Agonist-induced endocytosis of CC chemokine receptor 5 is clathrin dependent

Three-dimensional digital elevation models reconstructed from stereoscopic image of platinum replica in sheared open osteoclasts

Computer-generated microscopic images can be valuable tools for analyzing cell structure. We have used a computerized surface topography technique to convert platinum replica images into measurable 3D digital elevation model reconstructiondata. The commercially available Alicona MeX software can be successfully applied to the 3D reconstruction images of the platinum replicas, resulting in a series of digital elevation models in grayscale and coloured elevation maps in RGB mode of the selected area of interest. Here, we present accessible methods to analyze cell structures in sheared-open osteoclasts in 3D and at nanometre resolution, focusing on the podosome cytoskeleton, membrane-bound clathrin lattices, and surface topography. These structures on the surface of the ventral membrane appear to be highly characterized for their specific cellular functions. Extraction data from these reconstructed digital elevation models lead to the presentation of 3D information on some ultrastructural architectures on the ventral membrane, including the height of podosomes, the thickness of clathrin-coated structures and the non-coplanar surface of the flat clathrin lattices. In particular, we found that flat clathrin lattices appear on the curved surface of the basal part of the cell protrusions, or the non-coplanarity of their surface topography further indicates their morphological diversity. This new analytical approach provided a fast and easy way to reveal the ventral membrane surface structures in sheared open osteoclasts using high quality 3D reconstructed images.

New insight into a simple high-yielding method for the production of fully folded and functional recombinant human CCL5

Chemokines are proteins important for a range of biological processes from cell-directed migration (chemotaxis) to cell activation and differentiation. Chemokine C-C ligand 5 (CCL5) is an important pro-inflammatory chemokine attracting immune cells towards inflammatory sites through interaction with its receptors CCR1/3/5. Recombinant production of large quantities of CCL5 in Escherichia coli is challenging due to formation of inclusion bodies which necessitates refolding, often leading to low recovery of biologically active protein. To combat this, we have developed a method for CCL5 production that utilises the purification of SUMO tagged CCL5 from E. coli SHuffle cells avoiding the need to reform disulfide bonds through inclusion body purification and yields high quantities of CCL5 (~ 25 mg/L). We demonstrated that the CCL5 produced was fully functional by assessing well-established cellular changes triggered by CCL5 binding to CCR5, including receptor phosphorylation and internalisation, intracellular signalling leading to calcium flux, as well as cell migration. Overall, we demonstrate that the use of solubility tags, SHuffle cells and low pH dialysis constitutes an approach that increases purification yields of active CCL5 with low endotoxin contamination for biological studies.

Exploring Potential Biomarkers in Oesophageal Cancer: A Comprehensive Analysis

Oesophageal cancer (OC) is the sixth leading cause of cancer-related death worldwide. OC is highly aggressive, primarily due to its late stage of diagnosis and poor prognosis for patients' survival. Therefore, the establishment of new biomarkers that will be measured with non-invasive techniques at low cost is a critical issue in improving the diagnosis of OC. In this review, we summarize several original studies concerning the potential significance of selected chemokines and their receptors, including inflammatory proteins such as interleukin-6 (IL-6) and C-reactive protein (CRP), hematopoietic growth factors (HGFs), claudins (CLDNs), matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) and their tissue inhibitors (TIMPs), adamalysines (ADAMs), as well as DNA- and RNA-based biomarkers, in OC. The presented results indicate the significant correlation between the CXCL12, CXCR4, CXCL8/CXCR2, M-CSF, MMP-2, MMP-9 ADAM17, ADAMTS-6, and CLDN7 levels and tumor stage, as well as the clinicopathological parameters of OC, such as the presence of lymph node and/or distant metastases. CXCL12, CXCL8/CXCR2, IL-6, TIMP-2, ADAM9, and ADAMTS-6 were prognostic factors for the overall survival of OC patients. Furthermore, IL-6, CXCR4, CXCL8, and MMP-9 indicate higher diagnostic utility based on the area under the ROC curve (AUC) than well-established OC tumor markers, whereas CLDN18.2 can be used in novel targeted therapies for OC patients.

α-Synuclein colocalizes with AP180 and affects the size of clathrin lattices

α-Synuclein and family members β- and γ-synuclein are presynaptic proteins that sense and generate membrane curvature, properties important for synaptic vesicle (SV) cycling. αβγ-synuclein triple knockout neurons exhibit SV endocytosis deficits. Here, we investigated if α-synuclein affects clathrin assembly in vitro. Visualizing clathrin assembly on membranes using a lipid monolayer system revealed that α-synuclein increases clathrin lattices size and curvature. On cell membranes, we observe that α-synuclein is colocalized with clathrin and its adapter AP180 in a concentric ring pattern. Clathrin puncta that contain both α-synuclein and AP180 were significantly larger than clathrin puncta containing either protein alone. We determined that this effect occurs in part through colocalization of α-synuclein with the phospholipid PI(4,5)P2 in the membrane. Immuno-electron microscopy (EM) of synaptosomes uncovered that α-synuclein relocalizes from SVs to the presynaptic membrane upon stimulation, positioning α-synuclein to function on presynaptic membranes during or after stimulation. Additionally, we show that deletion of synucleins impacts brain-derived clathrin-coated vesicle size. Thus, α-synuclein affects the size and curvature of clathrin structures on membranes and functions as an endocytic accessory protein.

Deep neural network automated segmentation of cellular structures in volume electron microscopy

Volume electron microscopy is an important imaging modality in contemporary cell biology. Identification of intracellular structures is a laborious process limiting the effective use of this potentially powerful tool. We resolved this bottleneck with automated segmentation of intracellular substructures in electron microscopy (ASEM), a new pipeline to train a convolutional neural network to detect structures of a wide range in size and complexity. We obtained dedicated models for each structure based on a small number of sparsely annotated ground truth images from only one or two cells. Model generalization was improved with a rapid, computationally effective strategy to refine a trained model by including a few additional annotations. We identified mitochondria, Golgi apparatus, endoplasmic reticulum, nuclear pore complexes, caveolae, clathrin-coated pits, and vesicles imaged by focused ion beam scanning electron microscopy. We uncovered a wide range of membrane-nuclear pore diameters within a single cell and derived morphological metrics from clathrin-coated pits and vesicles, consistent with the classical constant-growth assembly model.

Single-molecule and super-resolved imaging deciphers membrane behavior of onco-immunogenic CCR5

The ability of tumors to establish a pro-tumorigenic microenvironment is an important point of investigation in the search for new therapeutics. Tumors form microenvironments in part by the "education" of immune cells attracted via chemotactic axes such as that of CCR5-CCL5. Further, CCR5 upregulation by cancer cells, coupled with its association with pro-tumorigenic features such as drug resistance and metastasis, has suggested CCR5 as a therapeutic target. However, with several conformational "pools" being reported, phenotypic investigations must be capable of unveiling conformational heterogeneity. Addressing this challenge, we performed super-resolution structured illumination microscopy (SIM) and single molecule partially TIRF-coupled HILO (PaTCH) microscopy of CCR5 in fixed cells. SIM data revealed a non-random spatial distribution of CCR5 assemblies, while Intensity-tracking of CCR5 assemblies from PaTCH images indicated dimeric sub-units independent of CCL5 perturbation. These biophysical methods can provide important insights into the structure and function of onco-immunogenic receptors and many other biomolecules.

Nanoparticle entry into cells; the cell biology weak link

Nanoparticles (NP) are attractive options for the therapeutic delivery of active pharmaceutical drugs, proteins and nucleic acids into cells, tissues and organs. Research into the development and application of NP most often starts with a diverse group of scientists, including chemists, bioengineers and material and pharmaceutical scientists, who design, fabricate and characterize NP in vitro (Stage 1). The next step (Stage 2) generally investigates cell toxicity as well as the processes by which NP bind, are internalized and deliver their cargo to appropriate model tissue culture cells. Subsequently, in Stage 3, selected NP are tested in animal systems, mostly mouse. Whereas the chemistry-based development and analysis in Stage 1 is increasingly sophisticated, the investigations in Stage 2 are not what could be regarded as 'state-of-the-art' for the cell biology field and the quality of research into NP interactions with cells is often sub-standard. In this review we describe our current understanding of the mechanisms by which particles gain entry into mammalian cells via endocytosis. We summarize the most important areas for concern, highlight some of the most common mis-conceptions, and identify areas where NP scientists could engage with trained cell biologists. Our survey of the different mechanisms of uptake into cells makes us suspect that claims for roles for caveolae, as well as macropinocytosis, in NP uptake into cells have been exaggerated, whereas phagocytosis has been under-appreciated.

Sphingomyelin Depletion Inhibits CXCR4 Dynamics and CXCL12-Mediated Directed Cell Migration in Human T Cells

Sphingolipids, ceramides and cholesterol are integral components of cellular membranes, and they also play important roles in signal transduction by regulating the dynamics of membrane receptors through their effects on membrane fluidity. Here, we combined biochemical and functional assays with single-particle tracking analysis of diffusion in the plasma membrane to demonstrate that the local lipid environment regulates CXCR4 organization and function and modulates chemokine-triggered directed cell migration. Prolonged treatment of T cells with bacterial sphingomyelinase promoted the complete and sustained breakdown of sphingomyelins and the accumulation of the corresponding ceramides, which altered both membrane fluidity and CXCR4 nanoclustering and dynamics. Under these conditions CXCR4 retained some CXCL12-mediated signaling activity but failed to promote efficient directed cell migration. Our data underscore a critical role for the local lipid composition at the cell membrane in regulating the lateral mobility of chemokine receptors, and their ability to dynamically increase receptor density at the leading edge to promote efficient cell migration.

Frustrated clathrin-mediated endocytosis – causes and possible functions

Clathrin-mediated endocytosis is the main entry route for most cell surface receptors and their ligands. It is regulated by clathrin-coated structures that are endowed with the ability to cluster receptors and to locally bend the plasma membrane, resulting in the formation of receptor-containing vesicles that bud into the cytoplasm. This canonical role of clathrin-coated structures has been shown to play a fundamental part in many different aspects of cell physiology. However, it has recently become clear that the ability of clathrin-coated structures to deform membranes can be perturbed. In addition to chemical or genetic alterations, numerous environmental conditions can physically prevent or slow down membrane bending and/or budding at clathrin-coated structures. The resulting ‘frustrated endocytosis’ is emerging as not merely a passive consequence, but one that actually fulfils some very specific and important cellular functions. In this Review, we provide an historical and defining perspective on frustrated endocytosis in the clathrin pathway of mammalian cells, before discussing its causes and highlighting the possible functional consequences in physiology and diseases.

A biophysical perspective on receptor-mediated virus entry with a focus on HIV

As part of their entry and infection strategy, viruses interact with specific receptor molecules expressed on the surface of target cells. The efficiency and kinetics of the virus-receptor interactions required for a virus to productively infect a cell is determined by the biophysical properties of the receptors, which are in turn influenced by the receptors' plasma membrane (PM) environments. Currently, little is known about the biophysical properties of these receptor molecules or their engagement during virus binding and entry. Here we review virus-receptor interactions focusing on the human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV), the etiological agent of acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS), as a model system. HIV is one of the best characterised enveloped viruses, with the identity, roles and structure of the key molecules required for infection well established. We review current knowledge of receptor-mediated HIV entry, addressing the properties of the HIV cell-surface receptors, the techniques used to measure these properties, and the macromolecular interactions and events required for virus entry. We discuss some of the key biophysical principles underlying receptor-mediated virus entry and attempt to interpret the available data in the context of biophysical mechanisms. We also highlight crucial outstanding questions and consider how new tools might be applied to advance understanding of the biophysical properties of viral receptors and the dynamic events leading to virus entry.

Membrane Compartmentalization and Scaffold Proteins in Leukocyte Migration

Leukocyte migration across vessels into and within peripheral and lymphoid tissues is essential for host defense against invading pathogens. Leukocytes are specialized in sensing a variety of guidance cues and to integrate environmental stimuli to navigate in a timely and spatially controlled manner. These extracellular signals must be transmitted across the leukocyte’s plasma membrane in a way that intracellular signaling cascades enable directional cell movement. Therefore, the composition of the membrane in concert with proteins that influence the compartmentalization of the plasma membrane or contribute to delineate intracellular signaling molecules are key in controlling leukocyte navigation. This becomes evident by the fact that mislocalization of membrane proteins is known to deleteriously affect cellular functions that may cause diseases. In this review we summarize recent advances made in the understanding of how membrane cholesterol levels modulate chemokine receptor signaling and hence leukocyte trafficking. Moreover, we provide an overview on the role of membrane scaffold proteins, particularly tetraspanins, flotillins/reggies, and caveolins in controlling leukocyte migration both in vitro and in vivo.

CCL3-CCR5 axis contributes to progression of esophageal squamous cell carcinoma by promoting cell migration and invasion via Akt and ERK pathways

Tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs) contribute to the progression and mortality of various malignancies. We reported that high numbers of infiltrating TAMs were significantly associated with tumor progression and poor prognosis in esophageal squamous cell carcinoma (ESCC). In our previous investigation of TAMs' actions in ESCC, we compared gene expression profiles between peripheral blood monocyte (PBMo)-derived macrophages and TAM-like macrophages stimulated with conditioned media of ESCC cell lines. Among the upregulated genes in the TAM-like macrophages, we focused on CC chemokine ligand 3 (CCL3), which was reported to contribute to tumor progression in several malignancies. Herein, we observed that not only TAMs but also ESCC cell lines expressed CCL3. A CCL3 receptor, CC chemokine receptor 5 (CCR5) was expressed in the ESCC cell lines. Treating the ESCC cell lines with recombinant human (rh)CCL3 induced the phosphorylations of Akt and ERK, which were suppressed by CCR5 knockdown. Migration and invasion of ESCC cells were promoted by treatment with rhCCL3 and co-culture with TAMs. TAMs/rhCCL3-promoted cell migration and invasion were suppressed by inhibition of the CCL3-CCR5 axis, PI3K/Akt, and MEK/ERK pathways. Treatment with rhCCL3 upregulated MMP2 and VEGFA expressions in ESCC cell lines. Our immunohistochemical analysis of 68 resected ESCC cases showed that high expression of CCL3 and/or CCR5 in ESCC tissues was associated with poor prognosis. High CCR5 expression was associated with deeper invasion, presence of vascular invasion, higher pathological stage, higher numbers of infiltrating CD204⁺ TAMs, and higher microvascular density. High expression of both CCL3 and CCR5 was an independent prognostic factor for disease-free survival. These results suggest that CCL3 derived from both TAMs and cancer cells contributes to the progression and poor prognosis of ESCC by promoting cell migration and invasion via the binding of CCR5 and the phosphorylations of Akt and ERK. The CCL3-CCR5 axis could become the target of new therapies against ESCC.

Cholesterol impacts chemokine CCR5 receptor ligand-binding activity

The chemokine CCR5 receptor is target of maraviroc, a negative allosteric modulator of CCR5 that blocks the HIV protein gp120 from associating with the receptor, thereby inhibiting virus cellular entry. As noted with other G-protein-coupled receptor family members, the role of the lipid environment in CCR5 signaling remains obscure and very modestly investigated. Controversial literature on the impact of cholesterol (Chol) depletion in HIV infection and CCR5 signaling, including the hypothesis that Chol depletion could inhibit HIV infection, lead us to focus on the understanding of Chol impact in the first stages of receptor activation. To address this aim, the approach chosen was to employ reconstituted model lipid systems of controlled lipid composition containing CCR5 from two distinct expression systems: Pichia pastoris and cell-free expression. The characterization of receptor/ligand interaction in terms of total binding or competition binding assays was independently performed by plasmon waveguide resonance and fluorescence anisotropy, respectively. Maraviroc, a potent receptor antagonist, was the ligand investigated. Additionally, coarse-grained molecular dynamics simulation was employed to investigate Chol impact in the receptor-conformational flexibility and dynamics. Results obtained with receptor produced by different expression systems and using different biophysical approaches clearly demonstrate a considerable impact of Chol in the binding affinity of maraviroc to the receptor and receptor-conformational dynamics. Chol considerably decreases maraviroc binding affinity to the CCR5 receptor. The mechanisms by which this effect occurs seem to involve the adoption of distinct receptor-conformational states with restrained structural dynamics and helical motions in the presence of Chol.

CCR5: Established paradigms and new frontiers for a 'celebrity' chemokine receptor

Because of the level of attention it received due to its role as the principal HIV coreceptor, CCR5 has been described as a 'celebrity' chemokine receptor. Here we describe the development of CCR5 inhibitory strategies that have been developed for HIV therapy and which are now additionally being considered for use in HIV prevention and cure. The wealth of CCR5-related tools that have been developed during the intensive investigation of CCR5 as an HIV drug target can now be turned towards the study of CCR5 as a model chemokine receptor. We also summarize what is currently known about the cell biology and pharmacology of CCR5, providing an update on new areas of investigation that have emerged in recent research. Finally, we discuss the potential of CCR5 as a drug target for diseases other than HIV, discussing the evidence linking CCR5 and its natural chemokine ligands with inflammatory diseases, particularly neuroinflammation, and certain cancers. These pathologies may provide new uses for the strategies for CCR5 blockade originally developed to combat HIV/AIDS.

Regulation of C-C chemokine receptor 5 (CCR5) stability by Lys197 and by transmembrane protein aptamers that target it for lysosomal degradation

C-C motif chemokine receptor 5 (CCR5) is a cell surface-associated, immune-regulatory G protein-coupled receptor (GCPR) with seven transmembrane helices. We previously reported the isolation and initial characterization of short artificial transmembrane protein aptamers, named "traptamers," that specifically down-regulate CCR5 expression and inhibit infection of human T cells by HIV strains that use CCR5 as a co-receptor. Here, we investigated the mechanism of traptamer-mediated CCR5 down-regulation and show that most of the traptamers (designated class 1 traptamers) form a stable complex with CCR5 and target it for lysosome-mediated degradation. The ability of these traptamers to down-regulate CCR5 depended on Lys¹⁹⁷ in the fifth transmembrane helix of CCR5. In the absence of traptamers, substitution of Lys¹⁹⁷ to an uncharged amino acid increased CCR5 stability, and introduction of a lysine at the homologous position in CCR2b, a related chemokine receptor, decreased CCR2b levels. The prototypic class 2 traptamer BY6M4 also formed a complex with CCR5, but CCR5 down-regulation caused by class 2 traptamers did not depend on the lysosome or on Lys¹⁹⁷ These results demonstrate that traptamers use diverse mechanisms to down-regulate CCR5 and identify a specific amino acid that plays a central role in controlling chemokine receptor stability. Further studies of these traptamers are likely to provide new insights into CCR5 metabolism and biology and may suggest new therapeutic approaches to modulate the levels of CCR5 and other GPCRs.

Closely related, yet unique: Distinct homo- and heterodimerization patterns of G protein coupled chemokine receptors and their fine-tuning by cholesterol

Chemokine receptors, a subclass of G protein coupled receptors (GPCRs), play essential roles in the human immune system, they are involved in cancer metastasis as well as in HIV-infection. A plethora of studies show that homo- and heterodimers or even higher order oligomers of the chemokine receptors CXCR4, CCR5, and CCR2 modulate receptor function. In addition, membrane cholesterol affects chemokine receptor activity. However, structural information about homo- and heterodimers formed by chemokine receptors and their interplay with cholesterol is limited. Here, we report homo- and heterodimer configurations of the chemokine receptors CXCR4, CCR5, and CCR2 at atomistic detail, as obtained from thousands of molecular dynamics simulations. The observed homodimerization patterns were similar for the closely related CC chemokine receptors, yet they differed significantly between the CC receptors and CXCR4. Despite their high sequence identity, cholesterol modulated the CC homodimer interfaces in a subtype-specific manner. Chemokine receptor heterodimers display distinct dimerization patterns for CXCR4/CCR5 and CXCR4/CCR2. Furthermore, associations between CXCR4 and CCR5 reveal an increased cholesterol-sensitivity as compared to CXCR4/CCR2 heterodimerization patterns. This work provides a first comprehensive structural overview over the complex interaction network between chemokine receptors and indicates how heterodimerization and the interaction with the membrane environment diversifies the function of closely related GPCRs.

The Abrogation of Phosphorylation Plays a Relevant Role in the CCR5 Signalosome Formation with Natural Antibodies to CCR5

The exposure to CCR5 (CC chemokine receptor 5) specific natural antibodies in vitro produces a Class B β-arrestin2-dependent CCR5 retention with the aid of ERK1, due to the formation of a CCR5 signalosome, which remains stable for at least 48 h. Considering that β-arrestins and MAPKs are receptive to environmental signals, their signal complexes could be one of the key junction for GPCRs internalization related signal transduction. Here, we demonstrate that, in T cells, the phosphorylation status of either CCR5 receptor or ERK1 protein is necessary to drive the internalized receptor into the early endosomes, forming the CCR5 signalosome. In particular, our data show that β-arrestin2/ERK1 complex is a relevant transducer in the CCR5 signaling pathway. Understanding the mechanism of CCR5 regulation is essential for many inflammatory disorders, tumorigenesis and viral infection such as HIV.

The Role of Natural Antibodies to CC Chemokine Receptor 5 in HIV Infection

The CC chemokine receptor 5 (CCR5) is responsible for immune and inflammatory responses by mediation of chemotactic activity in leukocytes, although it is expressed on different cell types. It has been shown to act as co-receptor for the human and simian immunodeficiency viruses (HIV-1, HIV-2, and SIV). Natural reactive antibodies (Abs) recognizing first loop (ECL1) of CCR5 have been detected in several pools of immunoglobulins from healthy donors and from several cohorts of either HIV-exposed but uninfected subjects (ESN) or HIV-infected individuals who control disease progression (LTNP) as well. The reason of development of anti-CCR5 Abs in the absence of autoimmune disease is still unknown; however, the presence of these Abs specific for CCR5 or for other immune receptors and mediators probably is related to homeostasis maintenance. The majority of anti-CCR5 Abs is directed to HIV binding site (N-terminus and ECL2) of the receptor. Conversely, it is well known that ECL1 of CCR5 does not bind HIV; thus, the anti-CCR5 Abs directed to ECL1 elicit a long-lasting internalization of CCR5 but not interfere with HIV binding directly; these Abs block HIV infection in either epithelial cells or CD4+ T lymphocytes and the mechanism differs from those ones described for all other CCR5-specific ligands. The Ab-mediated CCR5 internalization allows the formation of a stable signalosome by interaction of CCR5, β-arrestin2 and ERK1 proteins. The signalosome degradation and the subsequent de novo proteins synthesis determine the CCR5 reappearance on the cell membrane with a very long-lasting kinetics (8 days). The use of monoclonal Abs to CCR5 with particular characteristics and mode of action may represent a novel mode to fight viral infection in either vaccinal or therapeutic strategies.

Lateral Organization of Influenza Virus Proteins in the Budozone Region of the Plasma Membrane

Influenza virus assembles and buds at the plasma membrane of virus-infected cells. The viral proteins assemble at the same site on the plasma membrane for budding to occur. This involves a complex web of interactions among viral proteins. Some proteins, like hemagglutinin (HA), NA, and M2, are integral membrane proteins. M1 is peripherally membrane associated, whereas NP associates with viral RNA to form an RNP complex that associates with the cytoplasmic face of the plasma membrane. Furthermore, HA and NP have been shown to be concentrated in cholesterol-rich membrane raft domains, whereas M2, although containing a cholesterol binding motif, is not raft associated. Here we identify viral proteins in planar sheets of plasma membrane using immunogold staining. The distribution of these proteins was examined individually and pairwise by using the Ripley K function, a type of nearest-neighbor analysis. Individually, HA, NA, M1, M2, and NP were shown to self-associate in or on the plasma membrane. HA and M2 are strongly coclustered in the plasma membrane; however, in the case of NA and M2, clustering depends upon the expression system used. Despite both proteins being raft resident, HA and NA occupy distinct but adjacent membrane domains. M2 and M1 strongly cocluster, but the association of M1 with HA or NA is dependent upon the means of expression. The presence of HA and NP at the site of budding depends upon the coexpression of other viral proteins. Similarly, M2 and NP occupy separate compartments, but an association can be bridged by the coexpression of M1.IMPORTANCE The complement of influenza virus proteins necessary for the budding of progeny virions needs to accumulate at budozones. This is complicated by HA and NA residing in lipid raft-like domains, whereas M2, although an integral membrane protein, is not raft associated. Other necessary protein components such as M1 and NP are peripherally associated with the membrane. Our data define spatial relationships between viral proteins in the plasma membrane. Some proteins, such as HA and M2, inherently cocluster within the membrane, although M2 is found mostly at the periphery of regions of HA, consistent with the proposed role of M2 in scission at the end of budding. The association between some pairs of influenza virus proteins, such as M2 and NP, appears to be brokered by additional influenza virus proteins, in this case M1. HA and NA, while raft associated, reside in distinct domains, reflecting their distributions in the viral membrane.

Modulation of Chemokine Receptor Function by Cholesterol: New Prospects for Pharmacological Intervention

Chemokine receptors are seven transmembrane-domain receptors belonging to class A of G-protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs). The receptors together with their chemokine ligands constitute the chemokine system, which is essential for directing cell migration and plays a crucial role in a variety of physiologic and pathologic processes. Given the importance of orchestrating cell migration, it is vital that chemokine receptor signaling is tightly regulated to ensure appropriate responses. Recent studies highlight a key role for cholesterol in modulating chemokine receptor activities. The steroid influences the spatial organization of GPCRs within the membrane bilayer, and consequently can tune chemokine receptor signaling. The effects of cholesterol on the organization and function of chemokine receptors and GPCRs in general include direct and indirect effects (Fig. 1). Here, we review how cholesterol and some key metabolites modulate functions of the chemokine system in multiple ways. We emphasize the role of cholesterol in chemokine receptor oligomerization, thereby promoting the formation of a signaling hub enabling integration of distinct signaling pathways at the receptor-membrane interface. Moreover, we discuss the role of cholesterol in stabilizing particular receptor conformations and its consequence for chemokine binding. Finally, we highlight how cholesterol accumulation, its deprivation, or cholesterol metabolites contribute to modulating cell orchestration during inflammation, induction of an adaptive immune response, as well as to dampening an anti-tumor immune response.

Class B β-arrestin2-dependent CCR5 signalosome retention with natural antibodies to CCR5

CCR5 stimulation with natural ligands, such as RANTES, classically induces short-term internalization with transient activation of β-arrestins and rapidly recycling on the cell surface. Here we discovered that, in T cells, natural CCR5 antibodies induce a CCR5-negative phenotype with the involvement of β-arrestin2, which leads to the formation of a stable CCR5 signalosome with both β-arrestin2 and ERK1. The activation of β-arrestin2 is necessary to CCR5 signaling for the signalosome formation and stabilization. When all stimuli were washed out, β-arrestin1 silencing favors the activity of β-arrestin2 for the CCR5 signalosome retention. Interestingly, CCR5 turn from Class A trafficking pattern, normally used for its internalization with natural modulating molecules (i.e. RANTES), into a long lasting Class B type specifically induced by stimulation with natural anti-CCR5 antibodies. This new CCR5 pathway is relevant not only to study in depth the molecular basis of all pathologies where CCR5 is involved but also to generate new antidody-based therapeutics.

Real time monitoring of membrane GPCR reconstitution by plasmon waveguide resonance: on the role of lipids

G-protein coupled receptors (GPCRs) are important therapeutic targets since more than 40% of the drugs on the market exert their action through these proteins. To decipher the molecular mechanisms of activation and signaling, GPCRs often need to be isolated and reconstituted from a detergent-solubilized state into a well-defined and controllable lipid model system. Several methods exist to reconstitute membrane proteins in lipid systems but usually the reconstitution success is tested at the end of the experiment and often by an additional and indirect method. Irrespective of the method used, the reconstitution process is often an intractable and time-consuming trial-and-error procedure. Herein, we present a method that allows directly monitoring the reconstitution of GPCRs in model planar lipid membranes. Plasmon waveguide resonance (PWR) allows following GPCR lipid reconstitution process without any labeling and with high sensitivity. Additionally, the method is ideal to probe the lipid effect on receptor ligand binding as demonstrated by antagonist binding to the chemokine CCR5 receptor.

ERK1-Based Pathway as a New Selective Mechanism To Modulate CCR5 with Natural Antibodies

Natural human Abs, recognizing an epitope within the first extramembrane loop of CCR5 (the main HIV coreceptor), induce a long-lasting internalization (48 h) of the protein, whereas all known CCR5 modulating molecules show a short-term kinetics (60-90 min). Despite extensive studies on the regulation of CCR5 signaling cascades, which are the effect of concomitant CCR5 internalization by exogenous stimuli such as Abs, downstream signaling continues to be poorly understood. In this article, we report a hitherto unrecognized mechanism of CCR5 modulation mediated by G protein-dependent ERK1 activity. We further demonstrate that ERK1 is localized mainly in the cytoplasmic compartment and that it interacts directly with the CCR5 protein, thus provoking possible CCR5 degradation with a subsequent de novo synthesis, and that re-expression of CCR5 on the cell membrane required several days. In contrast, the RANTES treatment induces a recovery of the receptor on the cell membrane in short-term kinetics without the involvement of de novo protein synthesis. The said new pathway could be relevant not only to better understand the molecular basis of all pathologic conditions in which CCR5 is involved but also to generate new tools to block viral infections, such as the use of recombinant Abs.

CCR9/CCL25 expression in non-small cell lung cancer correlates with aggressive disease and mediates key steps of metastasis

Poor clinical outcome of lung cancer (LuCa) is primarily due to lack of knowledge about specific molecules involved in its progression and metastasis. In this study, we for the first time show the clinical and biological significance of CC chemokine receptor-9 (CCR9) in non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC). Expression of CCR9 and CCL25, the only natural ligand of CCR9, was significantly higher (p < 0.0001) in NSCLC tissues and serum respectively, compared to their respective controls. Interestingly, expression of both CCR9 and CCL25 was significantly higher in adenocarcinomas (ACs) compared to squamous cell carcinomas (SCCs) (p = 0.04, and p < 0.0001). Similar to tissues, AC and SCC cell lines were positive for CCR9 expression. Despite of marginal difference in CCR9 expression, AC cells showed higher migratory and invasive potential in response to CCL25, compared to SCC cells. This differential biological response of AC cells was primarily due to differential expression of matrix metalloproteinases and tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinases under the influence of CCL25. Our results suggest CCR9 as a potential target for developing new treatment modality for NSCLC. Additionally, differential serum CCL25 level in ACs and SCCs, two NSCLC subtypes, suggest its potential as a non-invasive diagnostic/prognostic biomarker.

Chemokine Transfer by Liver Sinusoidal Endothelial Cells Contributes to the Recruitment of CD4+ T Cells into the Murine Liver

Leukocyte adhesion and transmigration are central features governing immune surveillance and inflammatory reactions in body tissues. Within the liver sinusoids, chemokines initiate the first crucial step of T-cell migration into the hepatic tissue. We studied molecular mechanisms involved in endothelial chemokine supply during hepatic immune surveillance and liver inflammation and their impact on the recruitment of CD4⁺ T cells into the liver. In the murine model of Concanavalin A-induced T cell-mediated hepatitis, we showed that hepatic expression of the inflammatory CXC chemokine ligands (CXCL)9 and CXCL10 strongly increased whereas homeostatic CXCL12 significantly decreased. Consistently, CD4⁺ T cells expressing the CXC chemokine receptor (CXCR)3 accumulated within the inflamed liver tissue. In histology, CXCL9 was associated with liver sinusoidal endothelial cells (LSEC) which represent the first contact site for T-cell immigration into the liver. LSEC actively transferred basolaterally internalized CXCL12, CXCL9 and CXCL10 via clathrin-coated vesicles to CD4⁺ T cells leading to enhanced transmigration of CXCR4⁺ total CD4⁺ T cells and CXCR3⁺ effector/memory CD4⁺ T cells, respectively in vitro. LSEC-expressed CXCR4 mediated CXCL12 transport and blockage of endothelial CXCR4 inhibited CXCL12-dependent CD4⁺ T-cell transmigration. In contrast, CXCR3 was not involved in the endothelial transport of its ligands CXCL9 and CXCL10. The clathrin-specific inhibitor chlorpromazine blocked endothelial chemokine internalization and CD4⁺ T-cell transmigration in vitro as well as migration of CD4⁺ T cells into the inflamed liver in vivo. Moreover, hepatic accumulation of CXCR3⁺ CD4⁺ T cells during T cell-mediated hepatitis was strongly reduced after administration of chlorpromazine. These data demonstrate that LSEC actively provide perivascularly expressed homeostatic and inflammatory chemokines by CXCR4- and clathrin-dependent intracellular transport mechanisms thereby contributing to the hepatic recruitment of CD4⁺ T-cell populations during immune surveillance and liver inflammation.

CCR5 susceptibility to ligand-mediated down-modulation differs between human T lymphocytes and myeloid cells

CCR5 is a chemokine receptor expressed on leukocytes and a coreceptor used by HIV-1 to enter CD4(+) T lymphocytes and macrophages. Stimulation of CCR5 by chemokines triggers internalization of chemokine-bound CCR5 molecules in a process called down-modulation, which contributes to the anti-HIV activity of chemokines. Recent studies have shown that CCR5 conformational heterogeneity influences chemokine-CCR5 interactions and HIV-1 entry in transfected cells or activated CD4(+) T lymphocytes. However, the effect of CCR5 conformations on other cell types and on the process of down-modulation remains unclear. We used mAbs, some already shown to detect distinct CCR5 conformations, to compare the behavior of CCR5 on in vitro generated human T cell blasts, monocytes and MDMs and CHO-CCR5 transfectants. All human cells express distinct antigenic forms of CCR5 not detected on CHO-CCR5 cells. The recognizable populations of CCR5 receptors exhibit different patterns of down-modulation on T lymphocytes compared with myeloid cells. On T cell blasts, CCR5 is recognized by all antibodies and undergoes rapid chemokine-mediated internalization, whereas on monocytes and MDMs, a pool of CCR5 molecules is recognized by a subset of antibodies and is not removed from the cell surface. We demonstrate that this cell surface-retained form of CCR5 responds to prolonged treatment with more-potent chemokine analogs and acts as an HIV-1 coreceptor. Our findings indicate that the regulation of CCR5 is highly specific to cell type and provide a potential explanation for the observation that native chemokines are less-effective HIV-entry inhibitors on macrophages compared with T lymphocytes.

Flat clathrin lattices: stable features of the plasma membrane

Clathrin-mediated endocytosis (CME) is a fundamental property of eukaryotic cells. Classical CME proceeds via the formation of clathrin-coated pits (CCPs) at the plasma membrane, which invaginate to form clathrin-coated vesicles, a process that is well understood. However, clathrin also assembles into flat clathrin lattices (FCLs); these structures remain poorly described, and their contribution to cell biology is unclear. We used quantitative imaging to provide the first comprehensive description of FCLs and explore their influence on plasma membrane organization. Ultrastructural analysis by electron and superresolution microscopy revealed two discrete populations of clathrin structures. CCPs were typified by their sphericity, small size, and homogeneity. FCLs were planar, large, and heterogeneous and present on both the dorsal and ventral surfaces of cells. Live microscopy demonstrated that CCPs are short lived and culminate in a peak of dynamin recruitment, consistent with classical CME. In contrast, FCLs were long lived, with sustained association with dynamin. We investigated the biological relevance of FCLs using the chemokine receptor CCR5 as a model system. Agonist activation leads to sustained recruitment of CCR5 to FCLs. Quantitative molecular imaging indicated that FCLs partitioned receptors at the cell surface. Our observations suggest that FCLs provide stable platforms for the recruitment of endocytic cargo.

CCR5 conformations are dynamic and modulated by localization, trafficking and G protein association

CCR5 acts as the principal coreceptor during HIV-1 transmission and early stages of infection. Efficient HIV-1 entry requires a series of processes, many dependent on the conformational state of both viral envelope protein and cellular receptor. Monoclonal antibodies (MAbs) are able to identify different CCR5 conformations, allowing for their use as probes to distinguish CCR5 populations. Not all CCR5 MAbs are able to reduce HIV-1 infection, suggesting the use of select CCR5 populations for entry. In the U87.CD4.CCR5-GFP cell line, we used such HIV-1-restricting MAbs to probe the relation between localization, trafficking and G protein association for individual CCR5 conformations. We find that CCR5 conformations not only exhibit different localization and abundance patterns throughout the cell, but that they also display distinct sensitivities to endocytosis inhibition. Using chemokine analogs that vary in their HIV-1 inhibitory mechanisms, we also illustrate that responses to ligand engagement are conformation-specific. Additionally, we provide supporting evidence for the select sensitivity of conformations to G protein association. Characterizing the link between the function and dynamics of CCR5 populations has implications for understanding their selective targeting by HIV-1 and for the development of inhibitors that will block CCR5 utilization by the virus.

Activation of CCR2+ human proinflammatory monocytes by human herpesvirus-6B chemokine N-terminal peptide

Human monocytes expressing CCR2 with CD14 and CD16 can mediate antigen presentation, and promote inflammation, brain infiltration and immunosenescence. Recently identified roles are in human immunodeficiency virus infection, tuberculosis and parasitic disease. Human herpesvirus 6B (HHV-6B) encodes a chemokine, U83B, which is monospecific for CCR2, and is distinct from the related HHV-6A U83A, which activates CCR1, CCR4, CCR5, CCR6 and CCR8 on immune effector cells and dendritic cells. These differences could alter leukocyte-subset recruitment for latent/lytic replication and associated neuroinflammatory pathology. Therefore, cellular interactions between U83A and U83B could help dictate potential tropism differences between these viruses. U83A specificity is maintained in the 38-residue N-terminal spliced-truncated form. Here, we sought to determine the basis for the chemokine receptor specificity differences and identify possible applications. To do this we first analysed variation in a natural host population in sub-Saharan Africa where both viruses are equally prevalent and compared these to global strains. Analyses of U83 N-terminal variation in 112 HHV-6A and HHV-6B infections identified 6/38 U83A or U83B-specific residues. We also identified a unique single U83A-specific substitution in one U83B sequence, 'U83BA'. Next, the variation effects were tested by deriving N-terminal (NT) 17-mer peptides and assaying activation of ex vivo human leukocytes, the natural host and cellular target. Chemotaxis of CCR2+ leukocytes was potently induced by U83B-NT, but not U83BA-NT or U83A-NT. Analyses of the U83B-NT activated population identified migrated CCR2+, but not CCR5+, leukocytes. The U83BA-NT asparagine-lysine14 substitution disrupted activity, thus defining CCR2 specificity and acting as a main determinant for HHV-6A/B differences in cellular interactions. A flow-cytometry-based shape-change assay was designed, and used to provide further evidence that U83B-NT could activate CCR2+CD14+CD16+ monocytes. This defines a potential antiviral target for HHV-6A/B disease and novel peptide immunomodulator for proinflammatory monocytes.

Regulation of endocytic clathrin dynamics by cargo ubiquitination

VIDEO ABSTRACT

Some endocytic cargoes control clathrin-coated pit (CCP) maturation, but it is not known how such regulation is communicated. We found that μ-opioid neuropeptide receptors signal to their enclosing CCPs by ubiquitination. Nonubiquitinated receptors delay CCPs at an intermediate stage of maturation, after clathrin lattice assembly is complete but before membrane scission. Receptor ubiquitination relieves this inhibition, effectively triggering CCP scission and producing a receptor-containing endocytic vesicle. The ubiquitin modification that conveys this endocytosis-promoting signal is added to the receptor's first cytoplasmic loop, catalyzed by the Smurf2 ubiquitin ligase, and coordinated with activation-dependent receptor phosphorylation and clustering through Smurf2 recruitment by the endocytic adaptor beta-arrestin. Epsin1 detects the signal at the CCP and is required for ubiquitin-promoted scission. This cargo-to-coat communication system mediates a biochemical checkpoint that ensures appropriate receptor ubiquitination for later trafficking, and it controls specific receptor loading into CCPs by sensing when a sufficient quorum is reached.

CCR2 acts as scavenger for CCL2 during monocyte chemotaxis

BACKGROUND

Leukocyte migration is essential for effective host defense against invading pathogens and during immune homeostasis. A hallmark of the regulation of this process is the presentation of chemokines in gradients stimulating leukocyte chemotaxis via cognate chemokine receptors. For efficient migration, receptor responsiveness must be maintained whilst the cells crawl on cell surfaces or on matrices along the attracting gradient towards increasing concentrations of agonist. On the other hand agonist-induced desensitization and internalization is a general paradigm for chemokine receptors which is inconsistent with the prolonged migratory capacity.

METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS

Chemotaxis of monocytes was monitored in response to fluorescent CCL2-mCherry by time-lapse video microscopy. Uptake of the fluorescent agonist was used as indirect measure to follow the endogenous receptor CCR2 expressed on primary human monocytes. During chemotaxis CCL2-mCherry becomes endocytosed as cargo of CCR2, however, the internalization of CCR2 is not accompanied by reduced responsiveness of the cells due to desensitization.

CONCLUSIONS/SIGNIFICANCE

During chemotaxis CCR2 expressed on monocytes internalizes with the bound chemoattractant, but cycles rapidly back to the plasma membrane to maintain high responsiveness. Moreover, following relocation of the source of attractant, monocytes can rapidly reverse their polarization axis organizing a new leading edge along the newly formed gradient, suggesting a uniform distribution of highly receptive CCR2 on the plasma membrane. The present observations further indicate that during chemotaxis CCR2 acts as scavenger consuming the chemokine forming the attracting cue.

Several commercially available anti-CCR5 monoclonal antibodies lack specificity and should be used with caution

CCR5 (CD195) is a receptor for the chemokines RANTES, MIP-1α, and MIP-1β and is used by HIV-1 as a co-receptor for entry into macrophages and CD4+ T cells. CCR5 exists in multiple conformations in the membrane and is present at low levels on human macrophages, making it difficult to detect. Nine commercially available anti-CCR5 monoclonal antibodies were evaluated for their specificity and their recognition of CCR5 expressed by macrophages. Unexpectedly, we found that three of the nine clones tested displayed substantial background binding to CCR5 negative cells, suggesting that these antibodies may give unreliable results. We recommend the use of clones CTC8, 45531 (PE conjugated), and 45523 and advise that data obtained using CTC5, 45531 (unconjugated), and 45549 anti-CCR5 antibody clones should be interpreted with care.

Selective loss of chemokine receptor expression on leukocytes after cell isolation

Chemokine receptors are distinctively exposed on cells to characterize their migration pattern. However, little is known about factors that may regulate their expression. To determine the optimal conditions for an accurate analysis of chemokine receptors, we compared the expression of CCR2, CCR4, CCR5, CCR6, CXCR3 and CXCR4 on different leukocyte subsets using whole blood (WB) plus erythrocyte lysis and density gradient isolation (Ficoll). Most WB monocytes were CCR2+ (93.5 ± 2.9%) whereas 32.8 ± 6.0% of monocytes from Ficoll-PBMC expressed CCR2 (p<0.001). Significant reductions of CCR6 and CXCR3 on monocytes were also observed after Ficoll isolation (WB: 46.4 ± 7.5% and 57.1 ± 5.5%; Ficoll: 29.5 ± 2.2% and 5.4 ± 4.3% respectively) (p<0.01). Although comparable percentages of WB and Ficoll-PBMC monocytes expressed CCR4, CCR5 and CXCR4, Ficoll isolation significantly reduced the levels of CXCR4 (WB: MFI 5 ± 0.4 and Ficoll: MFI 3.3 ± 0.1) (p<0.05). Similarly to monocytes, CCR2, CXCR3 and CXCR4 were also reduced on lymphocytes. In addition, Ficoll isolation significantly reduced the percentage of CCR4 positive lymphocytes (WB: 90.2 ± 4.5% and Ficoll: 55 ± 4.1%) (p<0.01). The loss of expression of chemokine receptors after isolation of monocytes was not dependent on either the anticoagulant or the density gradient method. It was irreversible and could not be restored by LPS activation or in vitro macrophage differentiation. Experiments tagged with anti-CCR2 antibodies prior to density gradient isolation demonstrated that Ficoll internalized chemokine receptors. The method for cell isolation may alter not only the expression of certain chemokine receptors but also the respective functional migration assay. The final choice to analyze their expression should therefore depend on the receptor to be measured.

Duffy antigen receptor for chemokines mediates chemokine endocytosis through a macropinocytosis-like process in endothelial cells

Background

The Duffy antigen receptor for chemokines (DARC) shows high affinity binding to multiple inflammatory CC and CXC chemokines and is expressed by erythrocytes and endothelial cells. Recent evidence suggests that endothelial DARC facilitates chemokine transcytosis to promote neutrophil recruitment. However, the mechanism of chemokine endocytosis by DARC remains unclear.

Methodology/Principal Findings

We investigated the role of several endocytic pathways in DARC-mediated ligand internalization. Here we report that, although DARC co-localizes with caveolin-1 in endothelial cells, caveolin-1 is dispensable for DARC-mediated ¹²⁵I-CXCL1 endocytosis as knockdown of caveolin-1 failed to inhibit ligand internalization. ¹²⁵I-CXCL1 endocytosis by DARC was also independent of clathrin and flotillin-1 but required cholesterol and was, in part, inhibited by silencing Dynamin II expression.¹²⁵I-CXCL1 endocytosis was inhibited by amiloride, cytochalasin D, and the PKC inhibitor Gö6976 whereas Platelet Derived Growth Factor (PDGF) enhanced ligand internalization through DARC. The majority of DARC-ligand interactions occurred on the endothelial surface, with DARC identified along plasma membrane extensions with the appearance of ruffles, supporting the concept that DARC provides a high affinity scaffolding function for surface retention of chemokines on endothelial cells.

Conclusions/Significance

These results show DARC-mediated chemokine endocytosis occurs through a macropinocytosis-like process in endothelial cells and caveolin-1 is dispensable for CXCL1 internalization.

Mechanisms regulating chemokine receptor activity

Co-ordinated movement and controlled positioning of leucocytes is key to the development, maintenance and proper functioning of the immune system. Chemokines and their receptors play an essential role in these events by mediating directed cell migration, often referred to as chemotaxis. The chemotactic property of these molecules is also thought to contribute to an array of pathologies where inappropriate recruitment of specific chemokine receptor-expressing leucocytes is observed, including cancer and inflammatory diseases. As a result, chemokine receptors have become major targets for therapeutic intervention, and during the past 15 years much research has been devoted to understanding the regulation of their biological activity. From these studies, processes which govern the availability of functional chemokine receptors at the cell surface have emerged as playing a central role. In this review, we summarize and discuss current knowledge on the molecular mechanisms contributing to the regulation of chemokine receptor surface expression, from gene transcription and protein degradation to post-translational modifications, multimerization, intracellular transport and cross-talk.

Mapping the distributions and quantifying the labelling intensities of cell compartments by immunoelectron microscopy: progress towards a coherent set of methods

An important tool in cell biology is the combination of immunogold labelling and transmission electron microscopy (TEM) by which target molecules (e.g. antigens) are bound specifically to affinity markers (primary antibodies) and then detected and localised with visualisation probes (e.g. colloidal gold particles bound to protein A). Gold particles are electron-dense, punctate and available in different sizes whilst TEM provides high-resolution images of particles and cell compartments. By virtue of these properties, the combination can be used also to quantify one or more defined targets in cell compartments. During the past decade, new ways of quantifying gold labelling within cells have been devised. Their efficiency and validity rely on sound principles of specimen sampling, event counting and inferential statistics. These include random selection of items at each sampling stage (e.g. specimen blocks, thin sections, microscopical fields), stereological analysis of cell ultrastructure, unbiased particle counting and statistical evaluation of a suitable null hypothesis (no difference in the intensity or pattern of labelling between compartments or groups of cells). The following approaches are possible: (i) A target molecule can be tested for preferential labelling by mapping the localisation of gold particles across a set of compartments. (ii) Data from wild-type and knockdown/knockout control cells can be used to correct raw gold particle counts, estimate specific labelling densities and then test for preferential labeling. (iii) The same antigen can be mapped in two or more groups of cells to test whether there are experimental shifts in compartment labelling patterns. (iv) A variant of this approach uses more than one size of gold particle to test whether or not different antigens colocalise in one or more compartments. (v) In studies involving antigen translocation, absolute numbers of gold particles can be mapped over compartments at specific positions within polarised, oriented or dividing cells. Here, the current state of the art is reviewed and approaches are illustrated with virtual datasets.

Mesenchymal stem cells exhibit firm adhesion, crawling, spreading and transmigration across aortic endothelial cells: effects of chemokines and shear

Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) have anti-inflammatory and immunosuppressive properties and may be useful in the therapy of diseases such as arteriosclerosis. MSCs have some ability to traffic into inflamed tissues, however to exploit this therapeutically their migratory mechanisms need to be elucidated. This study examines the interaction of murine MSCs (mMSCs) with, and their migration across, murine aortic endothelial cells (MAECs), and the effects of chemokines and shear stress. The interaction of mMSCs with MAECs was examined under physiological flow conditions. mMSCs showed lack of interaction with MAECs under continuous flow. However, when the flow was stopped (for 10min) and then started, mMSCs adhered and crawled on the endothelial surface, extending fine microvillous processes (filopodia). They then spread extending pseudopodia in multiple directions. CXCL9 significantly enhanced the percentage of mMSCs adhering, crawling and spreading and shear forces markedly stimulated crawling and spreading. CXCL9, CXCL16, CCL20 and CCL25 significantly enhanced transendothelial migration across MAECs. The transmigrated mMSCs had down-regulated receptors CXCR3, CXCR6, CCR6 and CCR9. This study furthers the knowledge of MSC transendothelial migration and the effects of chemokines and shear stress which is of relevance to inflammatory diseases such as arteriosclerosis.

The generation of curved clathrin coats from flat plaques

Flat clathrin lattices or 'plaques' are commonly believed to be the precursors to clathrin-coated buds and vesicles. The sequence of steps carrying the flat hexagonal lattice into a highly curved polyhedral cage with exactly 12 pentagons remains elusive, however, and the large numbers of disrupted interclathrin connections in previously proposed conversion pathways make these scenarios rather unlikely. The recent notion that clathrin can make controlled small conformational transitions opens new avenues. Simulations with a self-assembling clathrin model suggest that localized conformational changes in a plaque can create sufficiently strong stresses for a dome-like fragment to break apart. The released fragment, which is strongly curved but still hexagonal, may subsequently grow into a cage by recruiting free triskelia from the cytoplasm, thus building all 12 pentagonal faces without recourse to complex topological changes. The critical assembly concentration in a slightly acidic in vitro solution is used to estimate the binding energy of a cage at 25-40 k(B) T/clathrin.

New approaches in the treatment of HIV/AIDS - focus on maraviroc and other CCR5 antagonists

Treatment of HIV-1 infection has produced dramatic success for many patients. Nevertheless, viral resistance continues to limit the efficacy of currently available agents in many patients. The CCR5 antagonists are a new class of antiretroviral agents that target a necessary coreceptor for viral entry of many strains of HIV-1. Recently, the first agent within this class, maraviroc, was approved by a number of regulatory agencies, including the Food and Drug Administration. Herein we review the role of the CCR5 receptor in HIV-1 infection and potential methods to target it in anti-HIV-1 therapy. We review the various categories of agents and discuss specific agents that have progressed to clinical study. We discuss in detail the recently approved, first in class CCR5 antagonist, maraviroc, and discuss aspects of resistance to CCR5 antagonism and the potential role of CCR5 antagonism in the management of HIV-1 infection.

TLR2-dependent pathway of heterologous down-modulation for the CC chemokine receptors 1, 2, and 5 in human blood monocytes

During innate immune responses, the inflammatory CC chemokine receptors CCR1, CCR2, and CCR5 mediate the recruitment of blood monocytes to infected tissues by promoting cell migration in response to chemokines CCL2-5. Toll-like receptors also play an essential role, allowing pathogen recognition by the recruited monocytes. Here, we demonstrate that Toll-like receptor 2 (TLR2) stimulation by lipoteichoic acid (LTA) from Staphylococcus aureus leads to gradual down-modulation of CCR1, CCR2, and CCR5 from the plasma membrane of human blood-isolated monocytes and inhibits chemotaxis. Interestingly, LTA does not promote rapid desensitization of chemokine-mediated calcium responses. We found that the TLR2 crosstalk with chemokine receptors is not dependent on the Toll/interleukin-1 receptor domain-containing adaptor protein, but instead involves phospholipase C, the small G protein Rac1, and is phorbol ester sensitive. Activation of this pathway by LTA lead to β-arrestin-mediated endocytosis of Ser349-phosphorylated CCR5 into recycling endosomes, as does CCL5 treatment. However, LTA-induced internalization of CCR5 is a slower process associated with phospholipase C-mediated and phorbol ester-sensitive phosphorylation. Overall, our data indicate that TLR2 negatively regulates CCR1, CCR2, and CCR5 on human blood monocytes by activating the machinery used to support chemokine-dependent down-modulation and provide a molecular mechanism for inhibiting monocyte migration after pathogen recognition.

CC chemokine receptor 5 (CCR5) desensitization: cycling receptors accumulate in the trans-Golgi network

CC chemokine receptor 5 (CCR5), the major HIV coreceptor, is a G protein-coupled receptor (GPCR) involved in cell activation and migration in response to chemokines. Blockade of CCR5 is an effective anti-HIV strategy, and potent anti-HIV chemokine analogs such as PSC-RANTES have been developed. These inhibitors act by interfering with receptor trafficking, thereby inducing prolonged intracellular sequestration of CCR5. Like many GPCRs, CCR5 is desensitized following agonist activation. The initial steps in this process are well understood, but later stages, including where CCR5 is sequestered during desensitization, and how anti-HIV chemokine analogs intervene to achieve prolonged sequestration, have yet to be elucidated in detail. In this study we demonstrate that CCR5 cycles to and from the cell surface via the endosome recycling compartment and the trans-Golgi network during desensitization, accumulating in the trans-Golgi network following internalization by both PSC-RANTES and CCL5, the native ligand from which it was derived. In addition, we show that unlike CCR5 sequestered by CCL5, CCR5 sequestered by PSC-RANTES cannot be induced to return to the cell surface by addition of the small molecule CCR5 inhibitor, TAK-779, and that association of PSC-RANTES with CCR5 is more durable than that of native CCL5 during desensitization. Our findings reconcile the previously conflicting descriptions of the location of sequestered CCR5 during desensitization, as well as providing more general insights into potential trafficking routes for endocytosed GPCRs and further elucidation of the unusual inhibitory mechanism of chemokine analogs with potent anti-HIV activity.

CCR5: From Natural Resistance to a New Anti-HIV Strategy

The C-C chemokine receptor type 5 (CCR5) is a key player in HIV infection due to its major involvement in the infection process. Investigations into the role of the CCR5 coreceptor first focused on its binding to the virus and the molecular mechanisms leading to the entry and spread of HIV. The identification of naturally occurring CCR5 mutations has allowed scientists to address the CCR5 molecule as a promising target to prevent or limit HIV infection in vivo. Naturally occurring CCR5-specific antibodies have been found in exposed but uninfected people, and in a subset of HIV seropositive people who show long-term control of the infection. This suggests that natural autoimmunity to the CCR5 coreceptor exists and may play a role in HIV control. Such natural immunity has prompted strategies aimed at achieving anti-HIV humoral responses through CCR5 targeting, which will be described here.

Constitutive endocytosis of the chemokine CX3CL1 prevents its degradation by cell surface metalloproteases

CX(3)CL1, a chemokine with transmembrane and soluble species, plays a key role in inflammation by acting as both chemoattractant and adhesion molecule. CX(3)CL1 is the only chemokine known to undergo constitutive internalization, raising the possibility that dynamic equilibrium between the endocytic compartment and the plasma membrane critically regulates the availability and processing of CX(3)CL1 at the cell surface. We therefore investigated how transmembrane CX(3)CL1 is internalized. Inhibition of dynamin using a nonfunctional allele or of clathrin using specific small interfering RNA prevented endocytosis of the chemokine in CX(3)CL1-expressing human ECV-304 cells. Perusal of the cytoplasmic domain of CX(3)CL1 revealed two putative adaptor protein-2 (AP-2)-binding motifs. Accordingly, CX(3)CL1 co-localized with AP-2 at the plasma membrane. We generated a mutant allele of CX(3)CL1 lacking the cytoplasmic tail. Deletion of the cytosolic tail precluded internalization of the chemokine. We used site-directed mutagenesis to disrupt AP-2-binding motifs, singly or in combination, which resulted in diminished internalization of CX(3)CL1. Although CX(3)CL1 was present in both superficial and endomembrane compartments, ADAM10 (a disintegrin and metalloprotease 10) and tumor necrosis factor-converting enzyme, the two metalloproteases that cleave CX(3)CL1, localized predominantly to the plasmalemma. Inhibition of endocytosis using the dynamin inhibitor, Dynasore, promoted rapid metalloprotease-dependent shedding of CX(3)CL1 from the cell surface into the surrounding medium. These findings indicate that the cytoplasmic tail of CX(3)CL1 facilitates its constitutive clathrin-mediated endocytosis. Such regulation enables intracellular storage of a sizable pool of presynthesized CX(3)CL1 that protects the chemokine from degradation by metalloproteases at the plasma membrane.

CCR5 signalling, but not DARC or D6 regulatory, chemokine receptors are targeted by herpesvirus U83A chemokine which delays receptor internalisation via diversion to a caveolin-linked pathway

Background

Herpesviruses have evolved chemokines and chemokine receptors, which modulate the recruitment of human leukocytes during the inflammatory response to infection. Early post-infection, human herpesvirus 6A (HHV-6A) infected cells express the chemokine receptor U51A and chemokine U83A which have complementary effects in subverting the CC-chemokine family thereby controlling anti-viral leukocyte recruitment. Here we show that, to potentiate this activity, the viral chemokine can also avoid clearance by scavenger chemokine receptors, DARC and D6, which normally regulate an inflammatory response. Conversely, U83A delays internalisation of its signalling target receptor CCR5 with diversion to caveolin rich membrane domains. This mechanism can redirect displaced human chemokines to DARC and D6 for clearance of the anti-viral inflammatory response, leaving the viral chemokine unchecked.

Methods

Cell models for competitive binding assays were established using radiolabeled human chemokines and cold U83A on CCR5, DARC or D6 expressing cells. Flow cytometry was used to assess specific chemotaxis of CCR5 bearing cells to U83A, and internalisation of CCR5 specific chemokine CCL4 after stimulation with U83A. Internalisation analyses were supported by confocal microscopy of internalisation and co-localisation of CCR5 with caveosome marker caveolin-1, after virus or human chemokine stimulation.

Results

U83A displaced efficiently human chemokines from CCR5, with a high affinity of 0.01nM, but not from DARC or D6. Signalling via CCR5 resulted in specific chemoattraction of primary human leukocytes bearing CCR5. However, U83A effective binding and signalling to CCR5 resulted in delayed internalisation and recycling up to 2 hours in the absence of continual re-stimulation. This resulted in diversion to a delayed caveolin-linked pathway rather than the rapid clathrin mediated endocytosis previously shown with human chemokines CCL3 or CCL4.

Conclusion

U83A diverts human chemokines from signalling, but not regulatory or scavenger, receptors facilitating their clearance, while occupying signalling receptors at the cell surface. This can enhance virus specific inflammation, facilitating dissemination to replication sensitive leukocytes while evading clearance; this has implications for linked neuro-inflammatory pathologies.