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Han Z, Xiong D, Schneiter R, Tian C. The function of plant PR1 and other members of the CAP protein superfamily in plant-pathogen interactions. MOLECULAR PLANT PATHOLOGY 2023; 24:651-668. [PMID: 36932700 DOI: 10.1111/mpp.13320] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/07/2022] [Revised: 01/24/2023] [Accepted: 02/16/2023] [Indexed: 05/18/2023]
Abstract
The pathogenesis-related (PR) proteins of plants have originally been identified as proteins that are strongly induced upon biotic and abiotic stress. These proteins fall into 17 distinct classes (PR1-PR17). The mode of action of most of these PR proteins has been well characterized, except for PR1, which belongs to a widespread superfamily of proteins that share a common CAP domain. Proteins of this family are not only expressed in plants but also in humans and in many different pathogens, including phytopathogenic nematodes and fungi. These proteins are associated with a diverse range of physiological functions. However, their precise mode of action has remained elusive. The importance of these proteins in immune defence is illustrated by the fact that PR1 overexpression in plants results in increased resistance against pathogens. However, PR1-like CAP proteins are also produced by pathogens and deletion of these genes results in reduced virulence, suggesting that CAP proteins can exert both defensive and offensive functions. Recent progress has revealed that plant PR1 is proteolytically cleaved to release a C-terminal CAPE1 peptide, which is sufficient to activate an immune response. The release of this signalling peptide is blocked by pathogenic effectors to evade immune defence. Moreover, plant PR1 forms complexes with other PR family members, including PR5, also known as thaumatin, and PR14, a lipid transfer protein, to enhance the host's immune response. Here, we discuss possible functions of PR1 proteins and their interactors, particularly in light of the fact that these proteins can bind lipids, which have important immune signalling functions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhu Han
- College of Forestry, Beijing Forestry University, Beijing, China
- Department of Biology, University of Fribourg, Fribourg, Switzerland
| | - Dianguang Xiong
- College of Forestry, Beijing Forestry University, Beijing, China
| | - Roger Schneiter
- Department of Biology, University of Fribourg, Fribourg, Switzerland
| | - Chengming Tian
- College of Forestry, Beijing Forestry University, Beijing, China
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2
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Midgley KA, van den Berg N, Swart V. Unraveling Plant Cell Death during Phytophthora Infection. Microorganisms 2022; 10:microorganisms10061139. [PMID: 35744657 PMCID: PMC9229607 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms10061139] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/04/2022] [Revised: 05/25/2022] [Accepted: 05/30/2022] [Indexed: 01/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Oomycetes form a distinct phylogenetic lineage of fungus-like eukaryotic microorganisms, of which several hundred organisms are considered among the most devastating plant pathogens—especially members of the genus Phytophthora. Phytophthora spp. have a large repertoire of effectors that aid in eliciting a susceptible response in host plants. What is of increasing interest is the involvement of Phytophthora effectors in regulating programed cell death (PCD)—in particular, the hypersensitive response. There have been numerous functional characterization studies, which demonstrate Phytophthora effectors either inducing or suppressing host cell death, which may play a crucial role in Phytophthora’s ability to regulate their hemi-biotrophic lifestyle. Despite several advances in techniques used to identify and characterize Phytophthora effectors, knowledge is still lacking for some important species, including Phytophthora cinnamomi. This review discusses what the term PCD means and the gap in knowledge between pathogenic and developmental forms of PCD in plants. We also discuss the role cell death plays in the virulence of Phytophthora spp. and the effectors that have so far been identified as playing a role in cell death manipulation. Finally, we touch on the different techniques available to study effector functions, such as cell death induction/suppression.
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3
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Cordelier S, Crouzet J, Gilliard G, Dorey S, Deleu M, Dhondt-Cordelier S. Deciphering the role of plant plasma membrane lipids in response to invasion patterns: how could biology and biophysics help? JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL BOTANY 2022; 73:2765-2784. [PMID: 35560208 DOI: 10.1093/jxb/erab517] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/23/2021] [Accepted: 11/25/2021] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Plants have to constantly face pathogen attacks. To cope with diseases, they have to detect the invading pathogen as early as possible via the sensing of conserved motifs called invasion patterns. The first step of perception occurs at the plasma membrane. While many invasion patterns are perceived by specific proteinaceous immune receptors, several studies have highlighted the influence of the lipid composition and dynamics of the plasma membrane in the sensing of invasion patterns. In this review, we summarize current knowledge on how some microbial invasion patterns could interact with the lipids of the plasma membrane, leading to a plant immune response. Depending on the invasion pattern, different mechanisms are involved. This review outlines the potential of combining biological with biophysical approaches to decipher how plasma membrane lipids are involved in the perception of microbial invasion patterns.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sylvain Cordelier
- Université de Reims Champagne Ardenne, RIBP EA 4707, USC INRAE 1488, SFR Condorcet FR CNRS 3417, 51100 Reims, France
| | - Jérôme Crouzet
- Université de Reims Champagne Ardenne, RIBP EA 4707, USC INRAE 1488, SFR Condorcet FR CNRS 3417, 51100 Reims, France
| | - Guillaume Gilliard
- Laboratoire de Biophysique Moléculaire aux Interfaces, SFR Condorcet FR CNRS 3417, TERRA Research Center, Gembloux Agro-Bio Tech, Université de Liège, 2 Passage des Déportés, B-5030 Gembloux, Belgium
| | - Stéphan Dorey
- Université de Reims Champagne Ardenne, RIBP EA 4707, USC INRAE 1488, SFR Condorcet FR CNRS 3417, 51100 Reims, France
| | - Magali Deleu
- Laboratoire de Biophysique Moléculaire aux Interfaces, SFR Condorcet FR CNRS 3417, TERRA Research Center, Gembloux Agro-Bio Tech, Université de Liège, 2 Passage des Déportés, B-5030 Gembloux, Belgium
| | - Sandrine Dhondt-Cordelier
- Université de Reims Champagne Ardenne, RIBP EA 4707, USC INRAE 1488, SFR Condorcet FR CNRS 3417, 51100 Reims, France
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Murali M, Naziya B, Ansari MA, Alomary MN, AlYahya S, Almatroudi A, Thriveni MC, Gowtham HG, Singh SB, Aiyaz M, Kalegowda N, Lakshmidevi N, Amruthesh KN. Bioprospecting of Rhizosphere-Resident Fungi: Their Role and Importance in Sustainable Agriculture. J Fungi (Basel) 2021; 7:314. [PMID: 33919629 PMCID: PMC8072672 DOI: 10.3390/jof7040314] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/10/2021] [Revised: 04/09/2021] [Accepted: 04/14/2021] [Indexed: 01/28/2023] Open
Abstract
Rhizosphere-resident fungi that are helpful to plants are generally termed as 'plant growth promoting fungi' (PGPF). These fungi are one of the chief sources of the biotic inducers known to give their host plants numerous advantages, and they play a vital role in sustainable agriculture. Today's biggest challenge is to satisfy the rising demand for crop protection and crop yield without harming the natural ecosystem. Nowadays, PGPF has become an eco-friendly way to improve crop yield by enhancing seed germination, shoot and root growth, chlorophyll production, and fruit yield, etc., either directly or indirectly. The mode of action of these PGPF includes the solubilization and mineralization of the essential micro- and macronutrients needed by plants to regulate the balance for various plant processes. PGPF produce defense-related enzymes, defensive/volatile compounds, and phytohormones that control pathogenic microbes' growth, thereby assisting the plants in facing various biotic and abiotic stresses. Therefore, this review presents a holistic view of PGPF as efficient natural biofertilizers to improve crop plants' growth and resistance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mahadevamurthy Murali
- Applied Plant Pathology Laboratory, Department of Studies in Botany, University of Mysore, Manasagangotri, Mysuru 570006, Karnataka, India; (M.M.); (B.N.); (N.K.)
| | - Banu Naziya
- Applied Plant Pathology Laboratory, Department of Studies in Botany, University of Mysore, Manasagangotri, Mysuru 570006, Karnataka, India; (M.M.); (B.N.); (N.K.)
| | - Mohammad Azam Ansari
- Department of Epidemic Disease Research, Institutes for Research and Medical Consultations (IRMC), Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University, Dammam 31441, Saudi Arabia;
| | - Mohammad N. Alomary
- National Center for Biotechnology, Life Science and Environmental Research Institute, King Abdulaziz City for Science and Technology, Riyadh P.O. Box 6086, Saudi Arabia; (M.N.A.); (S.A.)
| | - Sami AlYahya
- National Center for Biotechnology, Life Science and Environmental Research Institute, King Abdulaziz City for Science and Technology, Riyadh P.O. Box 6086, Saudi Arabia; (M.N.A.); (S.A.)
| | - Ahmad Almatroudi
- Department of Medical Laboratories, College of Applied Medical Sciences, Qassim University, Qassim 51431, Saudi Arabia
| | - M. C. Thriveni
- Central Sericultural Germplasm Resources Centre, Central Silk Board, Ministry of Textiles, Thally Road, TVS Nagar, Hosur 635109, Tamil Nadu, India;
| | | | - Sudarshana Brijesh Singh
- Department of Studies in Biotechnology, University of Mysore, Manasagangotri, Mysuru 570006, Karnataka, India; (H.G.G.); (S.B.S.); (M.A.)
| | - Mohammed Aiyaz
- Department of Studies in Biotechnology, University of Mysore, Manasagangotri, Mysuru 570006, Karnataka, India; (H.G.G.); (S.B.S.); (M.A.)
| | - Nataraj Kalegowda
- Applied Plant Pathology Laboratory, Department of Studies in Botany, University of Mysore, Manasagangotri, Mysuru 570006, Karnataka, India; (M.M.); (B.N.); (N.K.)
| | - Nanjaiah Lakshmidevi
- Department of Studies in Microbiology, University of Mysore, Manasagangotri, Mysuru 570006, Karnataka, India;
| | - Kestur Nagaraj Amruthesh
- Applied Plant Pathology Laboratory, Department of Studies in Botany, University of Mysore, Manasagangotri, Mysuru 570006, Karnataka, India; (M.M.); (B.N.); (N.K.)
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Solanský M, Mikulášek K, Zapletalová M, Petřivalský M, Chiltz A, Zdráhal Z, Leborgne-Castel N, Lochman J. The oligomeric states of elicitins affect the hypersensitive response and resistance in tobacco. JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL BOTANY 2021; 72:3219-3234. [PMID: 33475728 DOI: 10.1093/jxb/erab011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/25/2020] [Accepted: 01/19/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Successful plant defence against microbial pathogens is based on early recognition and fast activation of inducible responses. Key mechanisms include detection of microbe-associated molecular patterns by membrane-localized pattern recognition receptors that induce a basal resistance response. A well-described model of such responses to pathogens involves the interactions between Solanaceae plants and proteinaceous elicitors secreted by oomycetes, called elicitins. It has been hypothesized that the formation of oligomeric structures by elicitins could be involved in their recognition and activation of defensive transduction cascades. In this study, we tested this hypothesis using several approaches, and we observed differences in tobacco plant responses induced by the elicitin β-cryptogein (β-CRY) and its homodimer, β-CRYDIM. We also found that the C-terminal domain of elicitins of other ELI (true-elicitin) clades plays a significant role in stabilization of their oligomeric structure and restraint in the cell wall. In addition, covalently cross-linking β-CRYDIM impaired the formation of signalling complexes, thereby reducing its capacity to elicit the hypersensitive response and resistance in the host plant, with no significant changes in pathogenesis-related protein expression. By revealing the details of the effects of β-CRY dimerization on recognition and defence responses in tobacco, our results shed light on the poorly understood role of elicitins' oligomeric structures in the interactions between oomycetes and plants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martin Solanský
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Science, Masaryk University, Kotlářská 2, 61137 Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Kamil Mikulášek
- Central European Institute of Technology, Masaryk University, Kamenice 5, 625 00 Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Martina Zapletalová
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Science, Masaryk University, Kotlářská 2, 61137 Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Marek Petřivalský
- Department of Biochemistry, Department of Botany, Faculty of Science, Palacký University, Šlechtitelů 27, 78371 Olomouc, Czech Republic
| | - Annick Chiltz
- Agroécologie, AgroSup Dijon, CNRS, INRAE, Université Bourgogne Franche-Comté, F-21000 Dijon, France
| | - Zbyněk Zdráhal
- Central European Institute of Technology, Masaryk University, Kamenice 5, 625 00 Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Nathalie Leborgne-Castel
- Agroécologie, AgroSup Dijon, CNRS, INRAE, Université Bourgogne Franche-Comté, F-21000 Dijon, France
| | - Jan Lochman
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Science, Masaryk University, Kotlářská 2, 61137 Brno, Czech Republic
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6
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Organize, Don't Agonize: Strategic Success of Phytophthora Species. Microorganisms 2020; 8:microorganisms8060917. [PMID: 32560346 PMCID: PMC7355776 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms8060917] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/06/2020] [Revised: 06/08/2020] [Accepted: 06/11/2020] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Plants are constantly challenged by various environmental stressors ranging from abiotic-sunlight, elevated temperatures, drought, and nutrient deficits, to biotic factors-microbial pathogens and insect pests. These not only affect the quality of harvest but also the yield, leading to substantial annual crop losses, worldwide. Although plants have a multi-layered immune system, phytopathogens such as species of the oomycete genus Phytophthora, can employ elaborate mechanisms to breach this defense. For the last two decades, researchers have focused on the co-evolution between Phytophthora and interacting hosts to decouple the mechanisms governing their molecular associations. This has provided a comprehensive understanding of the pathobiology of plants affected by oomycetes. Ultimately, this is important for the development of strategies to sustainably improve agricultural production. Therefore, this paper discusses the present-day state of knowledge of the strategic mode of operation employed by species of Phytophthora for successful infection. Specifically, we consider motility, attachment, and host cell wall degradation used by these pathogenic species to obtain nutrients from their host. Also discussed is an array of effector types from apoplastic (hydrolytic proteins, protease inhibitors, elicitins) to cytoplastic (RxLRs, named after Arginine-any amino acid-Leucine-Arginine consensus sequence and CRNs, for CRinkling and Necrosis), which upon liberation can subvert the immune response and promote diseases in plants.
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7
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Starý T, Satková P, Piterková J, Mieslerová B, Luhová L, Mikulík J, Kašparovský T, Petřivalský M, Lochman J. The elicitin β-cryptogein's activity in tomato is mediated by jasmonic acid and ethylene signalling pathways independently of elicitin-sterol interactions. PLANTA 2019; 249:739-749. [PMID: 30374914 DOI: 10.1007/s00425-018-3036-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/07/2018] [Accepted: 10/24/2018] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
The level of resistance induced in different tomato genotypes after β-CRY treatment correlated with the upregulation of defence genes, but not sterol binding and involved ethylene and jasmonic acid signalling. Elicitins, a family of small proteins secreted by Phytophthora and Pythium spp., are the most well-known microbe-associated molecular patterns of oomycetes, a lineage of fungus-like organisms that include many economically significant crop pathogens. The responses of tomato plants to elicitin INF1 produced by Phytophthora infestans have been studied extensively. Here, we present studies on the responses of three tomato genotypes to β-cryptogein (β-CRY), a potent elicitin secreted by Phytophthora cryptogea that induces hypersensitive response (HR) cell death in tobacco plants and confers greater resistance to oomycete infection than acidic elicitins like INF1. We also studied β-CRY mutants impaired in sterol binding (Val84Phe) and interaction with the binding site on tobacco plasma membrane (Leu41Phe), because sterol binding was suggested to be important in INF1-induced resistance. Treatment with β-CRY or the Val84Phe mutant induced resistance to powdery mildew caused by the pathogen Pseudoidium neolycopersici, but not the HR cell death observed in tobacco and potato plants. The level of resistance induced in different tomato genotypes correlated with the upregulation of defence genes including defensins, β-1,3-glucanases, heveins, chitinases, osmotins, and PR1 proteins. Treatment with the Leu41Phe mutant did not induce this upregulation, suggesting similar elicitin recognition in tomato and tobacco. However, here β-CRY activated ethylene and jasmonic acid signalling, but not salicylic acid signalling, demonstrating that elicitins activate different downstream signalling processes in different plant species. This could potentially be exploited to enhance the resistance of Phytophthora-susceptible crops.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tomáš Starý
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Science, Masaryk University, Kotlářská 2, 61137, Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Pavla Satková
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Science, Palacký University, Šlechtitelů 27, 78371, Olomouc, Czech Republic
| | - Jana Piterková
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Science, Palacký University, Šlechtitelů 27, 78371, Olomouc, Czech Republic
| | - Barbora Mieslerová
- Department of Botany, Faculty of Science, Palacký University, Šlechtitelů 27, 78371, Olomouc, Czech Republic
| | - Lenka Luhová
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Science, Palacký University, Šlechtitelů 27, 78371, Olomouc, Czech Republic
| | - Jaromír Mikulík
- Laboratory of Growth Regulators, Department of Chemical Biology and Genetics, Centre of the Region Haná for Biotechnological and Agricultural Research, Faculty of Science, Institute of Experimental Botany ASCR, Palacký University, Šlechtitelů 27, 78371, Olomouc, Czech Republic
| | - Tomáš Kašparovský
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Science, Masaryk University, Kotlářská 2, 61137, Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Marek Petřivalský
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Science, Palacký University, Šlechtitelů 27, 78371, Olomouc, Czech Republic
| | - Jan Lochman
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Science, Masaryk University, Kotlářská 2, 61137, Brno, Czech Republic.
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Rujirawat T, Patumcharoenpol P, Lohnoo T, Yingyong W, Kumsang Y, Payattikul P, Tangphatsornruang S, Suriyaphol P, Reamtong O, Garg G, Kittichotirat W, Krajaejun T. Probing the Phylogenomics and Putative Pathogenicity Genes of Pythium insidiosum by Oomycete Genome Analyses. Sci Rep 2018. [PMID: 29515152 PMCID: PMC5841299 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-018-22540-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Pythium insidiosum is a human-pathogenic oomycete. Many patients infected with it lose organs or die. Toward the goal of developing improved treatment options, we want to understand how Py. insidiosum has evolved to become a successful human pathogen. Our approach here involved the use of comparative genomic and other analyses to identify genes with possible functions in the pathogenicity of Py. insidiosum. We generated an Oomycete Gene Table and used it to explore the genome contents and phylogenomic relationships of Py. insidiosum and 19 other oomycetes. Initial sequence analyses showed that Py. insidiosum is closely related to Pythium species that are not pathogenic to humans. Our analyses also indicated that the organism harbours secreted and adhesin-like proteins, which are absent from related species. Putative virulence proteins were identified by comparison to a set of known virulence genes. Among them is the urease Ure1, which is absent from humans and thus a potential diagnostic and therapeutic target. We used mass spectrometric data to successfully validate the expression of 30% of 14,962 predicted proteins and identify 15 body temperature (37 °C)-dependent proteins of Py. insidiosum. This work begins to unravel the determinants of pathogenicity of Py. insidiosum.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thidarat Rujirawat
- Department of Pathology, Faculty of Medicine, Ramathibodi Hospital, Mahidol University, Bangkok, Thailand.,Research Center, Faculty of Medicine, Ramathibodi Hospital, Mahidol University, Bangkok, Thailand.,Molecular Medicine Program, Multidisciplinary Unit, Faculty of Science, Mahidol University, Bangkok, Thailand
| | - Preecha Patumcharoenpol
- Department of Biomedical Informatics, University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences, Little Rock, Arkansas, 72205, USA.,Systems Biology and Bioinformatics Research Group, Pilot Plant Development and Training Institute, King Mongkut's University of Technology Thonburi, Bangkok, Thailand
| | - Tassanee Lohnoo
- Research Center, Faculty of Medicine, Ramathibodi Hospital, Mahidol University, Bangkok, Thailand
| | - Wanta Yingyong
- Research Center, Faculty of Medicine, Ramathibodi Hospital, Mahidol University, Bangkok, Thailand
| | - Yothin Kumsang
- Research Center, Faculty of Medicine, Ramathibodi Hospital, Mahidol University, Bangkok, Thailand
| | - Penpan Payattikul
- Research Center, Faculty of Medicine, Ramathibodi Hospital, Mahidol University, Bangkok, Thailand
| | - Sithichoke Tangphatsornruang
- Genomic Research Laboratory, National Center for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology, National Science and Technology Development Agency, Pathumthani, Thailand
| | - Prapat Suriyaphol
- Bioinformatics and Data Management for Research, Office for Research and Development, Faculty of Medicine, Siriraj Hospital, Mahidol University, Bangkok, Thailand
| | - Onrapak Reamtong
- Department of Molecular Tropical Medicine and Genetics, Faculty of Tropical Medicine, Mahidol University, Bangkok, Thailand
| | - Gagan Garg
- CSIRO Agriculture and Food, Centre for Environment and Life Sciences, Floreat, WA, Australia
| | - Weerayuth Kittichotirat
- Systems Biology and Bioinformatics Research Group, Pilot Plant Development and Training Institute, King Mongkut's University of Technology Thonburi, Bangkok, Thailand.
| | - Theerapong Krajaejun
- Department of Pathology, Faculty of Medicine, Ramathibodi Hospital, Mahidol University, Bangkok, Thailand.
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9
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Hardham AR, Blackman LM. Phytophthora cinnamomi. MOLECULAR PLANT PATHOLOGY 2018; 19:260-285. [PMID: 28519717 PMCID: PMC6637996 DOI: 10.1111/mpp.12568] [Citation(s) in RCA: 75] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/06/2017] [Revised: 04/20/2017] [Accepted: 05/11/2017] [Indexed: 05/12/2023]
Abstract
Phytophthora cinnamomi is one of the most devastating plant pathogens in the world. It infects close to 5000 species of plants, including many of importance in agriculture, forestry and horticulture. The inadvertent introduction of P. cinnamomi into natural ecosystems, including a number of recognized Global Biodiversity Hotspots, has had disastrous consequences for the environment and the biodiversity of flora and fauna. The genus Phytophthora belongs to the Class Oomycetes, a group of fungus-like organisms that initiate plant disease through the production of motile zoospores. Disease control is difficult in agricultural and forestry situations and even more challenging in natural ecosystems as a result of the scale of the problem and the limited range of effective chemical inhibitors. The development of sustainable control measures for the future management of P. cinnamomi requires a comprehensive understanding of the cellular and molecular basis of pathogen development and pathogenicity. The application of next-generation sequencing technologies to generate genomic and transcriptomic data promises to underpin a new era in P. cinnamomi research and discovery. The aim of this review is to integrate bioinformatic analyses of P. cinnamomi sequence data with current knowledge of the cellular and molecular basis of P. cinnamomi growth, development and plant infection. The goal is to provide a framework for future research by highlighting potential pathogenicity genes, shedding light on their possible functions and identifying suitable targets for future control measures. TAXONOMY Phytophthora cinnamomi Rands; Kingdom Chromista; Phylum Oomycota or Pseudofungi; Class Oomycetes; Order Peronosporales; Family Peronosporaceae; genus Phytophthora. HOST RANGE Infects about 5000 species of plants, including 4000 Australian native species. Host plants important for agriculture and forestry include avocado, chestnut, macadamia, oak, peach and pineapple. DISEASE SYMPTOMS A root pathogen which causes rotting of fine and fibrous roots, but which can also cause stem cankers. Root damage may inhibit water movement from roots to shoots, leading to dieback of young shoots. USEFUL WEBSITES: http://fungidb.org/fungidb/; http://genome.jgi.doe.gov/Phyci1/Phyci1.home.html; http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/assembly/GCA_001314365.1; http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/assembly/GCA_001314505.1.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adrienne R. Hardham
- Plant Science Division, Research School of Biology, College of Medicine, Biology and EnvironmentThe Australian National UniversityCanberraACT 2601Australia
| | - Leila M. Blackman
- Plant Science Division, Research School of Biology, College of Medicine, Biology and EnvironmentThe Australian National UniversityCanberraACT 2601Australia
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10
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Srivastava V, Rezinciuc S, Bulone V. Quantitative Proteomic Analysis of Four Developmental Stages of Saprolegnia parasitica. Front Microbiol 2018; 8:2658. [PMID: 29375523 PMCID: PMC5768655 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2017.02658] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/05/2017] [Accepted: 12/20/2017] [Indexed: 01/24/2023] Open
Abstract
Several water mold species from the Saprolegnia genus infect fish, amphibians, and crustaceans in natural ecosystems and aquaculture farms. Saprolegnia parasitica is one of the most severe fish pathogens. It is responsible for millions of dollars of losses to the aquaculture industry worldwide. Here, we have performed a proteomic analysis, using gel-based and solution (iTRAQ) approaches, of four defined developmental stages of S. parasitica grown in vitro, i.e., the mycelium, primary cysts, secondary cysts and germinated cysts, to gain greater insight into the types of proteins linked to the different stages. A relatively high number of kinases as well as virulence proteins, including the ricin B lectin, disintegrins, and proteases were identified in the S. parasitica proteome. Many proteins associated with various biological processes were significantly enriched in different life cycle stages of S. parasitica. Compared to the mycelium, most of the proteins in the different cyst stages showed similar enrichment patterns and were mainly related to energy metabolism, signal transduction, protein synthesis, and post-translational modifications. The proteins most enriched in the mycelium compared to the cyst stages were associated with amino acid metabolism, carbohydrate metabolism, and mitochondrial energy production. The data presented expand our knowledge of metabolic pathways specifically linked to each developmental stage of this pathogen.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vaibhav Srivastava
- Division of Glycoscience, Royal Institute of Technology, AlbaNova University Centre, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Svetlana Rezinciuc
- Division of Glycoscience, Royal Institute of Technology, AlbaNova University Centre, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Vincent Bulone
- Division of Glycoscience, Royal Institute of Technology, AlbaNova University Centre, Stockholm, Sweden.,ARC Centre of Excellence in Plant Cell Walls and School of Agriculture, Food and Wine, The University of Adelaide, Adelaide, SA, Australia
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11
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Sandor R, Der C, Grosjean K, Anca I, Noirot E, Leborgne-Castel N, Lochman J, Simon-Plas F, Gerbeau-Pissot P. Plasma membrane order and fluidity are diversely triggered by elicitors of plant defence. JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL BOTANY 2016; 67:5173-85. [PMID: 27604805 PMCID: PMC5014163 DOI: 10.1093/jxb/erw284] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/20/2023]
Abstract
Although plants are exposed to a great number of pathogens, they usually defend themselves by triggering mechanisms able to limit disease development. Alongside signalling events common to most such incompatible interactions, modifications of plasma membrane (PM) physical properties could be new players in the cell transduction cascade. Different pairs of elicitors (cryptogein, oligogalacturonides, and flagellin) and plant cells (tobacco and Arabidopsis) were used to address the issue of possible modifications of plant PM biophysical properties induced by elicitors and their links to other events of the defence signalling cascade. We observed an increase of PM order whatever the elicitor/plant cell pair used, provided that a signalling cascade was induced. Such membrane modification is dependent on the NADPH oxidase-mediated reactive oxygen species production. Moreover, cryptogein, which is the sole elicitor able to trap sterols, is also the only one able to trigger an increase in PM fluidity. The use of cryptogein variants with altered sterol-binding properties confirms the strong correlation between sterol removal from the PM and PM fluidity enhancement. These results propose PM dynamics as a player in early signalling processes triggered by elicitors of plant defence.
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Affiliation(s)
- Roman Sandor
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Science, Masaryk University, Kotlářská 2, 61137 Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Christophe Der
- Agroécologie, AgroSup Dijon, CNRS, INRA, Université Bourgogne Franche-Comté, F-21000 Dijon, France
| | - Kevin Grosjean
- Agroécologie, AgroSup Dijon, CNRS, INRA, Université Bourgogne Franche-Comté, F-21000 Dijon, France
| | - Iulia Anca
- Agroécologie, AgroSup Dijon, CNRS, INRA, Université Bourgogne Franche-Comté, F-21000 Dijon, France
| | - Elodie Noirot
- Agroécologie, AgroSup Dijon, CNRS, INRA, Université Bourgogne Franche-Comté, F-21000 Dijon, France
| | - Nathalie Leborgne-Castel
- Agroécologie, AgroSup Dijon, CNRS, INRA, Université Bourgogne Franche-Comté, F-21000 Dijon, France
| | - Jan Lochman
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Science, Masaryk University, Kotlářská 2, 61137 Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Françoise Simon-Plas
- Agroécologie, AgroSup Dijon, CNRS, INRA, Université Bourgogne Franche-Comté, F-21000 Dijon, France
| | - Patricia Gerbeau-Pissot
- Agroécologie, AgroSup Dijon, CNRS, INRA, Université Bourgogne Franche-Comté, F-21000 Dijon, France
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Finkina EI, Melnikova DN, Bogdanov IV, Ovchinnikova TV. Lipid Transfer Proteins As Components of the Plant Innate Immune System: Structure, Functions, and Applications. Acta Naturae 2016; 8:47-61. [PMID: 27437139 PMCID: PMC4947988] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/05/2015] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
Among a variety of molecular factors of the plant innate immune system, small proteins that transfer lipids and exhibit a broad spectrum of biological activities are of particular interest. These are lipid transfer proteins (LTPs). LTPs are interesting to researchers for three main features. The first feature is the ability of plant LTPs to bind and transfer lipids, whereby these proteins got their name and were combined into one class. The second feature is that LTPs are defense proteins that are components of plant innate immunity. The third feature is that LTPs constitute one of the most clinically important classes of plant allergens. In this review, we summarize the available data on the plant LTP structure, biological properties, diversity of functions, mechanisms of action, and practical applications, emphasizing their role in plant physiology and their significance in human life.
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Affiliation(s)
- E. I. Finkina
- Shemyakin and Ovchinnikov Institute of Bioorganic Chemistry, Miklukho-Maklaya Str. 16/10, 117997 , Moscow, Russia
| | - D. N. Melnikova
- Shemyakin and Ovchinnikov Institute of Bioorganic Chemistry, Miklukho-Maklaya Str. 16/10, 117997 , Moscow, Russia
| | - I. V. Bogdanov
- Shemyakin and Ovchinnikov Institute of Bioorganic Chemistry, Miklukho-Maklaya Str. 16/10, 117997 , Moscow, Russia
| | - T. V. Ovchinnikova
- Shemyakin and Ovchinnikov Institute of Bioorganic Chemistry, Miklukho-Maklaya Str. 16/10, 117997 , Moscow, Russia
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Uhlíková H, Obořil M, Klempová J, Šedo O, Zdráhal Z, Kašparovský T, Skládal P, Lochman J. Elicitin-Induced Distal Systemic Resistance in Plants is Mediated Through the Protein-Protein Interactions Influenced by Selected Lysine Residues. FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2016; 7:59. [PMID: 26904041 PMCID: PMC4742723 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2016.00059] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/25/2015] [Accepted: 01/14/2016] [Indexed: 05/09/2023]
Abstract
Elicitins are a family of small proteins with sterol-binding activity that are secreted by Phytophthora and Pythium sp. classified as oomycete PAMPs. Although α- and β-elicitins bind with the same affinity to one high affinity binding site on the plasma membrane, β-elicitins (possessing 6-7 lysine residues) are generally 50- to 100-fold more active at inducing distal HR and systemic resistance than the α-isoforms (with only 1-3 lysine residues). To examine the role of lysine residues in elicitin biological activity, we employed site-directed mutagenesis to prepare a series of β-elicitin cryptogein variants with mutations on specific lysine residues. In contrast to direct infiltration of protein into leaves, application to the stem revealed a rough correlation between protein's charge and biological activity, resulting in protection against Phytophthora parasitica. A detailed analysis of proteins' movement in plants showed no substantial differences in distribution through phloem indicating differences in consequent apoplastic or symplastic transport. In this process, an important role of homodimer formation together with the ability to form a heterodimer with potential partner represented by endogenous plants LTPs is suggested. Our work demonstrates a key role of selected lysine residues in these interactions and stresses the importance of processes preceding elicitin recognition responsible for induction of distal systemic resistance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hana Uhlíková
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Science, Masaryk UniversityBrno, Czech Republic
| | - Michal Obořil
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Science, Masaryk UniversityBrno, Czech Republic
| | - Jitka Klempová
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Science, Masaryk UniversityBrno, Czech Republic
| | - Ondrej Šedo
- Research Group Proteomics, Central European Institute of Technology, Masaryk UniversityBrno, Czech Republic
- National Centre for Biomolecular Research, Faculty of Science, Masaryk UniversityBrno, Czech Republic
| | - Zbyněk Zdráhal
- Research Group Proteomics, Central European Institute of Technology, Masaryk UniversityBrno, Czech Republic
- National Centre for Biomolecular Research, Faculty of Science, Masaryk UniversityBrno, Czech Republic
| | - Tomáš Kašparovský
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Science, Masaryk UniversityBrno, Czech Republic
| | - Petr Skládal
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Science, Masaryk UniversityBrno, Czech Republic
| | - Jan Lochman
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Science, Masaryk UniversityBrno, Czech Republic
- *Correspondence: Jan Lochman,
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Lerksuthirat T, Lohnoo T, Rujirawat T, Yingyong W, Jongruja N, Krajaejun T. Geographic variation in the elicitin-like glycoprotein, ELI025, of Pythium insidiosum isolated from human and animal subjects. INFECTION GENETICS AND EVOLUTION 2015; 35:127-33. [DOI: 10.1016/j.meegid.2015.08.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/04/2015] [Revised: 07/09/2015] [Accepted: 08/03/2015] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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Lerksuthirat T, Lohnoo T, Inkomlue R, Rujirawat T, Yingyong W, Khositnithikul R, Phaonakrop N, Roytrakul S, Sullivan TD, Krajaejun T. The elicitin-like glycoprotein, ELI025, is secreted by the pathogenic oomycete Pythium insidiosum and evades host antibody responses. PLoS One 2015; 10:e0118547. [PMID: 25793767 PMCID: PMC4368664 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0118547] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/18/2014] [Accepted: 01/20/2015] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Pythium insidiosum is a unique oomycete that can infect humans and animals. Patients with a P. insidiosum infection (pythiosis) have high rates of morbidity and mortality. The pathogen resists conventional antifungal drugs. Information on the biology and pathogenesis of P. insidiosum is limited. Many pathogens secrete proteins, known as effectors, which can affect the host response and promote the infection process. Elicitins are secretory proteins and are found only in the oomycetes, primarily in Phytophthora and Pythium species. In plant-pathogenic oomycetes, elicitins function as pathogen-associated molecular pattern molecules, sterol carriers, and plant defense stimulators. Recently, we reported a number of elicitin-encoding genes from the P. insidiosum transcriptome. The function of elicitins during human infections is unknown. One of the P. insidiosum elicitin-encoding genes, ELI025, is highly expressed and up-regulated at body temperature. This study aims to characterize the biochemical, immunological, and genetic properties of the elicitin protein, ELI025. A 12.4-kDa recombinant ELI025 protein (rELI025) was expressed in Escherichia coli. Rabbit anti-rELI025 antibodies reacted strongly with the native ELI025 in P. insidiosum’s culture medium. The detected ELI025 had two isoforms: glycosylated and non-glycosylated. ELI025 was not immunoreactive with sera from pythiosis patients. The region near the transcriptional start site of ELI025 contained conserved oomycete core promoter elements. In conclusion, ELI025 is a small, abundant, secreted glycoprotein that evades host antibody responses. ELI025 is a promising candidate for development of diagnostic and therapeutic targets for pythiosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tassanee Lerksuthirat
- Department of Pathology, Faculty of Medicine, Ramathibodi Hospital, Mahidol University, Bangkok, Thailand
- Molecular Medicine Program, Multidisciplinary Unit, Faculty of Science, Mahidol University, Bangkok, Thailand
| | - Tassanee Lohnoo
- Research Center, Faculty of Medicine, Ramathibodi Hospital, Mahidol University, Bangkok, Thailand
| | - Ruchuros Inkomlue
- Department of Pathology, Faculty of Medicine, Ramathibodi Hospital, Mahidol University, Bangkok, Thailand
| | - Thidarat Rujirawat
- Research Center, Faculty of Medicine, Ramathibodi Hospital, Mahidol University, Bangkok, Thailand
- Molecular Medicine Program, Multidisciplinary Unit, Faculty of Science, Mahidol University, Bangkok, Thailand
| | - Wanta Yingyong
- Research Center, Faculty of Medicine, Ramathibodi Hospital, Mahidol University, Bangkok, Thailand
| | - Rommanee Khositnithikul
- Department of Pathology, Faculty of Medicine, Ramathibodi Hospital, Mahidol University, Bangkok, Thailand
| | - Narumon Phaonakrop
- Proteomics Research Laboratory, Genome Institute, National Science and Technology Development Agency, Pathum Thani, Thailand
| | - Sittiruk Roytrakul
- Proteomics Research Laboratory, Genome Institute, National Science and Technology Development Agency, Pathum Thani, Thailand
| | - Thomas D. Sullivan
- Department of Pediatrics, School of Medicine and Public Health, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wisconsin, United States of America
| | - Theerapong Krajaejun
- Department of Pathology, Faculty of Medicine, Ramathibodi Hospital, Mahidol University, Bangkok, Thailand
- * E-mail:
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16
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Coursol S, Fromentin J, Noirot E, Brière C, Robert F, Morel J, Liang YK, Lherminier J, Simon-Plas F. Long-chain bases and their phosphorylated derivatives differentially regulate cryptogein-induced production of reactive oxygen species in tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum) BY-2 cells. THE NEW PHYTOLOGIST 2015; 205:1239-1249. [PMID: 25303640 DOI: 10.1111/nph.13094] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/25/2014] [Accepted: 09/06/2014] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
The proteinaceous elicitor cryptogein triggers defence reactions in Nicotiana tabacum (tobacco) through a signalling cascade, including the early production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) by the plasma membrane (PM)-located tobacco respiratory burst oxidase homologue D (NtRbohD). Sphingolipid long-chain bases (LCBs) are emerging as potent positive regulators of plant defence-related mechanisms. This led us to question whether both LCBs and their phosphorylated derivatives (LCB-Ps) are involved in the early signalling process triggered by cryptogein in tobacco BY-2 cells. Here, we showed that cryptogein-induced ROS production was inhibited by LCB kinase (LCBK) inhibitors. Additionally, Arabidopsis thaliana sphingosine kinase 1 and exogenously supplied LCB-Ps increased cryptogein-induced ROS production, whereas exogenously supplied LCBs had a strong opposite effect, which was not driven by a reduction in cellular viability. Immunogold-electron microscopy assay also revealed that LCB-Ps are present in the PM, which fits well with the presence of a high LCBK activity associated with this fraction. Our data demonstrate that LCBs and LCB-Ps differentially regulate cryptogein-induced ROS production in tobacco BY-2 cells, and support a model in which a cooperative synergism between LCBK/LCB-Ps and NtRbohD/ROS in the cryptogein signalling pathway is likely at the PM in tobacco BY-2 cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sylvie Coursol
- INRA, Institut Jean-Pierre Bourgin, UMR 1318, ERL CNRS 3559, Saclay Plant Sciences, RD10, F-78026, Versailles, France
- AgroParisTech, Institut Jean-Pierre Bourgin, UMR 1318, ERL CNRS 3559, Saclay Plant Sciences, RD10, F-78026, Versailles, France
| | - Jérôme Fromentin
- INRA, UMR 1347 Agroécologie, ERL CNRS 6300, BP 86510, F-21065, Dijon Cedex, France
| | - Elodie Noirot
- INRA, UMR 1347 Agroécologie, ERL CNRS 6300, BP 86510, F-21065, Dijon Cedex, France
| | - Christian Brière
- Laboratoire de Recherche en Sciences Végétales, UMR 5546, Université de Toulouse, BP 42617, F-31326, Castanet-Tolosan, France
- Laboratoire de Recherche en Sciences Végétales, CNRS, UMR 5546, BP 42617, F-31326, Castanet-Tolosan, France
| | - Franck Robert
- INRA, UMR 1347 Agroécologie, ERL CNRS 6300, BP 86510, F-21065, Dijon Cedex, France
| | - Johanne Morel
- INRA, UMR 1347 Agroécologie, ERL CNRS 6300, BP 86510, F-21065, Dijon Cedex, France
| | - Yun-Kuan Liang
- State Key Laboratory of Hybrid Rice, College of Life Sciences, Wuhan University, Wuhan, 430072, China
| | - Jeannine Lherminier
- INRA, UMR 1347 Agroécologie, ERL CNRS 6300, BP 86510, F-21065, Dijon Cedex, France
| | - Françoise Simon-Plas
- INRA, UMR 1347 Agroécologie, ERL CNRS 6300, BP 86510, F-21065, Dijon Cedex, France
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Klemptner RL, Sherwood JS, Tugizimana F, Dubery IA, Piater LA. Ergosterol, an orphan fungal microbe-associated molecular pattern (MAMP). MOLECULAR PLANT PATHOLOGY 2014; 15:747-61. [PMID: 24528492 PMCID: PMC6638689 DOI: 10.1111/mpp.12127] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
Fungal pathogens continue to pose a significant threat to crop production and food supply. The early stages of plant-fungus interactions are mostly mediated by microbe-associated molecular pattern (MAMP) molecules, perceived by plant pattern recognition receptors (PRRs). Currently, the identified fungal MAMP molecules include chitin, chitosan, β-glucans, elicitins and ergosterol. Although the molecular battles between host plants and infecting fungal phytopathogens have been studied extensively, many aspects still need to be investigated to obtain a holistic understanding of the intrinsic mechanisms, which is paramount in combating fungal plant diseases. Here, an overview is given of the most recent findings concerning an 'orphan' fungal MAMP molecule, ergosterol, and we present what is currently known from a synopsis of different genes, proteins and metabolites found to play key roles in induced immune responses in plant-fungus interactions. Clearly, integrative investigations are still needed to provide a comprehensive systems-based understanding of the dynamics associated with molecular mechanisms in plant-ergosterol interactions and associated host responses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robyn L Klemptner
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Johannesburg, Johannesburg, 2006, South Africa
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18
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Abstract
Plants are invaded by an array of pathogens of which only a few succeed in causing disease. The attack by others is countered by a sophisticated immune system possessed by the plants. The plant immune system is broadly divided into two, viz. microbial-associated molecular-patterns-triggered immunity (MTI) and effector-triggered immunity (ETI). MTI confers basal resistance, while ETI confers durable resistance, often resulting in hypersensitive response. Plants also possess systemic acquired resistance (SAR), which provides long-term defense against a broad-spectrum of pathogens. Salicylic-acid-mediated systemic acquired immunity provokes the defense response throughout the plant system during pathogen infection at a particular site. Trans-generational immune priming allows the plant to heritably shield their progeny towards pathogens previously encountered. Plants circumvent the viral infection through RNA interference phenomena by utilizing small RNAs. This review summarizes the molecular mechanisms of plant immune system, and the latest breakthroughs reported in plant defense. We discuss the plant–pathogen interactions and integrated defense responses in the context of presenting an integral understanding in plant molecular immunity.
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Das SN, Madhuprakash J, Sarma PVSRN, Purushotham P, Suma K, Manjeet K, Rambabu S, Gueddari NEE, Moerschbacher BM, Podile AR. Biotechnological approaches for field applications of chitooligosaccharides (COS) to induce innate immunity in plants. Crit Rev Biotechnol 2013; 35:29-43. [PMID: 24020506 DOI: 10.3109/07388551.2013.798255] [Citation(s) in RCA: 77] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
Abstract
Plants have evolved mechanisms to recognize a wide range of pathogen-derived molecules and to express induced resistance against pathogen attack. Exploitation of induced resistance, by application of novel bioactive elicitors, is an attractive alternative for crop protection. Chitooligosaccharide (COS) elicitors, released during plant fungal interactions, induce plant defenses upon recognition. Detailed analyses of structure/function relationships of bioactive chitosans as well as recent progress towards understanding the mechanism of COS sensing in plants through the identification and characterization of their cognate receptors have generated fresh impetus for approaches that would induce innate immunity in plants. These progresses combined with the application of chitin/chitosan/COS in disease management are reviewed here. In considering the field application of COS, however, efficient and large-scale production of desired COS is a challenging task. The available methods, including chemical or enzymatic hydrolysis and chemical or biotechnological synthesis to produce COS, are also reviewed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Subha Narayan Das
- Department of Plant Sciences, School of Life Sciences, University of Hyderabad , Hyderabad , India and
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Stong RA, Kolodny E, Kelsey RG, González-Hernández MP, Vivanco JM, Manter DK. Effect of Plant Sterols and Tannins on Phytophthora ramorum Growth and Sporulation. J Chem Ecol 2013; 39:733-43. [DOI: 10.1007/s10886-013-0295-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/08/2012] [Revised: 04/24/2013] [Accepted: 04/28/2013] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
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21
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Kopischke M, Westphal L, Schneeberger K, Clark R, Ossowski S, Wewer V, Fuchs R, Landtag J, Hause G, Dörmann P, Lipka V, Weigel D, Schulze-Lefert P, Scheel D, Rosahl S. Impaired sterol ester synthesis alters the response of Arabidopsis thaliana to Phytophthora infestans. THE PLANT JOURNAL : FOR CELL AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2013; 73:456-68. [PMID: 23072470 DOI: 10.1111/tpj.12046] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/24/2012] [Revised: 10/03/2012] [Accepted: 10/04/2012] [Indexed: 05/06/2023]
Abstract
Non-host resistance of Arabidopsis thaliana against Phytophthora infestans, the causal agent of late blight disease of potato, depends on efficient extracellular pre- and post-invasive resistance responses. Pre-invasive resistance against P. infestans requires the myrosinase PEN2. To identify additional genes involved in non-host resistance to P. infestans, a genetic screen was performed by re-mutagenesis of pen2 plants. Fourteen independent mutants were isolated that displayed an enhanced response to Phytophthora (erp) phenotype. Upon inoculation with P. infestans, two mutants, pen2-1 erp1-3 and pen2-1 erp1-4, showed an enhanced rate of mesophyll cell death and produced excessive callose deposits in the mesophyll cell layer. ERP1 encodes a phospholipid:sterol acyltransferase (PSAT1) that catalyzes the formation of sterol esters. Consistent with this, the tested T-DNA insertion lines of PSAT1 are phenocopies of erp1 plants. Sterol ester levels are highly reduced in all erp1/psat1 mutants, whereas sterol glycoside levels are increased twofold. Excessive callose deposition occurred independently of PMR4/GSL5 activity, a known pathogen-inducible callose synthase. A similar formation of aberrant callose deposits was triggered by the inoculation of erp1 psat1 plants with powdery mildew. These results suggest a role for sterol conjugates in cell non-autonomous defense responses against invasive filamentous pathogens.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michaela Kopischke
- Department of Stress and Developmental Biology, Leibniz Institute of Plant Biochemistry, Weinberg 3, D-06120, Halle (Saale), Germany
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22
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Dokládal L, Obořil M, Stejskal K, Zdráhal Z, Ptáčková N, Chaloupková R, Damborský J, Kašparovský T, Jeandroz S, Žd'árská M, Lochman J. Physiological and proteomic approaches to evaluate the role of sterol binding in elicitin-induced resistance. JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL BOTANY 2012; 63:2203-15. [PMID: 22223811 PMCID: PMC3295402 DOI: 10.1093/jxb/err427] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/09/2011] [Revised: 11/28/2011] [Accepted: 11/30/2011] [Indexed: 05/22/2023]
Abstract
Cryptogein is a proteinaceous elicitor secreted by Phytophthora cryptogea that can induce resistance to P. parasitica in tobacco plants. On the basis of previous computer modelling experiments, by site-directed mutagenesis a series of cryptogein variants was prepared with altered abilities to bind sterols, phospholipids or both. The sterol binding and phospholipid transfer activities corresponded well with the previously reported structural data. Induction of the synthesis of reactive oxygen species (ROS) in tobacco cells in suspension and proteomic analysis of intercellular fluid changes in tobacco leaves triggered by these mutant proteins were not proportional to their ability to bind or transfer sterols and phospholipids. However, changes in the intercellular proteome corresponded to transcription levels of defence genes and resistance to P. parasitica and structure-prediction of mutants did not reveal any significant changes in protein structure. These results suggest, contrary to previous proposals, that the sterol-binding ability of cryptogein and its mutants, and the associated conformational change in the ω-loop, might not be principal factors in either ROS production or resistance induction. Nevertheless, the results support the importance of the ω-loop for the interaction of the protein with the high affinity binding site on the plasma membrane.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ladislav Dokládal
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Science, Masaryk University, Kotlářská 2, 61137 Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Michal Obořil
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Science, Masaryk University, Kotlářská 2, 61137 Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Karel Stejskal
- Core Facility–Proteomics, Central European Institute of Technology (CEITEC), Masaryk University, Kamenice 5, 62500 Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Zbyněk Zdráhal
- Core Facility–Proteomics, Central European Institute of Technology (CEITEC), Masaryk University, Kamenice 5, 62500 Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Nikola Ptáčková
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Science, Masaryk University, Kotlářská 2, 61137 Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Radka Chaloupková
- Loschmidt Laboratories, Department of Experimental Biology and Research Centre for Toxic Substances in the Environment, Faculty of Science, Masaryk University, Kotlářská 2, 61137 Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Jiří Damborský
- Loschmidt Laboratories, Department of Experimental Biology and Research Centre for Toxic Substances in the Environment, Faculty of Science, Masaryk University, Kotlářská 2, 61137 Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Tomáš Kašparovský
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Science, Masaryk University, Kotlářská 2, 61137 Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Sylvain Jeandroz
- UMR AgroSup Dijon/CNRS/INRA/Université Bourgogne “Agroécologie”, 17 rue Sully, BP 86510, F-21065 Dijon cedex, France
| | - Markéta Žd'árská
- Core Facility–Proteomics, Central European Institute of Technology (CEITEC), Masaryk University, Kamenice 5, 62500 Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Jan Lochman
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Science, Masaryk University, Kotlářská 2, 61137 Brno, Czech Republic
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Peng DH, Qiu DW, Ruan LF, Zhou CF, Sun M. Protein elicitor PemG1 from Magnaporthe grisea induces systemic acquired resistance (SAR) in plants. MOLECULAR PLANT-MICROBE INTERACTIONS : MPMI 2011; 24:1239-46. [PMID: 21770770 DOI: 10.1094/mpmi-01-11-0003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/09/2023]
Abstract
Elicitors can stimulate defense responses in plants and have become a popular strategy in plant disease control. Previously, we isolated a novel protein elicitor, PemG1, from Magnaporthe grisea. In the present study, PemG1 protein expressed in and purified from Escherichia coli improved resistance of rice and Arabidopsis to bacterial infection, induced transient expression of pathogenesis-related (PR) genes, and increased accumulation of hydrogen peroxide in rice. The effects of PemG1 on disease resistance and PR gene expression were mobilized systemically throughout the rice plant and persisted for more than 28 days. PemG1-induced accumulation of OsPR-1a in rice was prevented by the calcium channel blockers LaCl₃, BAPTA, EGTA, W7, and TFP. Arabidopsis mutants that are insensitive to jasmonic acid (JA) and ethylene showed increased resistance to bacterial infection after PemG1 treatment but PemG1 did not affect resistance of mutants with an impaired salicylic acid (SA) transduction pathway. In rice, PemG1 induced overexpressions of the SA signal-related genes (OsEDS1, OsPAL1, and OsNH1) but not the JA pathway-related genes (OsLOX2 and OsAOS2). Our findings reveal that PemG1 protein can function as an activator of plant disease resistance, and the PemG1-mediated systemic acquired resistance is modulated by SA- and Ca(2+)-related signaling pathways.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dong-Hai Peng
- State Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbio,ogy, College of Life Science and Technology, Huazhong Agricultural University. Wuahn 430070, China
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Escape of intracellular Shigella from autophagy requires binding to cholesterol through the type III effector, IcsB. Microbes Infect 2010; 12:956-66. [PMID: 20599519 DOI: 10.1016/j.micinf.2010.06.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/24/2010] [Revised: 06/16/2010] [Accepted: 06/17/2010] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Type III secretion systems are present in many pathogenic bacteria and mediate the translocation of bacterial effectors into host cells. Identification of host targets of these effectors is crucial for understanding bacterial virulence. IcsB, a type III secretion effector, helps Shigella to evade the host autophagy defense system by binding to the autophagy protein, Atg5. Here, we show that IcsB is able to interact specifically with cholesterol. The cholesterol binding domain (CBD) of IcsB is located between residues 288 and 351. Specific mutations of single tyrosine residues Y297 or Y340 of IcsB by phenylalanine (F) slightly reduced cholesterol binding, whereas deletion of the entire CBD or double mutation Y297F-Y340F strongly abolished interactions with cholesterol. To determine whether Shigella expressing IcsB variants could evade autophagy as effectively as the wild-type Shigella, we infected MDAMC cells stably expressing the autophagy marker LC3 fused to GFP and bacterial autophagosome formation was quantified using fluorescence microscopy. Mutation Y297F or Y340F slightly impaired IcsB function, whereas complete removal of CBD or mutation Y297F-Y340F significantly impaired autophagy evasion. Furthermore, we report that BopA, the counterpart of IcsB in Burkholderia pseudomallei with similar autophagy-evading properties, contains the CBD domain and is also able to bind cholesterol.
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Gaulin E, Bottin A, Dumas B. Sterol biosynthesis in oomycete pathogens. PLANT SIGNALING & BEHAVIOR 2010; 5:258-60. [PMID: 20023385 PMCID: PMC2881271 DOI: 10.4161/psb.5.3.10551] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/09/2009] [Accepted: 11/09/2009] [Indexed: 05/20/2023]
Abstract
Oomycetes are a diverse group of filamentous eukaryotic microbes comprising devastating animal and plant pathogens. They share many characteristics with fungi, including polarized hyphal extension and production of spores, but phylogenetics studies have clearly placed oomycetes outside the fungal kingdom, in the kingdom Stramenopila which also includes marine organisms such as diatoms and brown algae. Oomycetes display various specific biochemical features, including sterol metabolism. Sterols are essential isoprenoid compounds involved in membrane function and hormone signaling. Oomycetes belonging to Peronosporales, such as Phytophthora sp., are unable to synthesize their own sterols and must acquire them from their plant or animal hosts. In contrast, a combination of biochemical and molecular approaches allowed us to decipher a nearly complete sterol biosynthetic pathway leading to fucosterol in the legume pathogen Aphanomyces euteiches, an oomycete belonging to Saprolegniales. Importantly, sterol demethylase, a key enzyme from this pathway, is susceptible to chemicals widely used in agriculture and medicine as antifungal drugs, suggesting that similar products could be used against plant and animal diseases caused by Saprolegniales.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elodie Gaulin
- Université de Toulouse, UPS, Surfaces Cellulaires et Signalisation chez les Végétaux, Auzeville, Castanet-Tolosan, France
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Stanislas T, Bouyssie D, Rossignol M, Vesa S, Fromentin J, Morel J, Pichereaux C, Monsarrat B, Simon-Plas F. Quantitative proteomics reveals a dynamic association of proteins to detergent-resistant membranes upon elicitor signaling in tobacco. Mol Cell Proteomics 2009; 8:2186-98. [PMID: 19525550 PMCID: PMC2742443 DOI: 10.1074/mcp.m900090-mcp200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 70] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/19/2009] [Revised: 06/02/2009] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
A large body of evidence from the past decade supports the existence, in membrane from animal and yeast cells, of functional microdomains playing important roles in protein sorting, signal transduction, or infection by pathogens. In plants, as previously observed for animal microdomains, detergent-resistant fractions, enriched in sphingolipids and sterols, were isolated from plasma membrane. A characterization of their proteic content revealed their enrichment in proteins involved in signaling and response to biotic and abiotic stress and cell trafficking suggesting that these domains were likely to be involved in such physiological processes. In the present study, we used (14)N/(15)N metabolic labeling to compare, using a global quantitative proteomics approach, the content of tobacco detergent-resistant membranes extracted from cells treated or not with cryptogein, an elicitor of defense reaction. To analyze the data, we developed a software allowing an automatic quantification of the proteins identified. The results obtained indicate that, although the association to detergent-resistant membranes of most proteins remained unchanged upon cryptogein treatment, five proteins had their relative abundance modified. Four proteins related to cell trafficking (four dynamins) were less abundant in the detergent-resistant membrane fraction after cryptogein treatment, whereas one signaling protein (a 14-3-3 protein) was enriched. This analysis indicates that plant microdomains could, like their animal counterpart, play a role in the early signaling process underlying the setup of defense reaction. Furthermore proteins identified as differentially associated to tobacco detergent-resistant membranes after cryptogein challenge are involved in signaling and vesicular trafficking as already observed in similar studies performed in animal cells upon biological stimuli. This suggests that the ways by which the dynamic association of proteins to microdomains could participate in the regulation of the signaling process may be conserved between plant and animals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas Stanislas
- From the ‡Institut National de la Recherche Agronomique (INRA), Unité Mixte de Recherche (UMR) Plante Microbe Environnement 1088/CNRS 5184/Université de Bourgogne, 17 Rue Sully, BP 86510 F-21000 Dijon, France
| | - David Bouyssie
- ¶Institut de Pharmacologie et de Biologie Structurale (IPBS), CNRS, 205 route de Narbonne, F-31077 Toulouse, France
- ‖IPBS, Université Paul Sabatier, Université de Toulouse, F-31077 Toulouse, France, and
| | - Michel Rossignol
- ¶Institut de Pharmacologie et de Biologie Structurale (IPBS), CNRS, 205 route de Narbonne, F-31077 Toulouse, France
- ‖IPBS, Université Paul Sabatier, Université de Toulouse, F-31077 Toulouse, France, and
- **IPBS, Institut Fédératif de Recherche 40 Plateforme Protéomique, 205 route de Narbonne, F-31077 Toulouse, France
| | - Simona Vesa
- From the ‡Institut National de la Recherche Agronomique (INRA), Unité Mixte de Recherche (UMR) Plante Microbe Environnement 1088/CNRS 5184/Université de Bourgogne, 17 Rue Sully, BP 86510 F-21000 Dijon, France
| | - Jérôme Fromentin
- From the ‡Institut National de la Recherche Agronomique (INRA), Unité Mixte de Recherche (UMR) Plante Microbe Environnement 1088/CNRS 5184/Université de Bourgogne, 17 Rue Sully, BP 86510 F-21000 Dijon, France
| | - Johanne Morel
- From the ‡Institut National de la Recherche Agronomique (INRA), Unité Mixte de Recherche (UMR) Plante Microbe Environnement 1088/CNRS 5184/Université de Bourgogne, 17 Rue Sully, BP 86510 F-21000 Dijon, France
| | - Carole Pichereaux
- ¶Institut de Pharmacologie et de Biologie Structurale (IPBS), CNRS, 205 route de Narbonne, F-31077 Toulouse, France
- ‖IPBS, Université Paul Sabatier, Université de Toulouse, F-31077 Toulouse, France, and
- **IPBS, Institut Fédératif de Recherche 40 Plateforme Protéomique, 205 route de Narbonne, F-31077 Toulouse, France
| | - Bernard Monsarrat
- ¶Institut de Pharmacologie et de Biologie Structurale (IPBS), CNRS, 205 route de Narbonne, F-31077 Toulouse, France
- ‖IPBS, Université Paul Sabatier, Université de Toulouse, F-31077 Toulouse, France, and
| | - Françoise Simon-Plas
- From the ‡Institut National de la Recherche Agronomique (INRA), Unité Mixte de Recherche (UMR) Plante Microbe Environnement 1088/CNRS 5184/Université de Bourgogne, 17 Rue Sully, BP 86510 F-21000 Dijon, France
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Svozilová Z, Kasparovský T, Skládal P, Lochman J. Interaction of cryptogein with its binding sites in tobacco plasma membrane studied using the piezoelectric biosensor. Anal Biochem 2009; 390:115-20. [PMID: 19374882 DOI: 10.1016/j.ab.2009.04.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/14/2009] [Revised: 04/09/2009] [Accepted: 04/10/2009] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Elicitins are low-molecular-weight proteins representing the elicitor family secreted by many species of the oomycete Phytophthora. Elicitins induce a hypersensitive reaction in tobacco, a process that is triggered by binding of elicitin to the high-affinity site on the plasma membrane. Specific interaction of cryptogein with the binding sites on tobacco plasma membranes was studied using the piezoelectric biosensor in real time in a flow-through mode. Cryptogeins (wild-type and mutant forms) were covalently immobilized on the sensing surface, and membrane vesicles containing receptors were in solution. Kinetic characterization of the interaction provided values of kinetic rate association (k(a))=5.74 . 10(6)M(1)s(-1) and kinetic rate dissociation (k(d))=6.8710(-4)s(-1) constants, respectively. The kinetic equilibrium dissociation constant was calculated as K(D)=12.0 nM. The piezoelectric biosensor appeared to be a convenient tool for studying interactions of receptors embedded in membrane vesicles.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zuzana Svozilová
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Science, Masaryk University, 61137 Brno, Czech Republic
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Stigmasterol and Cholesterol Regulate the Expression of Elicitin Genes in Phytophthora sojae. J Chem Ecol 2009; 35:824-32. [DOI: 10.1007/s10886-009-9653-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/05/2009] [Revised: 05/21/2009] [Accepted: 06/11/2009] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
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Lherminier J, Elmayan T, Fromentin J, Elaraqui KT, Vesa S, Morel J, Verrier JL, Cailleteau B, Blein JP, Simon-Plas F. NADPH oxidase-mediated reactive oxygen species production: subcellular localization and reassessment of its role in plant defense. MOLECULAR PLANT-MICROBE INTERACTIONS : MPMI 2009; 22:868-81. [PMID: 19522569 DOI: 10.1094/mpmi-22-7-0868] [Citation(s) in RCA: 66] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/19/2023]
Abstract
Chemiluminescence detection of reactive oxygen species (ROS) triggered in tobacco BY-2 cells by the fungal elicitor cryptogein was previously demonstrated to be abolished in cells transformed with an antisense construct of the plasma membrane NADPH oxidase, NtrbohD. Here, using electron microscopy, it has been confirmed that the first hydrogen peroxide production occurring a few minutes after challenge of tobacco cells with cryptogein is plasma membrane located and NtrbohD mediated. Furthermore, the presence of NtrbohD in detergent-resistant membrane fractions could be associated with the presence of NtrbohD-mediated hydrogen peroxide patches along the plasma membrane. Comparison of the subcellular localization of ROS in wild-type tobacco and in plants transformed with antisense constructs of NtrbohD revealed that this enzyme is also responsible for the hydrogen peroxide production occurring at the plasma membrane after infiltration of tobacco leaves with cryptogein. Finally, the reactivity of wild-type and transformed plants to the elicitor and their resistance against the pathogenic oomycete Phytophthora parasitica were examined. NtrbohD-mediated hydrogen peroxide production does not seem determinant for either hypersensitive response development or the establishment of acquired resistance but it is most likely involved in the signaling pathways associated with the protection of the plant cell.
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Hein I, Gilroy EM, Armstrong MR, Birch PRJ. The zig-zag-zig in oomycete-plant interactions. MOLECULAR PLANT PATHOLOGY 2009; 10:547-62. [PMID: 19523107 PMCID: PMC6640229 DOI: 10.1111/j.1364-3703.2009.00547.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 94] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/17/2023]
Abstract
In addition to a range of preformed barriers, plants defend themselves against microbial invasion by detecting conserved, secreted molecules, called pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs). PAMP-triggered immunity (PTI) is the first inducible layer of plant defence that microbial pathogens must navigate by the delivery of effector proteins that act to suppress or otherwise manipulate key components of resistance. Effectors may themselves be targeted by a further layer of defence, effector-triggered immunity (ETI), as their presence inside or outside host cells may be detected by resistance proteins. This 'zig-zag-zig' of tightly co-evolving molecular interactions determines the outcome of attempted infection. In this article, we consider the complex molecular interplay between plants and plant pathogenic oomycetes, drawing on recent literature to illustrate what is known about oomycete PAMPs and elicitors of defence responses, the effectors they utilize to suppress PTI, and the phenomenal molecular 'battle' between effector and resistance (R) genes that dictates the establishment or evasion of ETI.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ingo Hein
- Scottish Crop Research Institute, Invergowrie, Dundee, UK
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Plant systems for recognition of pathogen-associated molecular patterns. Semin Cell Dev Biol 2009; 20:1025-31. [PMID: 19540353 DOI: 10.1016/j.semcdb.2009.06.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 80] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/22/2009] [Revised: 06/05/2009] [Accepted: 06/09/2009] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Research of the last decade has revealed that plant immunity consists of different layers of defense that have evolved by the co-evolutional battle of plants with its pathogens. Particular light has been shed on PAMP- (pathogen-associated molecular pattern) triggered immunity (PTI) mediated by pattern recognition receptors. Striking similarities exist between the plant and animal innate immune system that point for a common optimized mechanism that has evolved independently in both kingdoms. Pattern recognition receptors (PRRs) from both kingdoms consist of leucine-rich repeat receptor complexes that allow recognition of invading pathogens at the cell surface. In plants, PRRs like FLS2 and EFR are controlled by a co-receptor SERK3/BAK1, also a leucine-rich repeat receptor that dimerizes with the PRRs to support their function. Pathogens can inject effector proteins into the plant cells to suppress the immune responses initiated after perception of PAMPs by PRRs via inhibition or degradation of the receptors. Plants have acquired the ability to recognize the presence of some of these effector proteins which leads to a quick and hypersensitive response to arrest and terminate pathogen growth.
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Boller T, Felix G. A renaissance of elicitors: perception of microbe-associated molecular patterns and danger signals by pattern-recognition receptors. ANNUAL REVIEW OF PLANT BIOLOGY 2009; 60:379-406. [PMID: 19400727 DOI: 10.1146/annurev.arplant.57.032905.105346] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1894] [Impact Index Per Article: 126.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/17/2023]
Abstract
Microbe-associated molecular patterns (MAMPs) are molecular signatures typical of whole classes of microbes, and their recognition plays a key role in innate immunity. Endogenous elicitors are similarly recognized as damage-associated molecular patterns (DAMPs). This review focuses on the diversity of MAMPs/DAMPs and on progress to identify the corresponding pattern recognition receptors (PRRs) in plants. The two best-characterized MAMP/PRR pairs, flagellin/FLS2 and EF-Tu/EFR, are discussed in detail and put into a phylogenetic perspective. Both FLS2 and EFR are leucine-rich repeat receptor kinases (LRR-RKs). Upon treatment with flagellin, FLS2 forms a heteromeric complex with BAK1, an LRR-RK that also acts as coreceptor for the brassinolide receptor BRI1. The importance of MAMP/PRR signaling for plant immunity is highlighted by the finding that plant pathogens use effectors to inhibit PRR complexes or downstream signaling events. Current evidence indicates that MAMPs, DAMPs, and effectors are all perceived as danger signals and induce a stereotypic defense response.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas Boller
- Botanisches Institut, Universität Basel, CH 4056 Basel, Switzerland.
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Lascombe MB, Bakan B, Buhot N, Marion D, Blein JP, Larue V, Lamb C, Prangé T. The structure of "defective in induced resistance" protein of Arabidopsis thaliana, DIR1, reveals a new type of lipid transfer protein. Protein Sci 2008; 17:1522-30. [PMID: 18552128 PMCID: PMC2525531 DOI: 10.1110/ps.035972.108] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/24/2008] [Revised: 06/13/2008] [Accepted: 06/13/2008] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
Screening of transfer DNA (tDNA) tagged lines of Arabidopsis thaliana for mutants defective in systemic acquired resistance led to the characterization of dir1-1 (defective in induced resistance [systemic acquired resistance, SAR]) mutant. It has been suggested that the protein encoded by the dir1 gene, i.e., DIR1, is involved in the long distance signaling associated with SAR. DIR1 displays the cysteine signature of lipid transfer proteins, suggesting that the systemic signal could be lipid molecules. However, previous studies have shown that this signature is not sufficient to define a lipid transfer protein, i.e., a protein capable of binding lipids. In this context, the lipid binding properties and the structure of a DIR1-lipid complex were both determined by fluorescence and X-ray diffraction. DIR1 is able to bind with high affinity two monoacylated phospholipids (dissociation constant in the nanomolar range), mainly lysophosphatidyl cholines, side-by-side in a large internal tunnel. Although DIR1 shares some structural and lipid binding properties with plant LTP2, it displays some specific features that define DIR1 as a new type of plant lipid transfer protein. The signaling function associated with DIR1 may be related to a specific lipid transport that needs to be characterized and to an additional mechanism of recognition by a putative receptor, as the structure displays on the surface the characteristic PxxP structural motif reminiscent of SH3 domain signaling pathways.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marie-Bernard Lascombe
- Université Paris Descartes, CNRS, Laboratoire de Cristallographie et RMN Biologiques (UMR 8015), Paris 75006, France
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Chaturvedi R, Krothapalli K, Makandar R, Nandi A, Sparks AA, Roth MR, Welti R, Shah J. Plastid omega3-fatty acid desaturase-dependent accumulation of a systemic acquired resistance inducing activity in petiole exudates of Arabidopsis thaliana is independent of jasmonic acid. THE PLANT JOURNAL : FOR CELL AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2008; 54:106-17. [PMID: 18088304 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-313x.2007.03400.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/03/2023]
Abstract
Systemic acquired resistance (SAR) is an inducible defense mechanism that is activated throughout the plant, subsequent to localized inoculation with a pathogen. The establishment of SAR requires translocation of an unknown signal from the pathogen-inoculated leaf to the distal organs, where salicylic acid-dependent defenses are activated. We demonstrate here that petiole exudates (PeXs) collected from Arabidopsis leaves inoculated with an avirulent (Avr) Pseudomonas syringae strain promote resistance when applied to Arabidopsis, tomato (Lycopersicum esculentum) and wheat (Triticum aestivum). Arabidopsis FATTY ACID DESATURASE7 (FAD7), SUPPRESSOR OF FATTY ACID DESATURASE DEFICIENCY1 (SFD1) and SFD2 genes are required for accumulation of the SAR-inducing activity. In contrast to Avr PeX from wild-type plants, Avr PeXs from fad7, sfd1 and sfd2 mutants were unable to activate SAR when applied to wild-type plants. However, the SAR-inducing activity was reconstituted by mixing Avr PeXs collected from fad7 and sfd1 with Avr PeX from the SAR-deficient dir1 mutant. Since FAD7, SFD1 and SFD2 are involved in plastid glycerolipid biosynthesis and SAR is also compromised in the Arabidopsis monogalactosyldiacylglycerol synthase1 mutant we suggest that a plastid glycerolipid-dependent factor is required in Avr PeX along with the DIR1-encoded lipid transfer protein for long-distance signaling in SAR. FAD7-synthesized lipids provide fatty acids for synthesis of jasmonic acid (JA). However, co-infiltration of JA and methylJA with Avr PeX from fad7 and sfd1 did not reconstitute the SAR-inducing activity. In addition, JA did not co-purify with the SAR-inducing activity confirming that JA is not the mobile signal in SAR.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ratnesh Chaturvedi
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of North Texas, Denton, TX 76203, USA
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Attard A, Gourgues M, Galiana E, Panabières F, Ponchet M, Keller H. Strategies of attack and defense in plant-oomycete interactions, accentuated for Phytophthora parasitica Dastur (syn. P. Nicotianae Breda de Haan). JOURNAL OF PLANT PHYSIOLOGY 2008; 165:83-94. [PMID: 17766006 DOI: 10.1016/j.jplph.2007.06.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/06/2007] [Revised: 06/11/2007] [Accepted: 07/12/2007] [Indexed: 05/17/2023]
Abstract
Oomycetes from the genus Phytophthora are fungus-like plant pathogens that are devastating for agriculture and natural ecosystems. Due to their particular physiological characteristics, no efficient treatments against diseases caused by these microorganisms are presently available. To develop such treatments, it appears essential to dissect the molecular mechanisms that determine the interaction between Phytophthora species and host plants. Available data are scarce, and genomic approaches were mainly developed for the two species, Phytophthora infestans and Phytophthora sojae. However, these two species are exceptions from, rather than representative species for, the genus. P. infestans is a foliar pathogen, and P. sojae infects a narrow range of host plants, while the majority of Phytophthora species are quite unselective, root-infecting pathogens. To represent this majority, Phytophthora parasitica emerges as a model for the genus, and genomic resources for analyzing its interaction with plants are developing. The aim of this review is to assemble current knowledge on cytological and molecular processes that are underlying plant-pathogen interactions involving Phytophthora species and in particular P. parasitica, and to place them into the context of a hypothetical scheme of co-evolution between the pathogen and the host.
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Affiliation(s)
- Agnès Attard
- Unité Mixte de Recherches, Interactions Plantes-Microorganismes et Santé Végétale, INRA1064-CNRS6192-UNSA, BP 167, 400 Route des Chappes, 06903 Sophia Antipolis, France
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Judelson HS. Genomics of the plant pathogenic oomycete Phytophthora: insights into biology and evolution. ADVANCES IN GENETICS 2007; 57:97-141. [PMID: 17352903 DOI: 10.1016/s0065-2660(06)57003-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/23/2023]
Abstract
The genus Phytophthora includes many destructive pathogens of plants. Although having "fungus-like" appearances, Phytophthora species reside in a eukaryotic kingdom separate from that of true fungi. Distinct strategies are therefore required to study and defend against Phytophthora. Large sequence databases have recently been developed for several species, and tools for functional genomics have been enhanced. This chapter will review current progress in understanding the genome and transcriptome of Phytophthora, and provide examples of how genomics resources are advancing molecular studies of pathogenesis, development, transcription, and evolution. A better understanding of these remarkable pathogens should lead to new approaches for managing their diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Howard S Judelson
- Department of Plant Pathology, Center for Plant Cell Biology, University of California, Riverside, California 92521, USA
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Da Silva P, Landon C, Beltoise R, Ponchet M, Vovelle F. Accessibility of tobacco lipid transfer protein cavity revealed by 15N NMR relaxation studies and molecular dynamics simulations. Proteins 2006; 64:124-32. [PMID: 16555311 DOI: 10.1002/prot.20971] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Plant LTP1 are small helical proteins stabilized by four disulfide bridges and are characterized by the presence of an internal cavity, in which various hydrophobic ligands can be inserted. Recently, we have determined the solution structure of the recombinant tobacco LTP1_1. Unexpectedly, despite a global fold very similar to the structures already known for cereal seed LTP1, its binding properties are different: Tobacco LTP1_1 is able to bind only one monoacylated lipid, whereas cereal LTP1 can bind either one or two. The 3D structure of tobacco LTP1_1 revealed the presence of a hydrophobic cluster, not observed on cereal LTP1 structures, which may hinder one of the two entrances of the cavity defined for wheat LTP1. To better understand the mechanism of lipid entrance for tobacco LTP1_1 and to define the regions of the protein monitoring the accessibility of the cavity, we have complemented our structural data by the study of the internal dynamics of tobacco LTP1_1, using (15)N magnetic relaxation rate data and MD simulations at room and high temperatures. This work allowed us to define two regions of the protein experiencing the largest motions. These two regions delineate a portal that opens up during the simulation constituting a unique entrance of the hydrophobic cavity, in contrast with wheat LTP1 where two routes were detected. The hydrophobic interactions resulting from a few point mutations are strong enough to completely block the second portal so that the accessibility of the cavity is restricted to one entrance, explaining why this particular LTP1 binds only one lipid molecule.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pedro Da Silva
- Centre de Biophysique Moléculaire, UPR 4301 CNRS affiliated to Orléans University, Orléans, France
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Berthault P, Huber G, Ha PT, Dubois L, Desvaux H, Guittet E. Study of the hydrophobic cavity of beta-cryptogein through laser-polarized xenon NMR spectroscopy. Chembiochem 2006; 7:59-64. [PMID: 16292784 DOI: 10.1002/cbic.200500140] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Abstract
The interaction of xenon with beta-cryptogein, a basic 10 kDa protein belonging to the elicitin family, has been studied by using dissolved thermal and laser-polarized gas in liquid-state NMR. 13C and 1H chemical-shift-mapping experiments were unfruitful, the proton lines only experienced a slight narrowing but no significant frequency variation when the xenon concentration was increased. Nevertheless magnetization transfer from hyperpolarized xenon to protons of the protein demonstrates an undoubted interaction and enables localization of the noble-gas-binding site. Due to the proton-proton cross-relaxation efficiency, however, this experiment is subjected to important spin-diffusion. An automatic procedure that takes spin-diffusion into account when assigning the protons that interact with xenon is then used. The binding site, as defined by 30 Xe--H interactions, is situated in the inner core of the protein. The protons that interact with xenon border the channel by which sterols are known to enter into the cavity. These results support the idea that xenon is a good probe for hydrophobic protein regions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patrick Berthault
- Laboratoire Structure et Dynamique par Résonance Magnétique, DSM/DRECAM/Service de Chimie Moléculaire, URA CEA/CNRS 331, CEA/Saclay, 91191 Gif sur Yvette, France.
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Sharathchandra RG, Geetha NP, Amruthesh KN, Kini KR, Sarosh BR, Shetty NP, Shetty HS. Isolation and characterisation of a protein elicitor from Sclerospora graminicola and elicitor-mediated induction of defence responses in cultured cells of Pennisetum glaucum. FUNCTIONAL PLANT BIOLOGY : FPB 2006; 33:267-278. [PMID: 32689234 DOI: 10.1071/fp05197] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/08/2005] [Accepted: 10/10/2005] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Sclerospora graminicola (Sacc.) Schroet., an oomycete pathogen of Pennisetum glaucum (L.) R.Br. infects the meristematic tissues of young seedlings. The motile zoospores from the sporangia encyst, germinate and penetrate the plant tissue. Resistance to the invading pathogen is governed by the specific recognition of conserved pathogen-associated proteins or elicitors. In the present study, a zoospore protein was isolated and purified to homogeneity by a combination of size exclusion and high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). The crude fractionated protein was able to elicit an array of defence responses in resistant and susceptible cells of pearl millet. Treatment of cultured cells of pearl millet with partially purified elicitor protein resulted in a rapid loss of cell viability in the resistant cells and the percentage of cell death was higher in the resistant than in the susceptible cells. Cultures of resistant cells showed a sharp increase in the extra cellular pH compared with susceptible cells when treated with the crude elicitor. Increased oxidative burst was also recorded in the cells treated with the crude elicitor. The purified elicitor showed unique properties. The purified protein was acidic with a pI of 5.6 as revealed by isoelectric focusing (IEF) and matrix-assisted laser desorption ionisation (MALDI) analysis showed that the elicitor had a molecular mass of 7040 daltons. The primary structure determined by N-terminal Edman degradation and searches with BLAST did not reveal similarities to any known plant pathogenic or oomycete elicitor. Higher activities of the important defence-related enzymes phenylalanine ammonia lyase (PAL) and peroxidase in the resistant cell cultures than in the susceptible cell cultures treated with the purified elicitor were clearly evident. Studies of gene expression by northern blotting with heterologus peroxidase, PAL and oxalate oxidase probes showed that the mRNA transcripts were strongly up-regulated in resistant cell cultures within 30 min of elicitor treatment. The purified elicitor also demonstrated a very strong concentration-dependent sterol binding. The purified elicitor protein belongs to a class of low molecular weight oomycete elicitors with sterol carrier properties. The identified low molecular weight protein elicitor displays unique properties that can be exploited for synthesis of novel molecules for eco-friendly crop protection.
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Affiliation(s)
- R G Sharathchandra
- Downy Mildew Research Laboratory, Department of Studies in Applied Botany and Biotechnology, University of Mysore, Manasagangotri Mysore-570 006, India
| | - N P Geetha
- Downy Mildew Research Laboratory, Department of Studies in Applied Botany and Biotechnology, University of Mysore, Manasagangotri Mysore-570 006, India
| | - K N Amruthesh
- Downy Mildew Research Laboratory, Department of Studies in Applied Botany and Biotechnology, University of Mysore, Manasagangotri Mysore-570 006, India
| | - K Ramachandra Kini
- Downy Mildew Research Laboratory, Department of Studies in Applied Botany and Biotechnology, University of Mysore, Manasagangotri Mysore-570 006, India
| | - B R Sarosh
- Downy Mildew Research Laboratory, Department of Studies in Applied Botany and Biotechnology, University of Mysore, Manasagangotri Mysore-570 006, India
| | - N P Shetty
- Section for Plant Pathology, The Royal Veterinary and Agricultural University, Thorvaldsensvej 40, DK-1871 Frederiksberg C, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - H S Shetty
- Downy Mildew Research Laboratory, Department of Studies in Applied Botany and Biotechnology, University of Mysore, Manasagangotri Mysore-570 006, India
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Abstract
The oomycetes form a phylogenetically distinct group of eukaryotic microorganisms that includes some of the most notorious pathogens of plants. Oomycetes accomplish parasitic colonization of plants by modulating host cell defenses through an array of disease effector proteins. The biology of effectors is poorly understood but tremendous progress has been made in recent years. This review classifies and catalogues the effector secretome of oomycetes. Two classes of effectors target distinct sites in the host plant: Apoplastic effectors are secreted into the plant extracellular space, and cytoplasmic effectors are translocated inside the plant cell, where they target different subcellular compartments. Considering that five species are undergoing genome sequencing and annotation, we are rapidly moving toward genome-wide catalogues of oomycete effectors. Already, it is evident that the effector secretome of pathogenic oomycetes is more complex than expected, with perhaps several hundred proteins dedicated to manipulating host cell structure and function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sophien Kamoun
- Department of Plant Pathology, Ohio State University, Ohio Agricultural Research and Development Center, Wooster, Ohio 44691, USA.
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Rodrigues ML, Archer M, Martel P, Miranda S, Thomaz M, Enguita FJ, Baptista RP, Pinho e Melo E, Sousa N, Cravador A, Carrondo MA. Crystal structures of the free and sterol-bound forms of beta-cinnamomin. BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA 2006; 1764:110-21. [PMID: 16249127 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbapap.2005.09.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/15/2005] [Revised: 08/19/2005] [Accepted: 09/06/2005] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
The crystal structure of the elicitin beta-cinnamomin (beta-CIN) was determined in complex with ergosterol at 1.1 A resolution. beta-CIN/ergosterol complex crystallized in the monoclinic space group P2(1), with unit cell parameters of a = 31.0, b = 62.8, c = 50.0 A and beta = 93.4 degrees and two molecules in the asymmetric unit. Ligand extraction with chloroform followed by crystallographic analysis yielded a 1.35 A structure of beta-CIN (P4(3)2(1)2 space group) where the characteristic elicitin fold was kept. After incubation with cholesterol, a new complex structure was obtained, showing that the protein retains, after the extraction procedure, its ability to complex sterols. The necrotic effect of beta-CIN on tobacco was also shown to remain unchanged. Theoretical docking studies of the triterpene lupeol to beta-CIN provided an explanation for the apparent inability of beta-CIN to bind this ligand, as observed experimentally.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria Luisa Rodrigues
- Instituto de Tecnologia Química e Biológica, Universidade Nova de Lisboa, ITQB-UNL, Av. República, Apt. 127, 2781-901 Oeiras, Portugal
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Dobes P, Kmunícek J, Mikes V, Damborský J. Binding of fatty acids to beta-cryptogein: quantitative structure-activity relationships and design of selective protein mutants. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2005; 44:2126-32. [PMID: 15554683 DOI: 10.1021/ci049832x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Binding of fatty acids to cryptogein, the proteinaceous elicitor from Phytophthora, was studied by using molecular docking and quantitative structure-activity relationships analysis. Fatty acids bind to the groove located inside the cavity of cryptogein. The structure-activity model was constructed for the set of 27 different saturated and unsaturated fatty acids explaining 87% (81% cross-validated) of the quantitative variance in their binding affinity. The difference in binding between saturated and unsaturated fatty acids was described in the model by three electronic descriptors: the energy of the lowest unoccupied molecular orbital, the energy of the highest occupied molecular orbital, and the heat of formation. The presence of double bonds in the ligand generally resulted in stronger binding. The difference in binding within the group of saturated fatty acids was explained by two steric descriptors, i.e., ellipsoidal volume and inertia moment of length, and one hydrophobicity descriptor, i.e., lipophility. The developed model predicted strong binding for two biologically important molecules, geranylgeranyol and farnesol playing an important role in plant signaling as lipid anchors of some membrane proteins. Elicitin mutants selectively binding only one type of ligand were designed for future experimental studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Petr Dobes
- National Centre for Biomolecular Research and Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Science, Masaryk University, Kotlarska 2, 611 37 Brno, Czech Republic
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Fleischmann F, Koehl J, Portz R, Beltrame AB, Osswald W. Physiological changes of Fagus sylvatica seedlings infected with Phytophthora citricola and the contribution of its elicitin "citricolin" to pathogenesis. PLANT BIOLOGY (STUTTGART, GERMANY) 2005; 7:650-8. [PMID: 16388468 DOI: 10.1055/s-2005-872891] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/06/2023]
Abstract
Beech seedlings were infected with the root rot pathogen Phytophthora citricola to study its impact on leaf physiology and water status. Net photosynthesis rate decreased two days after inoculation in infected seedlings. In contrast, electron quantum yield of photosystem II, leaf water potential, and total water consumption were only slightly impaired until 6 dpi. At the same time, wilt symptoms occurred on leaves. These results indicate the involvement of a mobile signal triggering the early changes in leaf physiology by root infection. As the elicitin gene of P. citricola was induced during root infection, we purified and characterised the elicitin protein and tested its ability to change leaf physiological parameters of beech and tobacco plants. P. citricola produced a single acidic elicitin (citricolin), which caused necrosis and decreased gas exchange of tobacco leaves. Furthermore, it induced an oxidative burst in tobacco cell suspension culture. However, none of these effects were observed in beech.
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Affiliation(s)
- F Fleischmann
- Section Pathology of Woody Plants, Technische Universität München, Am Hochanger 13, 85354 Freising-Weihenstephan, Germany.
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Takemoto D, Hardham AR, Jones DA. Differences in cell death induction by Phytophthora Elicitins are determined by signal components downstream of MAP kinase kinase in different species of Nicotiana and cultivars of Brassica rapa and Raphanus sativus. PLANT PHYSIOLOGY 2005; 138:1491-504. [PMID: 15980203 PMCID: PMC1176420 DOI: 10.1104/pp.104.058388] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/14/2005] [Revised: 03/28/2005] [Accepted: 03/29/2005] [Indexed: 05/03/2023]
Abstract
Elicitins are small, secreted proteins produced by species of the plant-pathogenic oomycete Phytophthora. They induce hypersensitive cell death in most Nicotiana species and in some cultivars of Brassica rapa and Raphanus sativus. In this study, two true-breeding Fast Cycling B. rapa lines were established that showed severe necrosis (line 7-R) or no visible response (line 18-NR) after treatment with elicitin. Unexpectedly, microscopic examination revealed localized cell death in line 18-NR plants, and expression levels of various defense-marker genes were comparable in both lines. These results suggested that both "responsive" and "nonresponsive" plants responded to elicitin but differed in the extent of the cell death response. Expression of a constitutively active form of Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana) MAP kinase kinase 4 (AtMEK4(DD)) also induced rapid development of confluent cell death in line 7-R, whereas line 18-NR showed no visible cell death. Similarly, elicitin-responsive Nicotiana species and R. sativus cultivars showed significantly stronger cell death responses following expression of AtMEK4(DD) compared with nonresponsive species/cultivars. Line 7-R also showed higher sensitivity to toxin-containing culture filtrates produced by Alternaria brassicicola, and toxin sensitivity cosegregated with elicitin responsiveness, suggesting that the downstream responses induced by elicitin and Alternaria toxin share factors that control the extent of cell death. Interestingly, elicitin responsiveness was shown to correlate with greater susceptibility to A. brassicicola (a necrotroph) in B. rapa but less susceptibility to Phytophthora nicotianae (a hemibiotroph) in Nicotiana, suggesting a more extensive cell death response could cause opposite effects on the outcomes of biotrophic versus necrotrophic plant-pathogen interactions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daigo Takemoto
- Plant Cell Biology Group, Research School of Biological Sciences, Australian National University, Canberra, Australian Capital Territory 0200, Australia
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Da Silva P, Landon C, Industri B, Marais A, Marion D, Ponchet M, Vovelle F. Solution structure of a tobacco lipid transfer protein exhibiting new biophysical and biological features. Proteins 2005; 59:356-67. [PMID: 15726627 DOI: 10.1002/prot.20405] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
Plant lipid transfer proteins are small soluble extracellular proteins that are able to bind and transfer a variety of lipids in vitro. Recently, it has been proposed that lipid transfer proteins may play a key role in plant defence mechanisms, especially during the induction of systemic acquired resistance. However, very little is known about the proteins expressed in developing plants and tissues, since almost all the biophysical and structural data available to date on lipid transfer proteins originate from proteins present in storage tissues of monocot cereal seeds. In this paper, we report the structural and functional characteristics of a lipid transfer protein (named LTP1_1) constitutively expressed in young aerial organs of Nicotiana tabacum (common tobacco). The unlabelled and uniformly labelled proteins were produced in the yeast Pichia pastoris, and we determined the three-dimensional (3D) structure of LTP1_1 using nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy and molecular modeling techniques. The global fold of LTP1_1 is very close to the previously published structures of LTP1 extracted from cereal seeds, including an internal cavity. However, the chemical shift variations of several NMR signals upon lipid binding show that tobacco LTP1_1 is able to bind only one LysoMyristoylPhosphatidylCholine (LMPC), while wheat and maize LTPs can bind either one or two. Titration experiments using intrinsic tyrosine fluorescence confirm this result not only with LMPC but also with two fatty acids. These differences can be explained by the presence in tobacco LTP1_1 of a hydrophobic cluster closing the second possible access to the protein cavity. This result suggests that LTP1 lipid binding properties could be modulated by subtle changes in a conserved global structure. The biological significance of this finding is discussed in the light of the signalling properties of the tobacco LTP1_1-jasmonate complex described elsewhere.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pedro Da Silva
- Centre de Biophysique Moléculaire, UPR 4301 CNRS affiliated with Orléans University, rue Charles Sadron, 45071 Orléans cedex 2, France
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Nürnberger T, Lipka V. Non-host resistance in plants: new insights into an old phenomenon. MOLECULAR PLANT PATHOLOGY 2005; 6:335-45. [PMID: 20565662 DOI: 10.1111/j.1364-3703.2005.00279.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 114] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/20/2023]
Abstract
SUMMARY Resistance of an entire plant species to all isolates of a microbial species is referred to as non-host or species resistance. An interplay of both constitutive barriers and inducible reactions comprises the basis for this most durable form of plant disease resistance. Activation of inducible plant defence responses is probably brought about by the recognition of invariant pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMP) that are characteristic of whole classes of microbial organisms. PAMP perception systems and PAMP-induced signalling cascades partially resemble those known to mediate activation of innate immune responses in animals, suggesting an evolutionarily ancient molecular concept of non-self recognition and immunity in eukaryotes. Genetic dissection has recently provided clues for SNARE-complex-mediated exocytosis and directed vesicle trafficking in executing plant non-host resistance. Recent functional analysis of bacterial effector proteins indicates that establishment of infection in susceptible plants is associated with suppression of plant species resistance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thorsten Nürnberger
- Eberhard-Karls-Universität Tübingen, Zentrum für Molekularbiologie der Pflanzen (ZMBP), Auf der Morgenstelle 5, D-72076 Tübingen, Germany
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Huitema E, Vleeshouwers VGAA, Cakir C, Kamoun S, Govers F. Differences in intensity and specificity of hypersensitive response induction in Nicotiana spp. by INF1, INF2A, and INF2B of Phytophthora infestans. MOLECULAR PLANT-MICROBE INTERACTIONS : MPMI 2005; 18:183-93. [PMID: 15782632 DOI: 10.1094/mpmi-18-0183] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/14/2023]
Abstract
Elicitins form a family of structurally related proteins that induce the hypersensitive response (HR) in plants, particularly Nicotiana spp. The elicitin family is composed of several classes. Most species of the plant-pathogenic oomycete genus Phytophthora produce the well-characterized 10-kDa canonical elicitins (class I), such as INF1 of the potato and tomato pathogen Phytophthora infestans. Two genes, inf2A and inf2B, encoding a distinct class (class III) of elicitin-like proteins, also occur in P. infestans. Unlike secreted class I elicitins, class III elicitins are thought to be cell-surface-anchored polypeptides. Molecular characterization of the inf2 genes indicated that they are widespread in Phytophthora spp. and occur as a small gene family. In addition, Southern blot and Northern blot hybridizations using gene-specific probes showed that inf2A and inf2B genes and transcripts can be detected in 17 different P. infestans isolates. Functional secreted expression in plant cells of the elicitin domain of the infl and inf2 genes was conducted using a binary Potato virus X (PVX) vector (agroinfection) and Agrobacterium tumefaciens transient transformation assays (agroinfiltration), and resulted in HR-like necrotic symptoms and induction of defense response genes in tobacco. However, comparative analyses of elicitor activity of INF1, INF2A, and INF2B revealed significant differences in intensity, specificity, and consistency of HR induction. Whereas INF1 induced the HR in Nicotiana benthamiana, INF2A induced weak symptoms and INF2B induced no symptoms on this plant. Nonetheless, similar to INF1, HR induction by INF2A in N. benthamiana required the ubiquitin ligase-associated protein SGT1. Overall, these results suggest that variation in the resistance of Nicotiana spp. to P. infestans is shadowed by variation in the response to INF elicitins. The ability of tobacco, but not N. benthamiana, to respond to INF2B could explain differences in resistance to P. infestans observed for these two species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Edgar Huitema
- Department of Plant Pathology, The Ohio State University, Ohio Agricultural Research and Development Center, Wooster, USA
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Shah J. Lipids, lipases, and lipid-modifying enzymes in plant disease resistance. ANNUAL REVIEW OF PHYTOPATHOLOGY 2005; 43:229-60. [PMID: 16078884 DOI: 10.1146/annurev.phyto.43.040204.135951] [Citation(s) in RCA: 174] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/03/2023]
Abstract
Lipids and lipid metabolites influence pathogenesis and resistance mechanisms associated with plant-microbe interactions. Some microorganisms sense their presence on a host by perceiving plant surface waxes, whereas others produce toxins that target plant lipid metabolism. In contrast, plants have evolved to recognize microbial lipopolysaccharides (LPSs), sphingolipids, and lipid-binding proteins as elicitors of defense response. Recent studies have demonstrated that the plasma membrane provides a surface on which some plant resistance (R) proteins perceive pathogen-derived effectors and thus confer race-specific resistance. Plant cell membranes also serve as reservoirs from which biologically active lipids and precursors of oxidized lipids are released. Some of these oxylipins, for example jasmonic acid (JA), are important signal molecules in plant defense. Arabidopsis thaliana is an excellent model plant to elucidate the biosynthesis and metabolism of lipids and lipid metabolites, and the characterization of signaling mechanisms involved in the modulation of plant defense responses by phytolipids. This review focuses on recent studies that highlight the involvement of lipids and lipid metabolites, and enzymes involved in lipid metabolism and modification in plant disease resistance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jyoti Shah
- Division of Biology and Molecular, Cellular and Developmental Biology Program, Kansas State University, Manhattan, Kansas 66506, USA.
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Buhot N, Gomès E, Milat ML, Ponchet M, Marion D, Lequeu J, Delrot S, Coutos-Thévenot P, Blein JP. Modulation of the biological activity of a tobacco LTP1 by lipid complexation. Mol Biol Cell 2004; 15:5047-52. [PMID: 15356262 PMCID: PMC524770 DOI: 10.1091/mbc.e04-07-0575] [Citation(s) in RCA: 89] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/09/2004] [Accepted: 08/16/2004] [Indexed: 11/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Plant lipid transfer proteins (LTPs) are small, cysteine-rich proteins secreted into the extracellular space. They belong to the pathogenesis-related proteins (PR-14) family and are believed to be involved in several physiological processes including plant disease resistance, although their precise biological function is still unknown. Here, we show that a recombinant tobacco LTP1 is able to load fatty acids and jasmonic acid. This LTP1 binds to specific plasma membrane sites, previously characterized as elicitin receptors, and is shown to be involved in the activation of plant defense. The biological properties of this LTP1 were compared with those of LTP1-linolenic and LTP1-jasmonic acid complexes. The binding curve of the LTP1-linolenic acid complex to purified tobacco plasma membranes is comparable to the curve obtained with LTP1. In contrast, the LTP1-jasmonic acid complex shows a strongly increased interaction with the plasma membrane receptors. Treatment of tobacco plants with LTP1-jasmonic acid resulted in an enhancement of resistance toward Phytophthora parasitica. These effects were absent upon treatment with LTP1 or jasmonic acid alone. This work presents the first evidence for a biological activity of a LTP1 and points out the crucial role of protein-specific lipophilic ligand interaction in the modulation of the protein activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nathalie Buhot
- Laboratoire de Phytopharmacie, Institut National de la Recherche Agronomique, Université de Bourgogne, Etablissement National Enseignement Supérieur Agronomique de Dijon, Unité Mixte de Recherches 692, BP 86510, Dijon-Cedex 21065, France
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50
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Hirasawa KI, Amano T, Shioi Y. Lipid-binding form is a key conformation to induce a programmed cell death initiated in tobacco BY-2 cells by a proteinaceous elicitor of cryptogein. PHYSIOLOGIA PLANTARUM 2004; 121:196-203. [PMID: 15153186 DOI: 10.1111/j.0031-9317.2004.00317.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
Cryptogein, a proteinaceous elicitor secreted by Phytophthora cryptogea, induces a remarkable hypersensitive cell death in tobacco cells. Two cryptogein mutants were analysed to characterize the induction mechanism of cell death; one was a newly synthesized mutant N93A whose 93rd Asn residue was changed to Ala, the other was K13V whose Lys at position 13 was replaced with Val. The effect of these mutations was evaluated in terms of extracellular alkalization, production of active oxygen species (AOS) and progression to death. The mutation N93A resulted in a reduction in activity to 71.0, 74.6 and 24.5% for original rates of extracellular alkalization, AOS production and cell death progression, respectively. In the case of the K13V mutation, these rates changed to 114, 3.38 and 7.40%, respectively. The lipid-binding activities of the mutants were analysed using fluorogenic lipid of dehydroergosterol. The results for N93A and K13V were 38.3 and 3.40% compared with the wild type, respectively. These findings indicate that the lipid-binding form was the only conformation to induce the production of AOS and programmed cell death in plants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ken-Ichi Hirasawa
- Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, Shizuoka University, Shizuoka 422-8529, Japan
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