuberculosis in the mouse begins as a similar tuberculous lipid pneumonia with bronchial obstruction and evidence for participation of DTH. Developing necrosis in both species is associated with localization of organisms within lipid droplets. These results suggest that reactivation tuberculosis in mice is a valuable model of developing human postprimary tuberculosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert L Hunter
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of Texas-Houston Medical School, MSB 2.136, 6431 Fannin, Houston, TX 77030, USA.
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26
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Hunter RL, Olsen M, Jagannath C, Actor JK. Trehalose 6,6'-dimycolate and lipid in the pathogenesis of caseating granulomas of tuberculosis in mice. THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PATHOLOGY 2006; 168:1249-61. [PMID: 16565499 PMCID: PMC1606544 DOI: 10.2353/ajpath.2006.050848] [Citation(s) in RCA: 117] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 01/04/2006] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Trehalose 6,6'-dimycolate (TDM) is the most abundant, most granulomagenic, and most toxic lipid extractable from the surface of virulent Mycobacterium tuberculosis (MTB). We further examined its toxicity, which requires activation by oily surfaces. Injections of MTB and/or TDM into sensitized mice induced caseating granulomas that centered on oil droplets. If large doses of MTB were injected in saline, caseating granulomas developed in adipose tissue, but MTB with surface TDM removed induced only acute inflammation that did not persist. Variations in protocols produced several variants of caseating granulomas, each with characteristics of human tuberculosis. In each instance, MTB were localized in fat cells or oil drops during initiation of caseating granulomas suggesting that necrosis was caused by activation of the toxicity of TDM toxicity. Evidence extending these findings to the lung was derived from the observation that in sensitized mice, as in humans, tuberculosis development stimulates accumulation of lipid selectively in alveoli. MTB preferentially associated with lipid droplets in developing necrotic foci in late-stage murine tuberculosis. This supports the hypothesis that pulmonary tuberculosis sequesters MTB in a protected environment that accumulates lipid until it is able to activate the toxicity of TDM and initiate necrosis that results in caseating granulomas.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert L Hunter
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, MSB 2.136, 6431 Fannin, Houston, TX 77030, USA.
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27
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Helke KL, Mankowski JL, Manabe YC. Animal models of cavitation in pulmonary tuberculosis. Tuberculosis (Edinb) 2005; 86:337-48. [PMID: 16359922 DOI: 10.1016/j.tube.2005.09.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/11/2005] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Transmission of tuberculosis occurs with the highest frequency from patients with extensive, cavitary, pulmonary disease and positive sputum smear microscopy. In animal models of tuberculosis, the development of caseous necrosis is an important prerequisite for the formation of cavities although the immunological triggers for liquefaction are unknown. We review the relative merits and the information gleaned from the available animal models of pulmonary cavitation. Understanding the host-pathogen interaction important to the formation of cavities may lead to new strategies to prevent cavitation and thereby, block transmission.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kris L Helke
- Department of Comparative Medicine, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, 733 N. Broadway, Room 811, Baltimore, MD 21205, USA
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28
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Kesavan AK, Mendez SE, Hatem CL, Lopez-Molina J, Aird K, Pitt MLM, Dannenberg AM, Manabe YC. Effects of dexamethasone and transient malnutrition on rabbits infected with aerosolized Mycobacterium tuberculosis CDC1551. Infect Immun 2005; 73:7056-60. [PMID: 16177392 PMCID: PMC1230964 DOI: 10.1128/iai.73.10.7056-7060.2005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Malnutrition is common in the developing world, where tuberculosis is often endemic. Rabbits infected with aerosolized Mycobacterium tuberculosis that subsequently became inadvertently and transiently malnourished had compromised cell-mediated immunity comparable to that of the rabbits immunosuppressed with dexamethasone. They had significant leukopenia and reduced delayed-type hypersensitivity responses. Malnutrition dampened cell-mediated immunity and would interfere with diagnostic tests that rely on intact CD4 T-cell responses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anup K Kesavan
- Department of Medicine, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD 21231, USA
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29
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Abstract
It was Robert Koch who recognized the spectrum of pathology of tuberculosis (TB) in different animal species. The examination of clinical specimens from infected humans and animals confirmed the variable patterns of pathological reactions in different species. Guinea pigs are innately susceptible while humans, mice and rabbits show different level of resistance depending upon their genotype. The studies of TB in laboratory animals such as mice, rabbits and guinea pigs have significantly increased our understanding of the aetiology, virulence and pathogenesis of the disease. The introduction of less than five virulent organisms into guinea pigs by the respiratory route can produce lung lesions, bacteraemia and fatal diseases, which helped the extrapolation of results of such experiments to humans. The similarities in the course of clinical infection between guinea pigs and humans allow us to model different forms of TB and to evaluate the protective efficacy of candidate vaccines in such systems. The only limitation of this model, however, is a dearth of immunological reagents that are required for the qualitative and quantitative evaluation of the immune responses, with special reference to cytokines and cell phenotypes. Another limitation is the higher cost of guinea pigs compared with mice. The rabbit is relatively resistant to Mycobacterium tuberculosis, however following infection with virulent Mycobacterium bovis, the rabbit produces pulmonary cavities like humans. The rabbit model, however, is also limited by the lack of the immunological reagents. Mice are the animal of choice for studying the immunology of mycobacterial infections and have contributed much to our current understanding of the roles of various immunological mechanisms of resistance. The resistance of mice to the development of classic TB disease, however, represents a significant disadvantage of the mouse model. Although non-human primates are closely related to humans, owing to high cost and handing difficulties they have not been exploited to a large extent. As all existing animal models fail to mimic the human disease perfectly, efforts should be focused on the development of the non-human primate(s) as the alternative animal model for TB.
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Affiliation(s)
- U D Gupta
- Central JALMA Institute for Leprosy & other Mycobacterial Disease (ICMR), Tajganj, Agra 282001, India.
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30
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Oliveira MMD, Silva JCSD, Costa JF, Amim LH, Loredo CCS, Melo H, Queiroz LF, Mello FCQ, Lapa e Silva JR, Kritski AL, Santos AR. Distribuição de Polimorfismos de Base única (SNPs) no gene de TNF-alfa (-238/-308) entre pacientes com TB e outras pneumopatias: marcadores genéticos de susceptibilidade a ocorrência de TB? J Bras Pneumol 2004. [DOI: 10.1590/s1806-37132004000400012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
INTRODUÇÃO: Fatores genéticos podem desempenhar um importante papel na susceptibilidade à tuberculose (TB) ativa, e polimorfismos de base única (SNPs) em diferentes genes que codificam para citocinas têm sido descritos e associados com doenças. OBJETIVOS: Investigar o quanto polimorfismo na região promotora do gene que codifica para TNF-alfa (-238 e -308) estão associados a ocorrência de TB ativa. MÉTODOS: SNPs dentro do gene de TNF-alfa foram analisados por PCR- RFLP em dois grupos de indivíduos: pacientes com TB (n = 234) e pacientes com pneumopatias não TB (n = 113). RESULTADOS: Neste estudo, o alelo -238A esteve associado significantemente com susceptibilidade à ocorrência de TB e gravidade das formas clínicas (p = 0,00002; OR = 0,15; IC = 0,06-0,36). Por outro lado, o alelo -308A esteve associado significantemente com a proteção a outras formas de doença pulmonar (p = 0,02; OR = 1,95; IC = 1,07-3,58). CONCLUSÕES: Estes resultados preliminares sugerem a importância de estudos genéticos na ocorrência da TB. São necessários outros estudos para melhorar a compreensão sobre a patogênese do M. tb.
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Abstract
We have studied the risk of progression to active pulmonary tuberculosis (TB) among a population of Cambodian rural poor suffering from one of the highest global incidences of TB. Together with a community-based TB program, we have established a research partnership that has demonstrated the association of a particular HLA binding motif and progression to active pulmonary TB. We have also shown that candidate gene polymorphisms are ethnic specific and unique in Cambodia and are likely markers for as yet unidentified disease susceptibility and resistance loci. We have also uncovered a high incidence of antigen-specific anergy to purified protein derivative among patients with active pulmonary TB and have correlated this with an expansion of immunosuppressive IL-10 producing T cells and other impaired T cell responses to mycobacterial antigens. These experiments lend insight into TB susceptibility and the molecular mechanisms of antigen-specific anergy. Moreover, they demonstrate that a partnership between TB cure and scientific discovery is possible in even the most impoverished settings.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anne E Goldfeld
- The Center for Blood Research, Harvard Medical School, 800 Huntington Avenue, Boston, MA 02115, USA
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Dorman SE, Hatem CL, Tyagi S, Aird K, Lopez-Molina J, Pitt MLM, Zook BC, Dannenberg AM, Bishai WR, Manabe YC. Susceptibility to tuberculosis: clues from studies with inbred and outbred New Zealand White rabbits. Infect Immun 2004; 72:1700-5. [PMID: 14977978 PMCID: PMC356026 DOI: 10.1128/iai.72.3.1700-1705.2004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The rabbit model of tuberculosis (TB) is important because rabbits develop a disease that is similar to TB in humans, namely, granulomas with caseous necrosis, liquefaction, and cavities. We describe here a comparison of inbred and outbred New Zealand White rabbits infected by aerosol with either Mycobacterium tuberculosis Erdman or H37Rv strain. Five weeks after infection with either bacillary strain, the inbred rabbits had significantly larger pulmonary tubercles than did outbred rabbits (2.7 versus 1.4 mm in diameter; P < 0.01). After infection with H37Rv, the inbred rabbits had significantly more pulmonary tubercles than did the outbred rabbits (98 +/- 12 versus 33 +/- 13; P < 0.01), with more mycobacterial CFU per tubercle (809 +/- 210 versus 215 +/- 115; P = 0.027) (means +/- standard errors of the means). Compared with histologic examination of lung granulomas from outbred rabbits, histologic examination of those from inbred rabbits showed more caseous necrosis, more visible bacilli, and fewer mature epithelioid cells. The delayed-type hypersensitivity (DTH) responses to intradermal tuberculin were significantly lower, and peritoneal macrophages from uninfected inbred rabbits produced significantly less tumor necrosis factor alpha after lipopolysaccharide (LPS) stimulation in vitro than those from the outbred rabbits (2,413 +/- 1,154 versus 8,879 +/- 966 pg/ml). We conclude that these inbred rabbits were more susceptible to TB than their outbred counterparts and had an impaired ability to contain disease, resulting in more grossly visible tubercles that were larger than those observed in outbred rabbits. Preliminary evidence is presented for a cell-mediated immune defect with lower DTH responses and macrophages that have a decreased ability to respond to in vitro stimulation with LPS or M. tuberculosis infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Susan E Dorman
- Department of Medicine, School of Medicine, Bloomberg School of Public Health, The Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Maryland, USA
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33
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Manabe YC, Dannenberg AM, Tyagi SK, Hatem CL, Yoder M, Woolwine SC, Zook BC, Pitt MLM, Bishai WR. Different strains of Mycobacterium tuberculosis cause various spectrums of disease in the rabbit model of tuberculosis. Infect Immun 2003; 71:6004-11. [PMID: 14500521 PMCID: PMC201108 DOI: 10.1128/iai.71.10.6004-6011.2003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 107] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The rabbit model of tuberculosis has been used historically to differentiate between Mycobacterium tuberculosis and Mycobacterium bovis based on their relative virulence in this animal host. M. tuberculosis infection in market rabbits is cleared over time, whereas infection with M. bovis results in chronic, progressive, cavitary disease leading to death. Because of the innate resistance of commercial rabbits to M. tuberculosis, 320 to 1,890 log-phase, actively growing inhaled bacilli were required to form one grossly visible pulmonary tubercle at 5 weeks. The range of inhaled doses required to make one tubercle allows us to determine the relative pathogenicities of different strains. Fewer inhaled organisms of the M. tuberculosis Erdman strain were required than of M. tuberculosis H37Rv to produce a visible lesion at 5 weeks. Furthermore, with the Erdman strain, only 7 of 15 rabbits had healed lesions at 16 to 18 weeks; among the other animals, two had chronic, progressive cavitary disease, a phenotype usually seen only with M. bovis infection. Genotypic investigation of the Erdman strain with an H37Rv-based microarray identified gene differences in the RD6 region. Southern blot and PCR structural genetic analysis showed significant differences between M. tuberculosis strains in this region. Correlation of the relative pathogenicity, including disease severity, in the rabbit model with the strain genotype may help identify stage-specific M. tuberculosis genes important in human disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yukari C Manabe
- Department of Medicine, School of Medicine, Bloomberg School of Public Health, The Johns Hopkins University, 424 North Bond Street, Room 1108, Baltimore, MD 21205, USA.
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34
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Flórido M, Cooper AM, Appelberg R. Immunological basis of the development of necrotic lesions following Mycobacterium avium infection. Immunology 2002; 106:590-601. [PMID: 12153523 PMCID: PMC1782750 DOI: 10.1046/j.1365-2567.2002.01459.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Normal C57BL/6 mice infected with 106 colony-forming units of a highly virulent strain of Mycobacterium avium developed a progressive infection characterized by loss of T cells from the tissues and infiltration with high numbers of heavily infected macrophages. In contrast, when C57BL/6 mice were infected with 102 colony-forming units of the same strain they retained T cells and T-cell reactivity in the tissues, and granulomas evolved into large masses that, at 4 months of infection, exhibited central necrosis. The development of these necrotic lesions did not occur in nude mice, nor in mice genetically deficient in CD4, interleukin-12 (IL-12) p40, interferon-gamma (IFN-gamma) and CD40 and were reduced in mice deficient in CD54 or IL-6. They were less numerous but bigger in mice deficient in IL-10 or the inducible nitric oxide synthase, correlating with the increased resistance to mycobacterial proliferation of these strains as compared to control mice. The appearance of necrosis was not affected in mice deficient in CD8alpha, T-cell receptor delta, tumour necrosis factor receptor p55, and perforin, nor was it affected in mice over-expressing bcl2. The appearance of necrosis could be prevented by administering antibodies specific for CD4, IL-12p40, or IFN-gamma from the second month of infection when organized granulomas were already found. Our results show that the immunological mediators involved in the induction of protective immunity are also major players in the immunopathology associated with mycobacteriosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Manuela Flórido
- Laboratory of Microbiology and Immunology of Infection, Institute for Molecular and Cell Biology, University of PortoPortugal
| | - Andrea M Cooper
- Mycobacteria Research Laboratories, Department of Microbiology, Colorado State UniversityFort Collins, CO, USA
| | - Rui Appelberg
- Laboratory of Microbiology and Immunology of Infection, Institute for Molecular and Cell Biology, University of PortoPortugal
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35
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Ehlers S, Benini J, Held HD, Roeck C, Alber G, Uhlig S. Alphabeta T cell receptor-positive cells and interferon-gamma, but not inducible nitric oxide synthase, are critical for granuloma necrosis in a mouse model of mycobacteria-induced pulmonary immunopathology. J Exp Med 2001; 194:1847-59. [PMID: 11748285 PMCID: PMC2193571 DOI: 10.1084/jem.194.12.1847] [Citation(s) in RCA: 88] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
Abstract
The immunological basis of tuberculin-induced necrosis, known for more than a century as "Koch's phenomenon," remains poorly understood. Aerosol infection in mice with the highly virulent Mycobacterium avium strain TMC724 causes progressive pulmonary pathology strongly resembling caseating necrosis in human patients with tuberculosis. To identify the cellular and molecular mediators causing this pathology, we infected C57BL/6 mice and mice selectively deficient in recombinase activating gene (RAG)-1, alphabeta T cell receptor (TCR), gammadelta TCR, CD4, CD8, beta2-microglobulin, interferon (IFN)-gamma, interleukin (IL)-10, IL-12p35, IL-12p35/p40, or iNOS with M. avium by aerosol and compared bacterial multiplication, histopathology, and respiratory physiology in these mice. The bacterial load in the lung was similarly high in all mouse groups. Pulmonary compliance, as a surrogate marker for granulomatous infiltrations in the lung, deteriorated to a similar extent in all groups of mice, except in alphabeta TCR-knockout (KO) and IL-12-KO mice in which compliance was higher, and in IFN-gamma and inducible nitric oxide synthase-KO mice in which compliance was reduced faster. Progressive caseation of pulmonary granulomas never occurred in alphabeta TCR-KO, IL-12-KO, and IFN-gamma-KO mice and was reduced in CD4-KO mice. In summary, alphabeta TCR(+) cells and IFN-gamma are essential for the development of mycobacteria-induced pulmonary caseous necrosis. In contrast, high mycobacterial load and extensive granulomatous infiltration per se are not sufficient to cause caseation, nor is granuloma necrosis linked to the induction of nitric oxide.
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MESH Headings
- Animals
- Cytotoxicity, Immunologic
- Gene Expression Regulation/immunology
- Granuloma/immunology
- Granuloma/pathology
- Humans
- Interferon-gamma/genetics
- Interferon-gamma/immunology
- Mice
- Mice, Knockout
- Mycobacterium avium/immunology
- Necrosis
- Nitric Oxide Synthase/genetics
- Nitric Oxide Synthase/immunology
- Nitric Oxide Synthase Type II
- Receptors, Antigen, T-Cell, alpha-beta/genetics
- Receptors, Antigen, T-Cell, alpha-beta/immunology
- T-Lymphocyte Subsets/immunology
- Tuberculosis, Pulmonary/genetics
- Tuberculosis, Pulmonary/immunology
- Tuberculosis, Pulmonary/pathology
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Affiliation(s)
- S Ehlers
- Division of Molecular Infection Biology, Research Center Borstel, Center for Medicine and Biosciences, D-23845 Borstel, Germany.
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36
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Dannenberg AM. Pathogenesis of pulmonary Mycobacterium bovis infection: basic principles established by the rabbit model. Tuberculosis (Edinb) 2001; 81:87-96. [PMID: 11463228 DOI: 10.1054/tube.2000.0260] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- A M Dannenberg
- Johns Hopkins School of Hygiene and Public Health, Baltimore 221205, USA.
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37
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Dannenberg AM, Collins FM. Progressive pulmonary tuberculosis is not due to increasing numbers of viable bacilli in rabbits, mice and guinea pigs, but is due to a continuous host response to mycobacterial products. Tuberculosis (Edinb) 2001; 81:229-42. [PMID: 11466035 DOI: 10.1054/tube.2001.0287] [Citation(s) in RCA: 64] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Tuberculosis (TB) kills more people in the world today than any other infectious disease. A better vaccine to prevent clinical tuberculosis is greatly needed. Candidate vaccines are often evaluated by infecting rabbits, mice and guinea pigs by an aerosol of virulent tubercle bacilli and culturing their lungs for viable bacilli at various times thereafter. In all three species, however, the number of viable bacilli usually does not continuously increase until the host succumbs. The number of viable bacilli increases logarithmically for only about 3 weeks. Then, the host develops delayed-type hypersensitivity (DTH) and cell-mediated immunity (CMI), which keep the number of viable bacilli rather constant during the subsequent weeks. In the immunized host, DTH and CMI stop the logarithmic increase sooner than in the unimmunized controls, so that the stationary bacillary levels that follow are lower. This review analyzes host-parasite interactions in the lungs of rabbits, mice and guinea pigs. All three species cannot prevent inhaled fully virulent tubercle bacilli from establishing an infection, but they differ markedly in the type of the disease produced once it is established.
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Affiliation(s)
- A M Dannenberg
- Department of Environmental Health Sciences, School of Hygiene and Public Health, The Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD 21205-2179, USA.
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38
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Abstract
This unit describes the infection of mice and guinea pigs with mycobacteria via the aerogenic route, or of mice via the intravenous route, as well as necropsy methods for the determination of mycobacterial loads within target organs. Additionally, methods for cultivating mycobacteria and preparing stocks are described. The protocols outlined are primarily used for M. tuberculosis, but can also be used for the study of other opportunistic Mycobacterial species.
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Affiliation(s)
- I M Orme
- Mycobacteria Research Laboratories, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado, USA
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39
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Abstract
CD1 is an Ag-presenting molecule that can present lipids and glycolipids to T cells. The CD1 genes were first identified in the human, and since then, homologs have been identified in every mammalian species examined to date. Over a decade ago, CD1B and CD1D homologs were identified in the rabbit. We have extended this earlier study by identifying additional CD1 genes with the goal of developing the rabbit as an animal model to study the function of CD1 proteins. We constructed a thymocyte cDNA library and screened the library with CD1-specific probes. Based on nucleotide sequence analyses of the CD1(+) cDNA clones obtained from the library, we have identified two CD1A genes and one CD1E gene as well as determined the complete sequence of the previously identified CD1B gene. The CD1E(+) cDNA clones lacked the transmembrane and cytoplasmic domains and, if translated, would encode for a soluble or secreted CD1E protein. In addition, expression studies demonstrated that the CD1 genes were expressed in peripheral lymphoid tissues as well as in skin, gut, and lung. Of interest is the finding that CD1A2, CD1B, and CD1E genes were found to be expressed by rabbit B cell populations. The rabbit, with a complex CD1 locus composed of at least two CD1A genes, one CD1B gene, one CD1D gene, and one CD1E gene, is an excellent candidate as an animal model to study CD1 proteins.
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Affiliation(s)
- S M Hayes
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Loyola University Chicago, Maywood, IL 60153, USA
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40
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Cardona PJ, Ausina V. [Histopathology of tuberculosis. Approximation to the clinical course of lung lesions in animal experimentation models induced with aerosols]. Arch Bronconeumol 2000; 36:645-50. [PMID: 11171437 DOI: 10.1016/s0300-2896(15)30087-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- P J Cardona
- Unitat de Tuberculosi Experimental, Servei de Microbiologia, Hospital Universitari Germans Trias i Pujol, Badalona, Barcelona.
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41
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Dannenberg AM, Bishai WR, Parrish N, Ruiz R, Johnson W, Zook BC, Boles JW, Pitt LM. Efficacies of BCG and vole bacillus (Mycobacterium microti) vaccines in preventing clinically apparent pulmonary tuberculosis in rabbits: a preliminary report. Vaccine 2000; 19:796-800. [PMID: 11115701 DOI: 10.1016/s0264-410x(00)00300-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Tuberculosis (TB) kills more people in the world today than any other infectious disease, and the number of drug-resistant Mycobacterium tuberculosis isolates is increasing. Vaccines, better than most of the currently available strains of bacille Calmette-Guérin (BCG), are urgently needed to control this disease. TB in rabbits resembles human TB more closely than TB in any other common laboratory animal and a most pertinent method of assessing vaccine efficacy is Lurie's tubercle count method in this species. Vaccinated and control rabbits were infected by aerosol with virulent human-type tubercle bacilli (H37Rv). At necropsy 5 weeks thereafter, the grossly visible primary tubercles in the entire lung were counted. A decrease in the number of such tubercles is a quantitative measure of vaccine efficacy: An effective vaccine prevents microscopic tubercles from growing to grossly visible (clinically apparent) size. The Pasteur substrain of BCG and two substrains of Mycobacterium microti (the vole bacillus) reduced the number of visible primary tubercles an average of 75%, whereas three other substrains of BCG and three other substrains of vole bacilli only reduced the number an average of 40%. These initial studies indicate that Lurie's tubercle-count method in rabbits is a precise way to choose the best available tuberculosis vaccines.
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Affiliation(s)
- A M Dannenberg
- Departments of Environmental Health Sciences, Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, International Health and/or Epidemiology, School of Hygiene and Public Health, The Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD 21205, USA.
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42
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Cardona PJ, Ausina V. [Delayed-type hypersensitivity and caseous necrosis in tuberculous granuloma. New ideas for the design of a new vaccine against human tuberculosis]. Med Clin (Barc) 2000; 115:503-9. [PMID: 11093873 DOI: 10.1016/s0025-7753(00)71606-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- P J Cardona
- Unidad de Tuberculosis Experimental, Servicio de Microbiología, Hospital Universitari Germans Trias i Pujol, Badalona, Barcelona.
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43
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44
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Bishai WR, Dannenberg AM, Parrish N, Ruiz R, Chen P, Zook BC, Johnson W, Boles JW, Pitt ML. Virulence of Mycobacterium tuberculosis CDC1551 and H37Rv in rabbits evaluated by Lurie's pulmonary tubercle count method. Infect Immun 1999; 67:4931-4. [PMID: 10456953 PMCID: PMC96831 DOI: 10.1128/iai.67.9.4931-4934.1999] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/09/1999] [Accepted: 05/27/1999] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The virulence of the CDC1551 strain of Mycobacterium tuberculosis was compared to that of H37Rv in a rabbit inhalation model. While rabbits that inhaled the two strains produced equal numbers of grossly visible primary tubercles, CDC1551 tubercles were smaller and contained fewer bacilli than H37Rv tubercles. These findings suggest that a miniepidemic near the Kentucky-Tennessee border caused by CDC1551 was due not to increased virulence but to increased transmissibility.
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Affiliation(s)
- W R Bishai
- Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, School of Hygiene and Public Health, The Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Maryland, USA
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45
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Birkness KA, Deslauriers M, Bartlett JH, White EH, King CH, Quinn FD. An in vitro tissue culture bilayer model to examine early events in Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection. Infect Immun 1999; 67:653-8. [PMID: 9916072 PMCID: PMC96368 DOI: 10.1128/iai.67.2.653-658.1999] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
A tissue culture bilayer system that mimics some aspects of early alveolar infection by Mycobacterium tuberculosis was developed. This model incorporates human lung epithelial type II pneumocyte (A549) (upper chamber) and endothelial cell (lower chamber) layers separated by a microporous membrane. This construction makes it possible to observe and quantify the passage of bacteria through the two layers, to observe the interaction of the bacteria with the various cell types, and to examine the basic mechanisms of immune cell recruitment to the site of infection. After 10(7) organisms were added to the upper chamber we microscopically observed large numbers of bacteria attached to and within the pneumocytes and we determined by viable-cell counting that a small percentage of the inoculum (0.02 to 0.43%) passed through the bilayer into the lower chamber. When peripheral blood mononuclear cells were added to the lower chamber, microscopic examination indicated a migration of the mononuclear cells through the bilayer to the apical surface, where they were seen associated with the mycobacteria on the pneumocytes. The added complexity of the bilayer system offers an opportunity to define more precisely the roles of the various lung cell types in the pathogenesis of early tuberculosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- K A Birkness
- Division of AIDS, STD and TB Laboratory Research, National Center for Infectious Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia 30333, USA
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46
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LURIE MB. The reticuloendothelial system, cortisone, and thyroid function: their relation to native resistance to infection. Ann N Y Acad Sci 1998; 88:83-98. [PMID: 13764411 DOI: 10.1111/j.1749-6632.1960.tb20010.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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47
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Bellamy R. Genetics and pulmonary medicine. 3. Genetic susceptibility to tuberculosis in human populations. Thorax 1998; 53:588-93. [PMID: 9797760 PMCID: PMC1745258 DOI: 10.1136/thx.53.7.588] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/04/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- R Bellamy
- Wellcome Trust Centre For Human Genetics, University of Oxford, UK
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48
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McMurray DN, Collins FM, Dannenberg AM, Smith DW. Pathogenesis of experimental tuberculosis in animal models. Curr Top Microbiol Immunol 1996; 215:157-79. [PMID: 8791713 DOI: 10.1007/978-3-642-80166-2_7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- D N McMurray
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Immunology, Texas A&M University Health Science Center, College Station 77843, USA
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49
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Affiliation(s)
- I M Orme
- Mycobacteria Research Laboratories, Department of Microbiology, Colorado State University, Fort Collins 80523, USA
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50
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