Quantitative magnetic resonance imaging of human brain development: ages 4-18

A Review and Meta-Analysis on Altered Brain Structure in Patients Born with Non-Syndromic Cleft Lip and/or Palate

ObjectiveTo determine if there is evidence for a relationship between the presence of a non-syndromic cleft lip and/or palate (NSCL/P) and altered brain structure in cleft affected individuals.DesignElectronic database (MEDLINE; EMBASE; Cochrane library) and manual searches were performed and were limited to English language texts published between 1st of January 1969 until 1st of June 2024. Data extraction and risk of bias assessment were carried out independently by two reviewers. A meta-analysis on 9 publications was performed using a random effects model.Main outcome measureComparison of brain structure between patients born with cleft lip and/or palate and unaffected healthy individuals.ResultsThe review identified 11 studies, of which 9 were included in the meta-analysis. The latter comprised 398 individuals with NSCL/P compared to 458 unaffected controls. There was statistical evidence to suggest a reduction in the overall intracranial volume and the total cerebellar volume in the NSCL/P cases compared to the controls (Hedges' g and 95% confidence intervals: -0.36 [95% CI: -0.65, -0.08] and -0.69 [95% CI: -0.84, -0.53], respectively). For the cortical gray matter, straight gyrus, and total cerebral volume, there was no statistical evidence to suggest a difference between the NSCL/P cases and the controls.ConclusionIn individuals with NSCL/P, the overall intracranial volume and the total cerebellar volume were both smaller than in unaffected controls.

Protective and risk factors in daily life associated with cognitive decline of older adults

Background

Cognitive decline is a chronic condition which is characterized by a loss of the ability to remember, learn, and pay attention to complex tasks. Many older people are now suffering from cognitive decline, which decreases life quality and leads to disability. This study aimed to identify the risk and protective factors for cognitive decline of the older people from daily life and establish a predictive model using logistic regression.

Methods

We investigated 3,790 older people with health examination and questionnaires which included information associated with physical condition, lifestyle factors, and cognitive status. Single-factor comparison, principal component analysis with a Manova-Wilk test, multiple linear regression, and logistic regression were performed to filter the risk and protective factors regarding cognitive decline of older individuals. Then a predictive model using logistic regression was established based on the most significant protective and risk factors.

Results

We found a significant separation along the coordinate axis between people with normal and declined cognition by principal component analysis, as confirmed by the Manover-Wilk test. Single-factor comparison, multiple linear regression and logistic regression implied that gender, age, hypertension level, height, dietary habit, physical-exercise duration, physical-exercise history, and smoking history could be closely linked with cognitive decline. We also observed significant differences in height, physical exercise duration, physical-exercise years, and smoking years between the male and female of the participants. ROCs of the predictive model by logistic regression were plotted, with AUC values of 0.683 and 0.682, respectively, for the training and testing sets. Although an effective predictive model is thought to have AUC over 0.7, we still believe that the present model is acceptable because the value is close to the threshold.

Conclusion

The protective factors of cognitive decline for older people were male gender, height, keeping moderate exercising, and nicotine stimulation, and the risk factors included age, female gender, vegetarianism and hypertension. Except for the genetic factor, differences in lifestyle, such as smoking and exercise habits, may contribute to the observed differences in cognitive function between genders. The significant results could be utilized in the practice for the early intervention of cognitive decline in aged people.

Occipital bone modeling patterns during the first years of life: A preliminary histological and quantitative approach

Studies of modeling processes have provided important insights in human evolutionary discipline. Most of these studies are based on facial bones and in much lesser extent on other bones such as those from the cranial vault. Thus, this study fills a gap in research by examining occipital bone modeling in subadults, adding individuals under 2 years old and expanding the sample size available to date. The sample comprise 14 subadults occipitals (4 months to 5 years) from archeological sites spanning the thirteenth to the eighteenth century. Resin replicas coated with gold were elaborated to examine the modeling patterns using scanning electron microscopy and the results of this analysis are illustrated in the modeling maps. The percentages of deposition and resorption were calculated to enable the comparison of the modeling patterns between individuals. The analysis unveiled a pattern of resorption predominance in younger individuals, shifting to deposition around 3 years old before reverting to resorption in older individuals. Symmetry in modeling processes between left and right halves of the occipital was observed, suggesting stability in bone modeling. Comparisons with previous studies showed variations in modeling patterns influenced by factors like age. Overall, this study sheds light on occipital bone modeling processes, highlighting the importance of sample size and quantitative analysis in the interpretation of modeling maps. Further research is justified to comprehensively explore occipital modeling patterns, particularly during the early stages of development.

A Comparison of Pre- and Post-Treatment Cranial MRI Characteristics in Patients with Pediatric Epilepsy Receiving Levetiracetam

Background and Objectives: This study was performed for the purpose of assessing whether antiepileptic levetiracetam treatment produces a change in brain volumes in children with epilepsy. To that end, we compared the volumes of the basal ganglia (caudate nucleus, putamen, globus, hip-pocampus, and thalamus) at magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) before and after treatment (months 18-24) in pediatric epilepsy patients using levetiracetam. Materials and Methods: This retrospective study involved a volumetric comparison of patients presenting to the Balikesir University Medical Faculty pediatric neurology clinic between 01.08.2019 and 01.11.2023 and diagnosed with epilepsy, and who underwent cranial MRI before and 18-24 months after treatment at the radiology department. The demographic and clinical characteristics (age, sex, family history of epilepsy, type of epilepsy, and EEG features (normal, abnormal, epileptiform)) of the patients included in the study were recorded. Results: The comparison of basal ganglia volumes at cranial MRI before and at months 18-24 of treatment revealed significant differences in the left caudate nucleus, right putamen, left putamen, left globus pallidus, right thalamus, left thalamus, and right hippocampal regions. Conclusions: In conclusion, differing findings are encountered at cranial imaging in patients with epilepsy, depending on the seizure frequency, activity, and the type of antiepileptic drugs used. This study compared basal ganglia volumes on cranial MRIs taken before and 18-24 months after treatment in pediatric epilepsy patients using levetiracetam. A significant increase was observed in the volumes of basal ganglia (caudate nucleus, putamen, globus pallidus, hippocampus, and thalamus) on the MRIs of pediatric epilepsy patients using levetiracetam.

Sex as a Determinant of Age-Related Changes in the Brain

The notion of notable anatomical, biochemical, and behavioral distinctions within male and female brains has been a contentious topic of interest within the scientific community over several decades. Advancements in neuroimaging and molecular biological techniques have increasingly elucidated common mechanisms characterizing brain aging while also revealing disparities between sexes in these processes. Variations in cognitive functions; susceptibility to and progression of neurodegenerative conditions, notably Alzheimer's and Parkinson's diseases; and notable disparities in life expectancy between sexes, underscore the significance of evaluating aging within the framework of gender differences. This comprehensive review surveys contemporary literature on the restructuring of brain structures and fundamental processes unfolding in the aging brain at cellular and molecular levels, with a focus on gender distinctions. Additionally, the review delves into age-related cognitive alterations, exploring factors influencing the acceleration or deceleration of aging, with particular attention to estrogen's hormonal support of the central nervous system.

Body size interacts with the structure of the central nervous system: A multi-center in vivo neuroimaging study

Clinical research emphasizes the implementation of rigorous and reproducible study designs that rely on between-group matching or controlling for sources of biological variation such as subject's sex and age. However, corrections for body size (i.e. height and weight) are mostly lacking in clinical neuroimaging designs. This study investigates the importance of body size parameters in their relationship with spinal cord (SC) and brain magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) metrics. Data were derived from a cosmopolitan population of 267 healthy human adults (age 30.1±6.6 years old, 125 females). We show that body height correlated strongly or moderately with brain gray matter (GM) volume, cortical GM volume, total cerebellar volume, brainstem volume, and cross-sectional area (CSA) of cervical SC white matter (CSA-WM; 0.44≤r≤0.62). In comparison, age correlated weakly with cortical GM volume, precentral GM volume, and cortical thickness (-0.21≥r≥-0.27). Body weight correlated weakly with magnetization transfer ratio in the SC WM, dorsal columns, and lateral corticospinal tracts (-0.20≥r≥-0.23). Body weight further correlated weakly with the mean diffusivity derived from diffusion tensor imaging (DTI) in SC WM (r=-0.20) and dorsal columns (-0.21), but only in males. CSA-WM correlated strongly or moderately with brain volumes (0.39≤r≤0.64), and weakly with precentral gyrus thickness and DTI-based fractional anisotropy in SC dorsal columns and SC lateral corticospinal tracts (-0.22≥r≥-0.25). Linear mixture of sex and age explained 26±10% of data variance in brain volumetry and SC CSA. The amount of explained variance increased at 33±11% when body height was added into the mixture model. Age itself explained only 2±2% of such variance. In conclusion, body size is a significant biological variable. Along with sex and age, body size should therefore be included as a mandatory variable in the design of clinical neuroimaging studies examining SC and brain structure.

Volumetric analysis of age- and sex-related changes in the corpus striatum and thalamus in the 1-18 age group: a retrospective magnetic resonance imaging study

Studies of the development and asymmetry of the corpus striatum and thalamus in early childhood are rare. Studies investigating these structures across the lifespan have not presented their changes during childhood and adolescence in detail. For these reasons, this study investigated the effect of age and sex factors on the development and asymmetry of the corpus striatum and thalamus in the 1-18 age group. In this retrospective study, we included 652 individuals [362 (56%) males] aged 1-18 years with normal brain MRI between 2012 and 2021. Absolute and relative volumes of the corpus striatum and thalamus were obtained by segmentation of three-dimensional T1-weighted MRIs with volBrain1.0. We created age-specific volume data and month-based development models with the help of SPSS (ver.28). The corpus striatum and thalamus had cubic absolute volumetric developmental models. The relative volume of the caudate and thalamus (only males) is consistent with the decreasing "growth" model, the others with the decreasing cubic model. The absolute volumes of the males' bilateral corpus striatum and thalamus and the relative volumes of the caudate and thalamus of the females were significantly larger (P < 0.05). The caudate showed right > left lateralization; putamen, globus pallidus, and thalamus showed left > right lateralization.

On some statistical and cerebral aspects of the limits of working memory capacity in anthropoid primates, with particular reference to Pan and Homo, and their significance for human evolution

Some comparative ontogenetic data imply that effective working-memory capacity develops in ways that are independent of brain size in humans. These are interpreted better from neuroscientific considerations about the continuing development of neuronal architecture in adolescents and young adults, than from one about gross brain mass which already is reached in childhood. By contrast, working-memory capacity in Pan never develops beyond that of three- or four-year-old children. The phylogenetic divergence begs the question of whether it is any longer plausible to infer from the fossil record, that over the past two million years, an ostensibly gradual increase in endocranial volumes, assigned to the genus Homo, can be correlated in a scientifically-meaningful manner with the gradual evolution of our effective executive working memory. It is argued that whereas Pan's effective working-memory capacity is relatively similar to that of its storage working-memory, our working memory is relatively larger with deeper executive control.

Adolescent to young adult longitudinal development of subcortical volumes in two European sites with four waves

Adolescent subcortical structural brain development might underlie psychopathological symptoms, which often emerge in adolescence. At the same time, sex differences exist in psychopathology, which might be mirrored in underlying sex differences in structural development. However, previous studies showed inconsistencies in subcortical trajectories and potential sex differences. Therefore, we aimed to investigate the subcortical structural trajectories and their sex differences across adolescence using for the first time a single cohort design, the same quality control procedure, software, and a general additive mixed modeling approach. We investigated two large European sites from ages 14 to 24 with 503 participants and 1408 total scans from France and Germany as part of the IMAGEN project including four waves of data acquisition. We found significantly larger volumes in males versus females in both sites and across all seven subcortical regions. Sex differences in age-related trajectories were observed across all regions in both sites. Our findings provide further evidence of sex differences in longitudinal adolescent brain development of subcortical regions and thus might eventually support the relationship of underlying brain development and different adolescent psychopathology in boys and girls.

Structural Alterations of the Corpus Callosum in Children With Infantile Hydrocephalus

This study investigates structural alterations of the corpus callosum in children diagnosed with infantile hydrocephalus. We aim to assess both macrostructural (volume) and microstructural (diffusion tensor imaging metrics) facets of the corpus callosum, providing insights into the nature and extent of alterations associated with this condition. Eighteen patients with infantile hydrocephalus (mean age = 9 years) and 18 age- and sex-matched typically developing healthy children participated in the study. Structural magnetic resonance imaging and diffusion tensor imaging were used to assess corpus callosum volume and microstructure, respectively. Our findings reveal significant alterations in corpus callosum volume, particularly in the posterior area, as well as distinct microstructural disparities, notably pronounced in these same segments. These results highlight the intricate interplay between macrostructural and microstructural aspects in understanding the impact of infantile hydrocephalus. Examining these structural alterations provides an understanding into the mechanisms underlying the effects of infantile hydrocephalus on corpus callosum integrity, given its pivotal role in interhemispheric communication. This knowledge offers a more nuanced perspective on neurologic disorders and underscores the significance of investigating the corpus callosum's health in such contexts.

Examination of the Development and Asymmetry of the Cerebellum and Its Lobules in Individuals Aged 1-18 Years: A Retrospective MRI Study

Developmental studies of cerebellar lobules were limited. To our knowledge, structural asymmetry has not been studied in immature cerebellar lobules in the 1-18 age group. This study investigated the effect of age and gender on the volumetric development and asymmetry of the global cerebellum and cerebellar lobules in children and adolescents. In this retrospective study, we included 670 individuals [376 (56.1%) males] aged 1-18 years with normal brain MRIs between 2012 and 2021. volBrain CERES automatically segmented the right and left sides of the cerebellar lobules on three-dimensional T1-weighted MRIs. Volume and asymmetry data from individuals in 16 different age ranges were compared with SPSS (ver.28). The absolute volumetric development of the total cerebellum was consistent with the "S" development model in both sexes. The developmental trajectories of the cerebellar lobules were different from each other and showed sexual dimorphism. In the 1-18 age group, the absolute volumes of the total cerebellum and cerebellar lobules were significantly greater in males (p < 0.05). Absolute volumes of lobules IV, VIIB, VIIIA and VIIIB in the age groups had more gender differences. However, sexual dimorphism was insignificant in the cerebellum's total and lobular relative volume. Lobules IV, V, VI, VIIIA and VIIIB had left > right asymmetry and other lobules and total cerebellum had right > left asymmetry. This study confirmed the developmental heterogeneity and sexual dimorphism in the cerebellar lobules. It also provided volumetric data of the immature cerebellum to enable comparison in various neurological and neuropsychiatric diseases.

Study of the human hippocampal formation: a method for histological and magnetic resonance correlation in perinatal cases

Little information is available on the magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) determination of the hippocampal formation (HF) during the perinatal period. However, this exploration is increasingly used, which requires defining visible HF landmarks on MRI images, validated through histological analysis. This study aims to provide a protocol to identify HF landmarks on MRI images, followed by histological validation through serial sections of the temporal lobe of the samples examined, to assess the longitudinal extent of the hippocampus during the perinatal period. We examined ex vivo MRI images from nine infant control brain samples. Histological validation of the hippocampal formation MRI images was obtained through serial sectioning and examination of Nissl-stained sections at 250 μm intervals along the entire length of the hippocampal formation. Up to six landmarks were identified both in MRI images and the serial histological sections. Proceeding in an anterior to posterior (rostrocaudal) direction, these were as follows: 1) the limen insulae (fronto-temporal junction); 2) the beginning of the amygdaloid complex; 3) the beginning of the lateral ventricle; 4) the caudal limit of the uncus, indicated by the start of the lateral geniculate nucleus (at the level of the gyrus intralimbicus); 5) the end of the lateral geniculate nucleus (beginning of the pulvinar); and 6) the beginning of the fornix. After histological validation of each of these landmarks, the full longitudinal length of the hippocampal formation and distances between landmarks were calculated. No statistically significant differences were found in total length or between landmarks. While the HF is anatomically organized at birth, its annotation is particularly challenging to perform. The histological validation of HF landmarks allows a better understanding of MRI images. The proposed protocol could be useful to assess MRI hippocampal quantification in children and possible variations due to different neurological diseases.

Insulin-like growth factor 1 supplementation supports motor coordination and affects myelination in preterm pigs

Introduction

Preterm infants have increased risk of impaired neurodevelopment to which reduced systemic levels of insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-1) in the weeks after birth may play a role. Hence, we hypothesized that postnatal IGF-1 supplementation would improve brain development in preterm pigs, used as a model for preterm infants.

Methods

Preterm pigs delivered by cesarean section received recombinant human IGF-1/IGF binding protein-3 complex (rhIGF-1/rhIGFBP-3, 2.25 mg/kg/day) or vehicle from birth to postnatal day 19. Motor function and cognition were assessed by monitoring of in-cage and open field activities, balance beam test, gait parameters, novel object recognition and operant conditioning tests. Collected brains were subject to magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), immunohistochemistry, gene expression analyses and protein synthesis measurements.

Results

The IGF-1 treatment increased cerebellar protein synthesis rates (both in vivo and ex vivo). Performance in the balance beam test was improved by IGF-1 but not in other neurofunctional tests. The treatment decreased total and relative caudate nucleus weights, without any effects to total brain weight or grey/white matter volumes. Supplementation with IGF-1 reduced myelination in caudate nucleus, cerebellum, and white matter regions and decreased hilar synapse formation, without effects to oligodendrocyte maturation or neuron differentiation. Gene expression analyses indicated enhanced maturation of the GABAergic system in the caudate nucleus (decreased NKCC1:KCC2 ratio) with limited effects in cerebellum or hippocampus.

Conclusion

Supplemental IGF-1 during the first three weeks after preterm birth may support motor function by enhancing GABAergic maturation in the caudate nucleus, despite reduced myelination. Supplemental IGF-1 may support postnatal brain development in preterm infants, but more studies are required to identify optimal treatment regimens for subgroups of very or extremely preterm infants.

Implications of age at lesion onset for neuropsychological outcomes: A systematic review focusing on focal brain lesions

Theories of the relation between age at lesion onset and outcomes posit different views of the young brain: resilient and plastic (i.e., the so-called "Kennard Principle"), or vulnerable (i.e., the Early Vulnerability Hypothesis). There is support for both perspectives in previous research and questions about the "best" or "worst" times to sustain brain injury remain. Here, we present a systematic review investigating the influence of age at focal brain lesion onset on cognitive functioning. This systematic review identifies and qualitatively synthesizes empirical studies from 1985 to 2021 that investigated age at lesion onset as a variable of interest associated with neuropsychological outcomes. A total of 45 studies were identified from PubMed, PsycINFO, and CINAHL databases. Almost all studies indicated that brain injury earlier in the developmental period predicts worse cognitive outcomes when compared to onset either later in the developmental period or in adulthood. More specifically, the overwhelming majority of studies support an "earlier is worse" model for domains of intellect, processing speed, attention and working memory, visuospatial and perceptual skills, and learning and memory. Relatively more variability in outcomes exists for domains of language and executive functioning. Outcomes for all domains are influenced by various other age and injury variables (e.g., lesion size, lesion laterality, chronicity, a history of epilepsy). Continued interdisciplinary understanding and communication about the influence of age at lesion onset on neuropsychological outcomes will aid in promoting the best possible outcomes for patients.

Pathways link environmental and genetic factors with structural brain networks and psychopathology in youth

Adolescence is a period of significant brain development and maturation, and it is a time when many mental health problems first emerge. This study aimed to explore a comprehensive map that describes possible pathways from genetic and environmental risks to structural brain organization and psychopathology in adolescents. We included 32 environmental items on developmental adversity, maternal substance use, parental psychopathology, socioeconomic status (SES), school and family environment; 10 child psychopathological scales; polygenic risk scores (PRS) for 10 psychiatric disorders, total problems, and cognitive ability; and structural brain networks in the Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development study (ABCD, n = 9168). Structural equation modeling found two pathways linking SES, brain, and psychopathology. Lower SES was found to be associated with lower structural connectivity in the posterior default mode network and greater salience structural connectivity, and with more severe psychosis and internalizing in youth (p < 0.001). Prematurity and birth weight were associated with early-developed sensorimotor and subcortical networks (p < 0.001). Increased parental psychopathology, decreased SES and school engagement was related to elevated family conflict, psychosis, and externalizing behaviors in youth (p < 0.001). Increased maternal substance use predicted increased developmental adversity, internalizing, and psychosis (p < 0.001). But, polygenic risks for psychiatric disorders had moderate effects on brain structural connectivity and psychopathology in youth. These findings suggest that a range of genetic and environmental factors can influence brain structural organization and psychopathology during adolescence, and that addressing these risk factors may be important for promoting positive mental health outcomes in young people.

Examining resting-state network connectivity in children exposed to perinatal maternal adversity using anatomically weighted functional connectivity (awFC) analyses; A preliminary report

Introduction

Environmental perturbations during critical periods can have pervasive, organizational effects on neurodevelopment. To date, the literature examining the long-term impact of early life adversity has largely investigated structural and functional imaging data outcomes independently. However, emerging research points to a relationship between functional connectivity and the brain’s underlying structural architecture. For instance, functional connectivity can be mediated by the presence of direct or indirect anatomical pathways. Such evidence warrants the use of structural and functional imaging in tandem to study network maturation. Accordingly, this study examines the impact of poor maternal mental health and socioeconomic context during the perinatal period on network connectivity in middle childhood using an anatomically weighted functional connectivity (awFC) approach. awFC is a statistical model that identifies neural networks by incorporating information from both structural and functional imaging data.

Methods

Resting-state fMRI and DTI scans were acquired from children aged 7–9 years old.

Results

Our results indicate that maternal adversity during the perinatal period can affect offspring’s resting-state network connectivity during middle childhood. Specifically, in comparison to controls, children of mothers who had poor perinatal maternal mental health and/or low socioeconomic status exhibited greater awFC in the ventral attention network.

Discussion

These group differences were discussed in terms of the role this network plays in attention processing and maturational changes that may accompany the consolidation of a more adult-like functional cortical organization. Furthermore, our results suggest that there is value in using an awFC approach as it may be more sensitive in highlighting connectivity differences in developmental networks associated with higher-order cognitive and emotional processing, as compared to stand-alone FC or SC analyses.

Gray and white matter abnormalities in major depressive disorder patients and its associations with childhood adversity

OBJECTIVE

Early life stress of childhood adversity (CA) may result in major depressive disorder (MDD) by sensitizing individuals to proximal stressors in life events. The neurobiological changes that underlie adult depression may result from the absence of proper care and supervision of caregivers. We aimed to find both gray and white matter abnormalities in MDD patients, who reported the experiences of CA.

METHODS

The present study examined cortical alterations in 54 patients with MDD and 167 healthy controls (HCs) using voxel-based morphology and fractional anisotropy (FA) tract-based spatial statistics (TBSS). Both patients and HCs were administered the self-questionnaire clinical scale (the Korean translation of the Childhood Trauma Questionnaire CTQK). Pearson's correlation analysis was performed to find the associations between FA and CTQK.

RESULTS

The MDD group showed a significant decrease in gray matter (GM) in the left rectus at both the cluster and peak levels after family-wise error correction. The TBSS results showed significantly reduced FA in widespread regions, including the corpus callosum (CC), superior corona radiata, cingulate gyrus, and superior longitudinal fasciculus. The CA was negatively correlated with the FA in CC and crossing pontine tract.

CONCLUSION

Our findings demonstrated GM atrophy and white matter (WM) connectivity changes in patients with MDD. The major findings of the widespread FA reduction in WM provided the evidence of brain alterations in MDD. We further propose that the WM would be vulnerable to emotional, physical, and sexual abuse in early childhood during the brain development.

Structural brain network lateralization across childhood and adolescence

Developmental lateralization of brain function is imperative for behavioral specialization, yet few studies have investigated differences between hemispheres in structural connectivity patterns, especially over the course of development. The present study compares the lateralization of structural connectivity patterns, or topology, across children, adolescents, and young adults. We applied a graph theory approach to quantify key topological metrics in each hemisphere including efficiency of information transfer between regions (global efficiency), clustering of connections between regions (clustering coefficient [CC]), presence of hub-nodes (betweenness centrality [BC]), and connectivity between nodes of high and low complexity (hierarchical complexity [HC]) and investigated changes in these metrics during development. Further, we investigated BC and CC in seven functionally defined networks. Our cross-sectional study consisted of 211 participants between the ages of 6 and 21 years with 93% being right-handed and 51% female. Global efficiency, HC, and CC demonstrated a leftward lateralization, compared to a rightward lateralization of BC. The sensorimotor, default mode, salience, and language networks showed a leftward asymmetry of CC. BC was only lateralized in the salience (right lateralized) and dorsal attention (left lateralized) networks. Only a small number of metrics were associated with age, suggesting that topological organization may stay relatively constant throughout school-age development, despite known underlying changes in white matter properties. Unlike many other imaging biomarkers of brain development, our study suggests topological lateralization is consistent across age, highlighting potential nonlinear mechanisms underlying developmental specialization.

Gender differences in brain activity when exposed to cyberbullying: Associations between wellbeing and cyberbullying experience using functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging

The role of gender and the associated brain activation when witnessing cyberbullying requires investigation. The current study aimed to determine whether brain responses to cyberbullying differ according to gender and level of wellbeing. We hypothesised that females and males would activate different regions of the brain when witnessing cyberbullying, and that this would be influenced by wellbeing levels and prior cyberbullying experiences. Blood-oxygenation-level-dependent (BOLD) responses were examined in participants (N = 32, aged 18-25 years; 66% female) whilst observing cyberbullying versus neutral stimuli during a functional MRI. Results revealed significant correlations between BOLD signal and achievement scores among males, but not females, with previous experiences of cyberbullying, in regions including the cerebellum, the superior and inferior frontal gyrus, and the precuneus. Furthermore, males who previously cyberbullied others, with higher scores in achievement (a wellbeing sub-category), activated brain regions associated with executive function, social cognition, and self-evaluation, when viewing the cyberbullying stimuli. In addition, despite gender, BOLD signal in the cingulate gyrus was negatively correlated with cyberbullying scores, and BOLD signal in the left dorsal caudate and the cerebellum was independently and positively correlated with achievement scores. Taken together, these findings provide insights into brain responses to cyberbullying scenarios and emphasize that there are some significant variations according to gender. The overall finding that males activated brain regions linked to varying aspects of cognition, whereas females more often activated regions linked to emotion processing and empathy is important for future research in this area.

Word Production Changes through Adolescence: A Behavioral and ERP Investigation of Referential and Inferential Naming

Changes in word production occur across the lifespan, with adolescence representing a knot point between children's and adults' performance and underlying brain processes. Previous studies on referential word production using picture naming tasks have shown a completely adult-like pattern in 17-year-old adolescents and an intermediate pattern between children and adults in adolescents aged 14-16 years old, suggesting a possible involvement of visuo-conceptual processes in the transition from childhood to adulthood. Given the visual nature of the picture naming task, it is unclear whether changes in visuo-conceptual processes are specifically related to the referential word production or if overall changes in conceptual to lexical processes drive maturation. To answer this question, we turned to an inferential word production task, i.e., naming from auditory definitions, involving different conceptual to lexical processes relative to referential naming. Behavior and electroencephalographic Event-Related Potentials (ERP) in a (visual) referential word production task and an (auditory) inferential word production task were recorded and compared in three groups of adolescents (respectively, aged 10 to 13, 14 to 16, and 17 to 18). Only the youngest group displayed longer production latencies and lower accuracy than the two older groups of adolescents who performed similarly on both tasks. Crucially, ERP waveform analysis and topographic pattern analysis revealed significant intergroup differences on both tasks. Changes across ages are not merely linked to the visual-conceptual processes of a picture naming task but are rather related to lexical-semantic processes involved in word production.

Hypothalamic volume and asymmetry in the pediatric population: a retrospective MRI study

This study investigated age- and sex-related changes in the volumetric development and asymmetry of the normal hypothalamus from birth to 18. Individuals aged 0-18 with MRI from 2012 to 2020 were selected for this retrospective study. Seven hundred individuals (369 [52.7%] Males) who had 3D-T1 sequences and were radiologically normal were included in the study. Hypothalamus volume was calculated using MRICloud automated segmentation pipelines. Hypothalamus asymmetry was calculated as the difference between right and left volumes divided by the mean (in percent). The measurement results of 23 age groups were analyzed with SPSS (ver.23). The mean hypothalamic volume in the first year of life reached 69% of the mean hypothalamic volume between 0 and 18 years (1119.01 ± 196.09 mm³), 88% in the second year. The mean volume of the hypothalamus without mammillary body increased in the five-age segment, while it increased in the six-age segment with mammillary body. Although the hypothalamus volumes of males were larger than females in all age groups, a significant difference was found between the age groups of 3-8 and 12-18 years (p < 0.05). In the pediatric brain, the hypothalamus was right-lateralized between 2.39% and 14.02%. The first 2 years of life were critical in the volumetric development of the hypothalamus. A segmental and logarithmic increase in the hypothalamus volume was demonstrated. In the pediatric brain, asymmetry and sexual dimorphism were detected in the hypothalamus. Information on normal hypothalamus structure and development facilitates the recognition of abnormal developmental trajectories.

Amygdala subnuclei volumes, functional connectivity, and social–emotional outcomes in children born very preterm

Children born very preterm can demonstrate social-cognitive impairments, which may result from limbic system dysfunction. Altered development of the subnuclei of the amygdala, stress-sensitive regions involved in emotional processing, may be key predictors of social-skill development. In a prospective cohort study, 7-year-old children born very preterm underwent neurodevelopmental testing and brain MRI. The Child Behavioral Checklist was used to assess social–emotional outcomes. Subnuclei volumes were extracted automatically from structural scans (n = 69) and functional connectivity (n = 66) was examined. General Linear Models were employed to examine the relationships between amygdala subnuclei volumes and functional connectivity values and social–emotional outcomes. Sex was a significant predictor of all social–emotional outcomes (P < 0.05), with boys having poorer social–emotional outcomes. Smaller right basal nuclei volumes (B = -0.043, P = 0.014), smaller right cortical volumes (B = -0.242, P = 0.02) and larger right central nuclei volumes (B = 0.85, P = 0.049) were associated with increased social problems. Decreased connectivity strength between thalamic and amygdala networks and smaller right basal volumes were significant predictors of greater social problems (both, P < 0.05), effects which were stronger in girls (P = 0.025). Dysregulated maturation of the amygdala subnuclei, along with altered connectivity strength in stress-sensitive regions, may reflect stress-induced dysfunction and can be predictive of social–emotional outcomes.

Natural history of MRI brain volumes in patients with neuronal ceroid lipofuscinosis 3: a sensitive imaging biomarker

PURPOSE

Grey matter (GM) atrophy due to neuronal loss is a striking feature of patients with CLN3 disease. A precise and quantitative description of disease progression is needed in order to establish an evaluation tool for current and future experimental treatments. In order to develop a quantitative marker to measure brain volume outcome, we analysed the longitudinal volumetric development of GM, white matter (WM) and lateral ventricles and correlated those with the clinical course.

METHODS

One hundred twenty-two MRI scans of 35 patients (21 females; 14 males; age 15.3 ± 4.8 years) with genetically confirmed CLN3 disease were performed. A three-dimensional T1-weighted sequence was acquired with whole brain coverage. Volumetric segmentation of the brain was performed with the FreeSurfer image analysis suite. The clinical severity was assessed by the Hamburg jNCL score, a disease-specific scoring system.

RESULTS

The volumes of supratentorial cortical GM and supratentorial WM, cerebellar GM, basal ganglia/thalamus and hippocampus significantly (r =  - 0.86 to - 0.69, p < 0.0001) decreased with age, while the lateral ventricle volume increased (r = 0.68, p < 0.0001). Supratentorial WM volume correlated poorer with age (r =  - 0.56, p = 0.0001). Supratentorial cortical GM volume showed the steepest (4.6% (± 0.2%)) and most uniform decrease with strongest correlation with age (r =  - 0.86, p < 0.0001). In addition, a strong correlation with disease specific clinical scoring existed for the supratentorial cortical GM volume (r = 0.85, p =  < 0.0001).

CONCLUSION

Supratentorial cortical GM volume is a sensitive parameter for assessment of disease progression even in early and late disease stages and represents a potential reliable outcome measure for evaluation of experimental therapies.

Best Practices in Structural Neuroimaging of Neurodevelopmental Disorders

Structural magnetic resonance imaging (sMRI) offers immense potential for increasing our understanding of how anatomical brain development relates to clinical symptoms and functioning in neurodevelopmental disorders. Clinical developmental sMRI may help identify neurobiological risk factors or markers that may ultimately assist in diagnosis and treatment. However, researchers and clinicians aiming to conduct sMRI studies of neurodevelopmental disorders face several methodological challenges. This review offers hands-on guidelines for clinical developmental sMRI. First, we present brain morphometry metrics and review evidence on typical developmental trajectories throughout adolescence, together with atypical trajectories in selected neurodevelopmental disorders. Next, we discuss challenges and good scientific practices in study design, image acquisition and analysis, and recent options to implement quality control. Finally, we discuss choices related to statistical analysis and interpretation of results. We call for greater completeness and transparency in the reporting of methods to advance understanding of structural brain alterations in neurodevelopmental disorders.

Prenatal caffeine exposure: association with neurodevelopmental outcomes in 9- to 11-year-old children

BACKGROUND

Despite the widespread use of caffeine including consumption during pregnancy, the effect of prenatal caffeine exposure on child brain development and behavior is unclear.

METHODS

To address this, we used data from the Adolescent Brain and Cognitive Development Study (n = 11,875 children aged 9-11 years from 22 sites across the United States). We explored the associations between prenatal caffeine exposure and various developmental outcomes including birth outcomes, physical health, behavior problems, cognition, substance use and brain structure in children, and evaluated dose effects.

RESULTS

Among 9,978 children (4,745 females) who had valid data for prenatal caffeine exposure and whose mothers did not use drugs of abuse after knowing of pregnancy, 4,170 (41.79%) had no prenatal caffeine exposure, 2,292 (22.97%) had daily, 1,933 (19.37%) had weekly, and 1,583 (15.86%) had less than weekly exposures. Prenatal caffeine exposure including the widely recommended 'safe' dose was associated with greater externalizing problems, whereas greater BMI and soda consumption were only observed in children with high dose exposures (3+ per day). Notably, the effect size for association of externalizing problems with prenatal caffeine exposure was comparable with that reported for prenatal alcohol (The American Journal of Psychiatry, 177, 2020 and 1060) and prenatal cannabis (JAMA Psychiatry, 78, 2020 and 64) exposures from previous ABCD publications. Additionally, prenatal caffeine exposure was associated with brain structural changes that included greater posterior and lower frontal cortical thickness and altered parietooccipital sulcal depth.

CONCLUSIONS

The recommended 'safe' dose of caffeine during pregnancy should be carefully studied to assess whether the behavioral and brain correlates observed here are clinically relevant and determine whether it needs adjustment. Because of the high prevalence of caffeine use in the general population, studies on prenatal exposure to drugs of abuse should include prenatal caffeine use as a covariate.

Cross-Sectional Investigation of Brain Volume in Dyslexia

The goal of the study was to determine whether dyslexia is associated with differences in local brain volume, and whether these local brain volume differences show cross-sectional age-effects. We investigated the local volume of gray and white brain matter with voxel-based morphometry (VBM) as well as reading performance in three age groups of dyslexic and neurotypical normal reading subjects (children, teenagers and adults). Performance data demonstrate a steady improvement of reading skills in both neurotypical as well as dyslexic readers. However, the pattern of gray matter volumes tell a different story: the children are the only group with significant differences between neurotypical and dyslexic readers in local gray matter brain volume. These differences are localized in brain areas associated with the reading network (angular, middle temporal and inferior temporal gyrus as well as the cerebellum). Yet the comparison of neurotypical and normal readers over the age groups shows that the steady increase in performance in neurotypical readers is accompanied by a steady decrease of gray matter volume, whereas the brain volumes of dyslexic readers do not show this linear correlation between brain volume and performance. This is further evidence that dyslexia is a disorder with a neuroanatomical basis in the form of a lower volume of gray matter in parts of the reading network in early dyslexic readers. The present data point out that network shaping processes in gray matter volume in the reading network does take place over age in dyslexia. Yet this neural foundation does not seem to be sufficient to allow normal reading performances even in adults with dyslexia. Thus dyslexia is a disorder with lifelong consequences, which is why consistent support for affected individuals in their educational and professional careers is of great importance. Longitudinal studies are needed to verify whether this holds as a valid pattern or whether there is evidence of greater interindividual variance in the neuroanatomy of dyslexia.

A systematic review of sleep deprivation and neurobehavioral function in young adults

AIM

To examine the effect of sleep deprivation (total and partial) on neurobehavioral function compared to a healthy sleep opportunity (7-9 h) in young adults 18-30 years.

BACKGROUND

More than one-third of young adults are sleep deprived, which negatively affects a range of neurobehavioral functions, including psychomotor vigilance performance (cognitive), affect, and daytime sleepiness.

METHODS

A systematic review of randomized controlled trials (RCTs) on sleep deprivation and neurobehavioral function. Multiple electronic databases (Cochrane Central Registry of Controlled Trials [CENTRAL], PubMed, PsycINFO, CINAHL, and Web of Science) were searched for relevant RCTs published in English from the establishment of each database to December 31, 2020.

RESULTS

Nineteen RCTs were selected (N = 766, mean age = 23.7 ± 3.1 years; 44.8% female). Seven were between-person (5 were parallel-group designs and 2 had multiple arms), and 12 were within-person designs (9 were cross over and 3 used a Latin square approach). Total sleep deprivation had the strongest detrimental effect on psychomotor vigilance performance, with the largest effects on vigilance tasks in young adults in the included studies.

CONCLUSION

Acute sleep deprivation degrades multiple dimensions of neurobehavioral function including psychomotor vigilance performance, affect, and daytime sleepiness in young adults. The effect of chronic sleep deprivation on the developing brain and associated neurobehavioral functions in young adults remains unclear.

Altered working memory-related brain activity in children at familial high risk for psychosis: A preliminary study

BACKGROUND

Schizophrenia spectrum disorders are heritable illnesses that usually manifest in early adulthood but are increasingly viewed as neurodevelopmental disorders. Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) studies show altered brain activity during performance of working memory (WM) tasks in both individuals with schizophrenia and their first-degree relatives as compared to healthy controls (HC). This study examined whether similar changes are already present in pre-adolescent children at familial high-risk (FHR) for psychosis.

METHODS

37 children (17 FHR, 20 HC) between 7 and 12 years old participated in this study. WM performance was assessed using the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-IV (WISC-IV). To assess brain activation during WM performance, participants completed a visual block-designed n-back task with 2 conditions (2-back and 0-back) during scanning. fMRI data was preprocessed and analyzed using FSL Feat.

RESULTS

Compared to HC, FHR children showed significantly lower WISC-IV WM scores. In addition, FHR children exhibited hypoactivation in the 2-back (versus 0-back) condition in a cluster encompassing bilateral precuneus and cuneus and right posterior cingulate cortex. There were no significant group-differences in n-back task performance and brain activation. The precuneus cluster was not correlated with n-back performance or WISC WM scores.

CONCLUSIONS

The current results provide preliminary evidence of impaired WM function and altered brain activity during WM performance in children with a familial predisposition for psychosis. Longitudinal studies are needed to determine whether these findings are related to abnormal brain development and predictive of cognitive deficits and psychosis later in life.

Age Estimation from fMRI Data Using Recurrent Neural Network

Finding a biomarker that indicates the subject’s age is one of the most important topics in biology. Several recent studies tried to extract a biomarker from brain imaging data including fMRI data. However, most of them focused on MRI data, which do not provide dynamics and lack attempts to apply recently proposed deep learning models. We propose a deep neural network model that estimates the age of a subject from fMRI images using a recurrent neural network (RNN), more precisely, a gated recurrent unit (GRU). However, applying neural networks is not trivial due to the high dimensional nature of fMRI data. In this work, we propose a novel preprocessing technique using the Automated Anatomical Labeling (AAL) atlas, which significantly reduces the input dimension. The proposed dimension reduction technique allows us to train our model with 640 training and validation samples from different projects under mean squared error (MSE). Finally, we obtain the correlation value of 0.905 between the predicted age and the actual age on 155 test samples. The proposed model estimates the age within the range of ±12 on most of the test samples. Our model is written in Python and is freely available for download.

Longitudinal Reference Values for Cerebral Ventricular Size in Preterm Infants Born at 23-27 Weeks of Gestation

OBJECTIVE

To establish longitudinal reference values for cerebral ventricular size in the most vulnerable patients at risk for intraventricular hemorrhage (IVH) and posthemorrhagic ventricular dilatation (PHVD).

STUDY DESIGN

This retrospective study included neurologically healthy preterm neonates born at 23^0/7-26^6/7 weeks of gestational age between September 2011 and April 2019. Patients were treated at 2 Austrian tertiary centers, Medical University of Vienna and Medical University of Innsbruck. All available cerebral ultrasound scans until 30 weeks corrected age were analyzed. Ventricular measurements included ventricular index, anterior horn width (AHW), and thalamo-occipital distance (TOD) and longitudinal percentiles were created.

RESULTS

The study cohort consisted of 244 preterm neonates, with a median gestational age of 25^3/7 weeks (IQR, 24^4/7-26^0/7 weeks) and a median birth weight of 735 g (IQR, 644-849 g). A total of 993 ultrasound scans were available for analysis, resulting in >1800 measurements of ventricular index, AHW, and TOD. Special attention was given to the 97th percentile as well as 2 mm and 4 mm above the 97th percentile, which are used internationally as cutoffs for intervention in the presence of PHVD.

CONCLUSIONS

We present percentile charts based on a cohort of extremely premature infants including neonates born at the border of viability suited to follow-up the most vulnerable patients at risk for IVH and PHVD. Furthermore, we provide an extensive literature research and comparison of all available reference values, focusing on ventricular index, AHW, and TOD.

3D hemisphere-based convolutional neural network for whole-brain MRI segmentation

Whole-brain segmentation is a crucial pre-processing step for many neuroimaging analyses pipelines. Accurate and efficient whole-brain segmentations are important for many neuroimage analysis tasks to provide clinically relevant information. Several recently proposed convolutional neural networks (CNN) perform whole brain segmentation using individual 2D slices or 3D patches as inputs due to graphical processing unit (GPU) memory limitations, and use sliding windows to perform whole brain segmentation during inference. However, these approaches lack global and spatial information about the entire brain and lead to compromised efficiency during both training and testing. We introduce a 3D hemisphere-based CNN for automatic whole-brain segmentation of T1-weighted magnetic resonance images of adult brains. First, we trained a localization network to predict bounding boxes for both hemispheres. Then, we trained a segmentation network to segment one hemisphere, and segment the opposing hemisphere by reflecting it across the mid-sagittal plane. Our network shows high performance both in terms of segmentation efficiency and accuracy (0.84 overall Dice similarity and 6.1 mm overall Hausdorff distance) in segmenting 102 brain structures. On multiple independent test datasets, our method demonstrated a competitive performance in the subcortical segmentation task and a high consistency in volumetric measurements of intra-session scans.

Infant study of hemispheric asymmetry after long-gap esophageal atresia repair

OBJECTIVES

Previous studies have demonstrated that infants are typically born with a left-greater-than-right forebrain asymmetry that reverses throughout the first year of life. We hypothesized that critically ill term-born and premature patients following surgical and critical care for long-gap esophageal atresia (LGEA) would exhibit alteration in expected forebrain asymmetry.

METHODS

Term-born (n = 13) and premature (n = 13) patients, and term-born controls (n = 23) <1 year corrected age underwent non-sedated research MRI following completion of LGEA treatment via Foker process. Structural T1- and T2-weighted images were collected, and ITK-SNAP was used for forebrain tissue segmentation and volume acquisition. Data were presented as absolute (cm³ ) and normalized (% total forebrain) volumes of the hemispheres. All measures were checked for normality, and group status was assessed using a general linear model with age at scan as a covariate.

RESULTS

Absolute volumes of both forebrain hemispheres were smaller in term-born and premature patients in comparison to controls (p < 0.001). Normalized hemispheric volume group differences were detected by T1-weighted analysis, with premature patients demonstrating right-greater-than-left hemisphere volumes in comparison to term-born patients and controls (p < 0.01). While normalized group differences were very subtle (a right hemispheric predominance of roughly 2% of forebrain volume), they represent a deviation from the expected pattern of hemispheric brain asymmetry.

INTERPRETATION

Our pilot quantitative MRI study of hemispheric volumes suggests that premature patients might be at risk of altered expected left-greater-than-right forebrain asymmetry following repair of LGEA. Future neurobehavioral studies in infants born with LGEA are needed to elucidate the functional significance of presented anatomical findings.

Brain network modularity predicts changes in cortical thickness in children involved in a physical activity intervention

Individual differences in brain network modularity at baseline can predict improvements in cognitive performance after cognitive and physical interventions. This study is the first to explore whether brain network modularity predicts changes in cortical brain structure in 8- to 9-year-old children involved in an after-school physical activity intervention (N = 62), relative to children randomized to a wait-list control group (N = 53). For children involved in the physical activity intervention, brain network modularity at baseline predicted greater decreases in cortical thickness in the anterior frontal cortex and parahippocampus. Further, for children involved in the physical activity intervention, greater decrease in cortical thickness was associated with improvements in cognitive efficiency. The relationships among baseline modularity, changes in cortical thickness, and changes in cognitive performance were not present in the wait-list control group. Our exploratory study has promising implications for the understanding of brain network modularity as a biomarker of intervention-related improvements with physical activity.

Substance use patterns in 9-10 year olds: Baseline findings from the adolescent brain cognitive development (ABCD) study

BACKGROUND

The Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development ™ Study (ABCD Study®) is an open-science, multi-site, prospective, longitudinal study following over 11,800 9- and 10-year-old youth into early adulthood. The ABCD Study aims to prospectively examine the impact of substance use (SU) on neurocognitive and health outcomes. Although SU initiation typically occurs during teen years, relatively little is known about patterns of SU in children younger than 12.

METHODS

This study aims to report the detailed ABCD Study® SU patterns at baseline (n = 11,875) in order to inform the greater scientific community about cohort's early SU. Along with a detailed description of SU, we ran mixed effects regression models to examine the association between early caffeine and alcohol sipping with demographic factors, externalizing symptoms and parental history of alcohol and substance use disorders (AUD/SUD).

PRIMARY RESULTS

At baseline, the majority of youth had used caffeine (67.6 %) and 22.5 % reported sipping alcohol (22.5 %). There was little to no reported use of other drug categories (0.2 % full alcohol drink, 0.7 % used nicotine, <0.1 % used any other drug of abuse). Analyses revealed that total caffeine use and early alcohol sipping were associated with demographic variables (p's<.05), externalizing symptoms (caffeine p = 0002; sipping p = .0003), and parental history of AUD (sipping p = .03).

CONCLUSIONS

ABCD Study participants aged 9-10 years old reported caffeine use and alcohol sipping experimentation, but very rare other SU. Variables linked with early childhood alcohol sipping and caffeine use should be examined as contributing factors in future longitudinal analyses examining escalating trajectories of SU in the ABCD Study cohort.

Normal childhood brain growth and a universal sex and anthropomorphic relationship to cerebrospinal fluid

OBJECTIVE

The study of brain size and growth has a long and contentious history, yet normal brain volume development has yet to be fully described. In particular, the normal brain growth and cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) accumulation relationship is critical to characterize because it is impacted in numerous conditions of early childhood in which brain growth and fluid accumulation are affected, such as infection, hemorrhage, hydrocephalus, and a broad range of congenital disorders. The authors of this study aim to describe normal brain volume growth, particularly in the setting of CSF accumulation.

METHODS

The authors analyzed 1067 magnetic resonance imaging scans from 505 healthy pediatric subjects from birth to age 18 years to quantify component and regional brain volumes. The volume trajectories were compared between the sexes and hemispheres using smoothing spline ANOVA. Population growth curves were developed using generalized additive models for location, scale, and shape.

RESULTS

Brain volume peaked at 10-12 years of age. Males exhibited larger age-adjusted total brain volumes than females, and body size normalization procedures did not eliminate this difference. The ratio of brain to CSF volume, however, revealed a universal age-dependent relationship independent of sex or body size.

CONCLUSIONS

These findings enable the application of normative growth curves in managing a broad range of childhood diseases in which cognitive development, brain growth, and fluid accumulation are interrelated.

Contextualizing adolescent structural brain development: Environmental determinants and mental health outcomes

The spatiotemporal group-level patterns of brain macrostructural development are relatively well-documented. Current research emphasizes individual variability in brain development, including its causes and consequences. Although genetic factors and prenatal and perinatal events play critical roles, calls are now made to also study brain development in transactional interplay with the different aspects of an individual's physical and social environment. Such focus is highly relevant for research on adolescence, a period involving a multitude of contextual changes paralleled by continued refinement of complex cognitive and affective neural systems. Here, we discuss associations between selected aspects of an individual's physical and social environment and adolescent brain structural development and possible links to mental health. We also touch on methodological considerations for future research.

Neuroanatomical Profile of Young Females with Fragile X Syndrome: A Voxel-Based Morphometry Analysis

Fragile X syndrome is a genetic condition associated with alterations in brain and subsequent cognitive development. However, due to a milder phenotype relative to males, females with fragile X syndrome are underrepresented in research studies. In the current study, we investigate neuroanatomical differences in young females (age range: 6.03-16.32 years) with fragile X syndrome (N = 46) as compared to age-, sex-, and verbal abilities-matched participants (comparison group; N = 35). Between-group analyses of whole-brain and regional brain volumes were assessed using voxel-based morphometry. Results demonstrate significantly larger total gray and white matter volumes in girls with fragile X syndrome compared to a matched comparison group (Ps < 0.001). In addition, the fragile X group showed significantly larger gray matter volume in a bilateral parieto-occipital cluster and a right parieto-occipital cluster (Ps < 0.001). Conversely, the fragile X group showed significantly smaller gray matter volume in the bilateral gyrus rectus (P < 0.03). Associations between these regional brain volumes and key socio-emotional variables provide insight into gene-brain-behavior relationships underlying the fragile X syndrome phenotype in females. These findings represent the first characterization of a neuroanatomical phenotype in a large sample of girls with fragile X syndrome and expand our knowledge about potential neurodevelopmental mechanisms underlying cognitive-behavioral outcomes in this condition.

Dose selection for intracerebroventricular cerliponase alfa in children with CLN2 disease, translation from animal to human in a rare genetic disease

Neuronal ceroid lipofuscinosis type 2 (CLN2 disease) is an ultra‐rare pediatric neurodegenerative disorder characterized by deficiency of the lysosomal enzyme tripeptidyl peptidase‐1 (TPP1). In the absence of adequate TPP1, lysosomal storage material accumulation occurs in the central nervous system (CNS) accompanied by neurodegeneration and neurological decline that culminates in childhood death. Cerliponase alfa is a recombinant human TPP1 enzyme replacement therapy administered via intracerebroventricular infusion and approved for the treatment of CLN2 disease. Here, we describe two allometric methods, calculated by scaling brain mass across species, that informed the human dose selection and exposure prediction of cerliponase alfa from preclinical studies in monkeys and a dog model of CLN2 disease: (1) scaling of dose using a human‐equivalent dose factor; and (2) scaling of compartmental pharmacokinetic (PK) model parameters. Source PK data were obtained from cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) samples from dogs and monkeys, and the human exposure predictions were confirmed with CSF data from the first‐in‐human clinical study. Nonclinical and clinical data were analyzed using noncompartmental analysis and nonlinear mixed‐effect modeling approaches. Both allometric methods produced CSF exposure predictions within twofold of the observed exposure parameters maximum plasma concentration (C_max) and area under the curve (AUC). Furthermore, cross‐species qualification produced consistent and reasonable PK profile predictions, which supported the allometric scaling of model parameters. The challenges faced in orphan drug development place an increased importance on, and opportunity for, data translation from research and nonclinical development. Our approach to dose translation and human exposure prediction for cerliponase alfa may be applicable to other CNS administered therapies being developed.

Emerging neurodevelopmental perspectives on mathematical learning

Strong foundational skills in mathematical problem solving, acquired in early childhood, are critical not only for success in the science, technology, engineering, and mathematical (STEM) fields but also for quantitative reasoning in everyday life. The acquisition of mathematical skills relies on protracted interactive specialization of functional brain networks across development. Using a systems neuroscience approach, this review synthesizes emerging perspectives on neurodevelopmental pathways of mathematical learning, highlighting the functional brain architecture that supports these processes and sources of heterogeneity in mathematical skill acquisition. We identify the core neural building blocks of numerical cognition, anchored in the posterior parietal and ventral temporal-occipital cortices, and describe how memory and cognitive control systems, anchored in the medial temporal lobe and prefrontal cortex, help scaffold mathematical skill development. We highlight how interactive specialization of functional circuits influences mathematical learning across different stages of development. Functional and structural brain integrity and plasticity associated with math learning can be examined using an individual differences approach to better understand sources of heterogeneity in learning, including cognitive, affective, motivational, and sociocultural factors. Our review emphasizes the dynamic role of neurodevelopmental processes in mathematical learning and cognitive development more generally.

Adult Women First Exposed to Early Adversity After 8 Years Old Show Attentional Bias to Threat

Exposure to early adversity (EA) is associated with long-lasting dysregulations in cognitive processes sustained by brain regions that are sensitive to stress hormones: the hippocampus, the amygdala, and the prefrontal cortex. The Life Cycle Model of Stress highlights the importance of considering the timing at which EA began, as these brain regions follow distinct developmental trajectories. We aimed to test this hypothesis by assessing whether adults exposed to EA exhibit different cognitive patterns as a function of the age at which they were first exposed to EA. Eighty-five healthy men and women aged 21-40 years old (y/o) exposed to EA, as assessed by the Adverse Childhood Experience Questionnaire, were grouped based on the age of first exposure to EA: 0-2 y/o ("Infancy": hippocampal development), 3-7 y/o ("Early childhood": amygdala development) and after the age of 8 ("Childhood/Adolescence": frontoamygdala connectivity development). Declarative memory, attentional bias to threat and emotion regulation were measured. Results revealed increased attentional bias to threat in women first exposed to EA after 8 years. This result is in line with the Life Cycle Model of Stress and highlights the importance of considering the age at exposure to EA when investigating the effects of EA on cognitive processes.

The interaction effect of early trauma exposure and a diagnosis of panic disorder on cortical thickness

BACKGROUND

Early trauma (ET) is a risk factor for adult psychiatric disorders. ET exposure is known to cause structural brain alterations, particularly in the fronto-temporo-limbic circuitry. ET-related effects on brain development may differ based on individual characteristics and cause different psychiatric outcomes. We investigated the interaction effect of ET exposure and panic disorder (PD) on cortical thickness.

METHODS

Sixty-six participants with PD and 66 healthy controls were enrolled. High-resolution T1-weighted images were acquired, and a whole-brain vertex-based analysis was performed to estimate cortical thickness. The Early Trauma Inventory Self Report-Short Form, Anxiety Sensitivity Inventory-Revised, Panic Disorder Severity Scale, Beck Depression Inventory-II, and Beck Anxiety Inventory were administered.

RESULTS

There was a significant interaction between ET exposure and PD on the mean cortical thickness in the bilateral insula and right pars triangularis. An exploratory correlational analysis revealed a positive correlation between the mean cortical thickness in the left insula and severity of anxiety sensitivity to cardiovascular symptoms in participants with PD.

LIMITATIONS

Our findings may be affected by recall bias because this study is limited by its retrospective cross-sectional design.

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings suggest that ET exposure may affect brain structures differently based on a diagnosis of PD. Furthermore, individual variations in brain alterations after ET may confer trait vulnerability that triggers the development of PD. Future longitudinal studies are warranted to elucidate the neurobiological mechanisms underlying ET and psychiatric outcomes.

Mapping Domain- and Age-Specific Functional Brain Activity for Children's Cognitive and Affective Development

The human brain undergoes rapid development during childhood, with significant improvement in a wide spectrum of cognitive and affective functions. Mapping domain- and age-specific brain activity patterns has important implications for characterizing the development of children's cognitive and affective functions. The current mainstay of brain templates is primarily derived from structural magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), and thus is not ideal for mapping children's cognitive and affective brain development. By integrating task-dependent functional MRI data from a large sample of 250 children (aged 7 to 12) across multiple domains and the latest easy-to-use and transparent preprocessing workflow, we here created a set of age-specific brain functional activity maps across four domains: attention, executive function, emotion, and risky decision-making. Moreover, we developed a toolbox named Developmental Brain Functional Activity maps across multiple domains that enables researchers to visualize and download domain- and age-specific brain activity maps for various needs. This toolbox and maps have been released on the Neuroimaging Informatics Tools and Resources Clearinghouse website ( http://www.nitrc.org/projects/dbfa ). Our study provides domain- and age-specific brain activity maps for future developmental neuroimaging studies in both healthy and clinical populations.

Development of Perceptual Inhibition in Adolescents—A Critical Period?

Recent studies suggest that the developmental curves in adolescence, related to the development of executive functions, could be fitted to a non-linear trajectory of development with progressions and retrogressions. Therefore, the present study proposes to analyze the pattern of development in Perceptual Inhibition (PI), considering all stages of adolescence (early, middle, and late) in intervals of one year. To this aim, we worked with a sample of 275 participants between 10 and 25 years, who performed a joint visual and search task (to measure PI). We have fitted ex-Gaussian functions to the probability distributions of the mean response time across the sample and performed a covariance analysis (ANCOVA). The results showed that the 10- to 13-year-old groups performed similarly in the task and differ from the 14- to 19-year-old participants. We found significant differences between the older group and all the rest of the groups. We discuss the important changes that can be observed in relation to the nonlinear trajectory of development that would show the PI during adolescence.

A Call for Greater Attention to Culture in the Study of Brain and Development

Despite growing research on neurobiological development, little attention has been paid to cultural and ethnic variation in neurodevelopmental processes. We present an overview of the current state of developmental cognitive neuroscience with respect to its attention to cultural issues. Analyses based on 80 publications represented in five recent meta-analyses related to adolescent developmental neuroscience show that 99% of the publications used samples in Western countries. Only 22% of studies provided a detailed description of participants' racial/ethnic background, and only 18% provided for socioeconomic status. Results reveal a trend in developmental cognitive neuroscience research: The body of research is derived not only mostly from Western samples but also from participants whose race/ethnicity is unknown. To achieve a holistic perspective on brain development in different cultural contexts, we propose and highlight an emerging interdisciplinary approach-developmental cultural neuroscience-the intersection of developmental psychology, cultural psychology, and cognitive neuroscience. Developmental cultural neuroscience aims to elucidate cultural similarities and differences in neural processing across the life span. We call attention to the importance of incorporating culture into the empirical investigation of neurodevelopment.

Learning About Safety: Conditioned Inhibition as a Novel Approach to Fear Reduction Targeting the Developing Brain

Adolescence is a peak time for the onset of psychiatric disorders, with anxiety disorders being the most common and affecting as many as 30% of youths. A core feature of anxiety disorders is difficulty regulating fear, with evidence suggesting deficits in extinction learning and corresponding alterations in frontolimbic circuitry. Despite marked changes in this neural circuitry and extinction learning throughout development, interventions for anxious youths are largely based on principles of extinction learning studied in adulthood. Safety signal learning, based on conditioned inhibition of fear in the presence of a cue that indicates safety, has been shown to effectively reduce anxiety-like behavior in animal models and attenuate fear responses in healthy adults. Cross-species evidence suggests that safety signal learning involves connections between the ventral hippocampus and the prelimbic cortex in rodents or the dorsal anterior cingulate cortex in humans. Particularly because this pathway follows a different developmental trajectory than fronto-amygdala circuitry involved in traditional extinction learning, safety cues may provide a novel approach to reducing fear in youths. In this review, the authors leverage a translational framework to bring together findings from studies in animal models and humans and to bridge the gap between research on basic neuroscience and clinical treatment. The authors consider the potential application of safety signal learning for optimizing interventions for anxious youths by targeting the biological state of the developing brain. Based on the existing cross-species literature on safety signal learning, they propose that the judicious use of safety cues may be an effective and neurodevelopmentally optimized approach to enhancing treatment outcomes for youths with anxiety disorders.

Early childhood adversity and HPA axis activity in adulthood:The importance of considering minimal age at exposure

Early adversity (EA) modulates stress hormone secretion in mixed directions. The Accumulation Model suggests that the number of EA predicts patterns of cortisol dysregulations, while the Life Cycle Model of Stress highlights the importance of considering the timing at which EA began, given that brain regions sensitive to stress hormones follow distinct developmental trajectories. We aimed to test these two models in 85 healthy men and women, aged 21-40 years old who reported having been exposed to EA during childhood. Participants were grouped based on the number of EA events to which they were exposed during their lifespan (Accumulation Model) and the age of first exposure to EA (Life Cycle Model). Diurnal and stress-induced reactive cortisol secretion were measured in all participants. Results showed that although the number of EA was not associated with patterns of basal or reactive cortisol secretion, adults first exposed to EA between the ages of 3 and 7 - an important time window for amygdala development - showed greater cortisol awakening response and lower cortisol reactivity relative to those first exposed to EA before 3 or after 7. These results provide support for the Life Cycle Model of Stress and highlight the importance of considering minimal age at exposure to EA when assessing the effects of early adversity on patterns of cortisol secretion.

Posttraumatic Stress Disorder and the Developing Adolescent Brain

Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) in adolescents is common and debilitating. In contrast to adult PTSD, relatively little is known about the neurobiology of adolescent PTSD, nor about how current treatments may alter adolescent neurodevelopment to allow recovery from PTSD. Improving our understanding of biological mechanisms of adolescent PTSD, taken in the context of neurodevelopment, is crucial for developing novel and personalized treatment approaches. In this review, we highlight prevailing constructs of PTSD and current findings on these domains in adolescent PTSD. Notably, little data exist in adolescent PTSD for prominent adult PTSD constructs, including threat learning and attentional threat bias. Most work to date has examined general threat processing, emotion regulation, and their neural substrates. These studies suggest that adolescent PTSD, while phenomenologically similar to adult PTSD, shows unique neurodevelopmental substrates that may impair recovery but could also be targeted in the context of adolescent neuroplasticity to improve outcomes. Both cross-sectional and longitudinal data suggest abnormal frontolimbic development compared with typically developing youths, a pattern that may differ from resilient youths. Whether current treatments such as trauma-focused psychotherapy engage these targets and restore healthy neurodevelopment remains an open question. We end our review by highlighting emerging areas and knowledge gaps that could be addressed to better characterize the biology underlying adolescent PTSD. Emerging studies in computational modeling of decision making, caregiver-related transmission of traumatic stress, and other areas may offer new targets that could harness adolescent neurobehavioral plasticity to improve resilience and recovery for some of our most vulnerable youths.

Clinical Pharmacokinetics and Pharmacodynamics of Cerliponase Alfa, Enzyme Replacement Therapy for CLN2 Disease by Intracerebroventricular Administration

Cerliponase alfa is recombinant human tripeptidyl peptidase 1 (TPP1) delivered by i.c.v. infusion for CLN2, a pediatric neurodegenerative disease caused by deficiency in lysosomal enzyme TPP1. We report the pharmacokinetics (PK) and pharmacodynamics of cerliponase alfa, the first i.c.v. enzyme replacement therapy, characterized in a phase I/II study. Escalating doses (30-300 mg Q2W) followed by 300 mg Q2W for ≥ 48 weeks were administered in 24 patients aged ≥ 3 years. Concentrations peaked in cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) at the end of ~ 4-hour i.c.v. infusion and 8 hours thereafter in plasma. Plasma exposure was 300-1,000-fold lower than in CSF, with no correlation in the magnitude of peak concentration (C_max ) or area under the concentration-time curve (AUC) among body sites. There was no apparent accumulation in CSF or plasma exposure with Q2W dosing. Interpatient and intrapatient variability of AUC, respectively, were 31-49% and 24% in CSF vs. 59-103% and 80% in plasma. PK variability was not explained by baseline demographics, as sex, age, weight, and CLN2 disease severity score did not appear to impact CSF or plasma PK. No apparent correlation was noted between CSF or plasma PK and incidence of adverse events (pyrexia, hypersensitivity, seizure, and epilepsy) or presence of antidrug antibodies in CSF and serum. There was no relationship between magnitude of CSF exposure and efficacy (change in CLN2 score from baseline), indicating maximum benefit was obtained across the range of exposures with 300 mg Q2W. Data from this small trial of ultra-rare disease were leveraged to adequately profile cerliponase alfa and support 300 mg i.c.v. Q2W for CLN2 treatment.