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Lei M, Liao H, Wang S, Zhou H, Zhu J, Wan H, Payne GF, Liu C, Qu X. Electro-Sorting Create Heterogeneity: Constructing A Multifunctional Janus Film with Integrated Compositional and Microstructural Gradients for Guided Bone Regeneration. ADVANCED SCIENCE (WEINHEIM, BADEN-WURTTEMBERG, GERMANY) 2024; 11:e2307606. [PMID: 38225697 DOI: 10.1002/advs.202307606] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/11/2023] [Revised: 12/25/2023] [Indexed: 01/17/2024]
Abstract
Biology remains the envy of flexible soft matter fabrication because it can satisfy multiple functional needs by organizing a small set of proteins and polysaccharides into hierarchical systems with controlled heterogeneity in composition and microstructure. Here, it is reported that controlled, mild electronic inputs (<10 V; <20 min) induce a homogeneous gelatin-chitosan mixture to undergo sorting and bottom-up self-assembly into a Janus film with compositional gradient (i.e., from chitosan-enriched layer to chitosan/gelatin-contained layer) and tunable dense-porous gradient microstructures (e.g., porosity, pore size, and ratio of dense to porous layers). This Janus film performs is shown multiple functions for guided bone regeneration: the integration of compositional and microstructural features confers flexible mechanics, asymmetric properties for interfacial wettability, molecular transport (directional growth factor release), and cellular responses (prevents fibroblast infiltration but promotes osteoblast growth and differentiation). Overall, this work demonstrates the versatility of electrofabrication for the customized manufacturing of functional gradient soft matter.
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Affiliation(s)
- Miao Lei
- Key Laboratory for Ultrafine Materials of Ministry of Education, Frontiers Science Center for Materiobiology and Dynamic Chemistry, School of materials science and engineering, East China University of Science and Technology, Shanghai, 200237, China
| | - Haitao Liao
- Key Laboratory for Ultrafine Materials of Ministry of Education, Frontiers Science Center for Materiobiology and Dynamic Chemistry, School of materials science and engineering, East China University of Science and Technology, Shanghai, 200237, China
| | - Shijia Wang
- Key Laboratory for Ultrafine Materials of Ministry of Education, Frontiers Science Center for Materiobiology and Dynamic Chemistry, School of materials science and engineering, East China University of Science and Technology, Shanghai, 200237, China
| | - Hang Zhou
- Key Laboratory for Ultrafine Materials of Ministry of Education, Frontiers Science Center for Materiobiology and Dynamic Chemistry, School of materials science and engineering, East China University of Science and Technology, Shanghai, 200237, China
| | - Jianwei Zhu
- Key Laboratory for Ultrafine Materials of Ministry of Education, Frontiers Science Center for Materiobiology and Dynamic Chemistry, School of materials science and engineering, East China University of Science and Technology, Shanghai, 200237, China
| | - Haoran Wan
- Key Laboratory for Ultrafine Materials of Ministry of Education, Frontiers Science Center for Materiobiology and Dynamic Chemistry, School of materials science and engineering, East China University of Science and Technology, Shanghai, 200237, China
| | - Gregory F Payne
- Institute for Bioscience and Biotechnology Research and Robert E. Fischell Biomedical Device Institute, 5118 A. James Clark Hall, College Park, Maryland, 20742, USA
| | - Changsheng Liu
- Key Laboratory for Ultrafine Materials of Ministry of Education, Frontiers Science Center for Materiobiology and Dynamic Chemistry, School of materials science and engineering, East China University of Science and Technology, Shanghai, 200237, China
| | - Xue Qu
- Key Laboratory for Ultrafine Materials of Ministry of Education, Frontiers Science Center for Materiobiology and Dynamic Chemistry, School of materials science and engineering, East China University of Science and Technology, Shanghai, 200237, China
- Shanghai Frontier Science Research Base of Optogenetic Techniques for Cell Metabolism, East China University of Science and Technology, Shanghai, 200237, China
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2
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Kaur J, Xiao X, Khripin C, Hui CY, Jagota A. Sliding friction of a pillar array interface: part I. SOFT MATTER 2024; 20:1447-1458. [PMID: 38259171 DOI: 10.1039/d3sm01323e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/24/2024]
Abstract
Biology is replete with examples, at length scales ranging from the molecular (ligand-receptor binding) to the mesoscopic scale (wing arresting structures on dragonflies) where shape-complementary surfaces are used to control interfacial mechanical properties such as adhesion, friction, and contact compliance. Related bio-inspired and biomimetic structures have been used to achieve unique interfacial properties such as friction and adhesion enhancement, directional and switchable properties. The ability to tune friction by altering surface structures offers advantages in various fields, such as soft robotics and tire manufacturing. Here, we present a study of friction between polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) samples with surfaces patterned with pillar-arrays. When brought in contact with each other the two samples spontaneously produce a Moiré pattern that can also be represented as an array of interfacial dislocations that depends on interfacial misorientation and lattice spacing. Misorientation alone produces an array of screw dislocations, while lattice mismatch alone produces an array of edge dislocations. Relative sliding motion is accompanied by interfacial glide of these patterns. The frictional force resisting dislocation glide arises from periodic single pillar-pillar contact and sliding. We study the behavior of pillar-pillar contact with larger (millimeter scale) pillar samples. Inter-pillar interaction measurements are combined with a geometric model for relative sliding to calculate frictional stress that is in good agreement with experiments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jasreen Kaur
- Department of Chemical & Biomolecular Engineering, Lehigh University, Bethlehem, PA 18015, USA
| | - Xuemei Xiao
- Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA.
| | - Constantine Khripin
- Michelin Americas Research Center, Michelin North America Inc., Greenville, SC, 29605, USA
| | - Chung-Yuen Hui
- Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA.
- Global Station for Soft Matter, GI-CoRE, Hokkaido University, Sapporo, Japan
| | - Anand Jagota
- Department of Chemical & Biomolecular Engineering, Lehigh University, Bethlehem, PA 18015, USA
- Department of Bioengineering, Lehigh University, Bethlehem, PA 18015, USA.
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3
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Matsumura Y, Gorb EV, Gorb SN. The tight attachment achieved by the male discoidal setae is possibly a counter-adaptation to the grease layer on female integument surfaces in green dock beetles. J R Soc Interface 2023; 20:20230324. [PMID: 37582406 PMCID: PMC10427193 DOI: 10.1098/rsif.2023.0324] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/03/2023] [Accepted: 07/26/2023] [Indexed: 08/17/2023] Open
Abstract
Green dock beetles Gastrophysa viridula exhibit sexual dimorphism in tarsal attachment setae: females have only pointed, lanceolate and spatula-like setae, while males additionally possess discoidal ones. The sexual dimorphism is probably attributed to the necessity of male discoidal setae to adhere to the smooth back of the female during copulation. We aimed to understand its possible mechanism of attachment with G. viridula. Pull-off forces of both females and males were measured on (i) alive females, (ii) dead and dried females, and (iii) resin replicas of fresh females. The attachment ability tended to increase on dead and replicated female surfaces in both sexes, which indicates that the epicuticular grease layer on the integument of alive intact beetles decreases the attachment. This tendency was prominent in females. The present study clearly showed that in G. viridula discoidal setae enable the males to adhere stronger to female surfaces. The divergent performance found between the sexes differing in their setal composition is probably caused by the stiffness difference between the setae types and by the specific shape of the setal tips. A peculiar reproductive biology in G. viridula is probably attributed to this remarkable divergence of labour in their attachment pads between the sexes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yoko Matsumura
- Department of Functional Morphology and Biomechanics, Zoological Institute, Kiel University, Am Botanischen Garten 9, 24118 Kiel, Germany
- Department of Systematic Entomology, Graduate School of Agriculture, Hokkaido University, 060-8589 Sapporo, Japan
| | - Elena V. Gorb
- Department of Functional Morphology and Biomechanics, Zoological Institute, Kiel University, Am Botanischen Garten 9, 24118 Kiel, Germany
| | - Stanislav N. Gorb
- Department of Functional Morphology and Biomechanics, Zoological Institute, Kiel University, Am Botanischen Garten 9, 24118 Kiel, Germany
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4
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Guo L, Sun Y, Liu S. Adaptive behaviors of Drosophila larvae on slippery surfaces. J Biol Phys 2023; 49:121-132. [PMID: 36790728 PMCID: PMC9958210 DOI: 10.1007/s10867-023-09626-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/23/2022] [Accepted: 01/13/2023] [Indexed: 02/16/2023] Open
Abstract
Friction is ubiquitous but an essential force for insects during locomotion. Insects use dedicated bio-mechanical systems such as adhesive pads to modulate the intensity of friction, providing a stable grip with touching substrates for locomotion. However, how to uncover behavioral adaptation and regulatory neural circuits of friction modification is still largely understood. In this study, we devised a novel behavior paradigm to investigate adaptive behavioral alternation of Drosophila larvae under low-friction surfaces. We found a tail looseness phenotype similar to slipping behavior in humans, as a primary indicator to assess the degree of slipping. We found a gradual reduction on slipping level in wild-type larvae after successive larval crawling, coupled with incremental tail contraction, displacement, and speed acceleration. Meanwhile, we also found a strong correlation between tail looseness index and length of contraction, suggesting that lengthening tail contraction may contribute to enlarging the contact area with the tube. Moreover, we found a delayed adaptation in rut mutant larvae, inferring that neural plasticity may participate in slipping adaptation. In conclusion, our paradigm can be easily and reliably replicated, providing a feasible pathway to uncover the behavioral principle and neural mechanism of acclimation of Drosophila larvae to low-friction conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Li Guo
- Zhejiang Lab, Nanhu Headquarters, Kechuang Avenue, Zhongtai Sub-District, Yuhang District, Hangzhou City, Zhejiang Province, 311121, People's Republic of China.
| | - Yixuan Sun
- Zhejiang Lab, Nanhu Headquarters, Kechuang Avenue, Zhongtai Sub-District, Yuhang District, Hangzhou City, Zhejiang Province, 311121, People's Republic of China
| | - Sijian Liu
- Zhejiang Lab, Nanhu Headquarters, Kechuang Avenue, Zhongtai Sub-District, Yuhang District, Hangzhou City, Zhejiang Province, 311121, People's Republic of China
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5
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Tran-Ngoc PT, Lim LZ, Gan JH, Wang H, Vo-Doan TT, Sato H. A robotic leg inspired from an insect leg. BIOINSPIRATION & BIOMIMETICS 2022; 17:056008. [PMID: 35700723 DOI: 10.1088/1748-3190/ac78b5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/04/2022] [Accepted: 06/14/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
While most insect-inspired robots come with a simple tarsus, such as a hemispherical foot tip, insect legs have complex tarsal structures and claws, which enable them to walk on complex terrain. Their sharp claws can smoothly attach and detach on plant surfaces by actuating a single muscle. Thus, installing an insect-inspired tarsus on legged robots would improve their locomotion on complex terrain. This paper shows that the tendon-driven ball-socket structure provides the tarsus with both flexibility and rigidity, which is necessary for the beetle to walk on a complex substrate such as a mesh surface. Disabling the tarsus' rigidity by removing the socket and elastic membrane of a tarsal joint, means that the claws could not attach to the mesh securely. Meanwhile, the beetle struggled to draw the claws out of the substrate when we turned the tarsus rigid by tubing. We then developed a cable-driven bio-inspired tarsus structure to validate the function of the tarsus as well as to show its potential application in the legged robot. With the tarsus, the robotic leg was able to attach and retract smoothly from the mesh substrate when performing a walking cycle.
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Affiliation(s)
- P Thanh Tran-Ngoc
- School of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Leslie Ziqi Lim
- School of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Jia Hui Gan
- School of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Hong Wang
- School of Mechanical Engineering and Automation, Harbin Institute of Technology, Shenzhen, Shenzhen, People's Republic of China
| | | | - Hirotaka Sato
- School of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore, Singapore
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6
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Wang S, Li L, Zhao W, Zhang Y, Wen L. A biomimetic remora disc with tunable, reversible adhesion for surface sliding and skimming. BIOINSPIRATION & BIOMIMETICS 2022; 17:036001. [PMID: 35073526 DOI: 10.1088/1748-3190/ac4e7a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/07/2021] [Accepted: 01/24/2022] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Remora suckerfish (Echeneis naucrates) can perform skimming and sliding motions on the surfaces of moving hosts to optimize adhesion positions. We found that remora achieve skimming and sliding motions through coordinated movement of the suction disc's lamellae and lip locomotion through live animal observations. We implemented an integrated biomimetic remora suction disc based on morphological and kinematic data of biological remoras. With soft actuators enabling 'compression-rotation' and 'compression-extension', the biomimetic disc controls the disc lip and lamellar movement under driving with only one degree of freedom, and can switch freely between three states: zero, low-friction, and robust adhesion. Then we investigate the effects of the biomimetic suction-disc soft-lip material, preload, and lamellar movement on the tangential friction force (both forward and backward) under different adhesion states. This biomimetic suction disc with a low-modulus soft lip can adhere to a smooth surface under 0.1 N preload and achieve normal adhesion-force and tangential frictional-force control ranges spanning ∼10-1to ∼102N and ∼10-1to ∼101N, respectively. The results reveal how remora disc achieved fast, tunable adhesion for skimming and sliding on surfaces. Furthermore, we demonstrate a bio-inspired robot capable of attachment, detachment, skimming, and sliding motions with the aiding of simple biomimetic pectoral-fin flapping. This study lays a foundation for future integrated applications of underwater adhesion robots and related biomechanical exploration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Siqi Wang
- School of Mechanical Engineering and Automation, Beihang University, Beijing, 100191, People's Republic of China
- Shenyuan Honors College, Beihang University, Beijing, 100191, People's Republic of China
| | - Lei Li
- School of Mechanical Engineering and Automation, Beihang University, Beijing, 100191, People's Republic of China
| | - Wei Zhao
- School of Mechanical Engineering and Automation, Beihang University, Beijing, 100191, People's Republic of China
| | - Yiyuan Zhang
- School of General Engineering, Beihang University, Beijing, 100191, People's Republic of China
| | - Li Wen
- School of Mechanical Engineering and Automation, Beihang University, Beijing, 100191, People's Republic of China
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7
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Gorb SN, Krings W. Mechanical property gradients of taenioglossan radular teeth are associated with specific function and ecological niche in Paludomidae (Gastropoda: Mollusca). Acta Biomater 2021; 134:513-530. [PMID: 34329785 DOI: 10.1016/j.actbio.2021.07.057] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/17/2021] [Revised: 07/16/2021] [Accepted: 07/22/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Biological tissues may exhibit graded heterogeneities in structure and mechanical properties that are crucial to their function. One biological structure that shows variation in both structure and function is the molluscan radula: the organ comprises a chitinous membrane with embedded teeth and serves to process and gather food. The tooth morphologies had been well studied in the last decades, but the mechanical properties of the teeth are not known for the vast majority of molluscs. This knowledge gap restricts our understanding of how the radula is able to act effectively on a target surface whilst simultaneously resisting structural failure. Here we employed nanoindentation technique to measure mechanical properties (hardness and Young's modulus) on distinct localities of individual radular teeth from 24 species of African paludomid gastropods. These species have distinct ecological niches as they forage on algae on different feeding substrates. A gradual distribution of measured properties along the teeth was found in species foraging on solid or mixed feeding substrates, but soft substrate feeders exhibit teeth almost homogeneous in their biomechanical properties. The presence or absence of large-scale gradients in these taenioglossan teeth could directly be linked with their specific function and in general with the species ecology, whereas the radular tooth morphologies do not always and fully reflect ecology. STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE: African Lake Tanganyika is well known for harbouring endemic and morphologically distinct genera. Its paludomid gastropods form a flock of high interest because of its diversity. As they show distinct radular tooth morphologies hypotheses about potential trophic specializations had always been at hand. Here we evaluated the mechanical properties Young's modulus and hardness of 9027 individual teeth from 24 species along the tooth by nanoindentation and related them with the gastropods' specific feeding substrate. We find that hard substrate feeders have teeth that are hard at the tips but much less stiff at the base and thus heterogeneous with respect to material properties, whereas soft substrate feeders have teeth that are flexible and homogenous with respect to material properties.
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8
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Wanasingha N, Dutta NK, Choudhury NR. Emerging bioadhesives: from traditional bioactive and bioinert to a new biomimetic protein-based approach. Adv Colloid Interface Sci 2021; 296:102521. [PMID: 34534751 DOI: 10.1016/j.cis.2021.102521] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/17/2021] [Revised: 09/04/2021] [Accepted: 09/04/2021] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
Bioadhesives have reached significant milestones over the past two decades. Research has shown not only to produce adhesives capable of adhering to dry tissue but recently wet tissue as well. However, most bioadhesives developed have exhibited high adhesion strength yet lack other properties required for versatility in application, such as elasticity, biocompatibility and biodegradability. Adapting from limitations met from early bioadhesives and meeting the current demand allows novel bioadhesives to reach new milestones for the future. In this review, we overview the progression and variations of bioadhesives, current trends, characterisation techniques and conclude with future perspectives for bioadhesives for tissue engineering applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nisal Wanasingha
- School of Engineering, RMIT University, Melbourne, VIC 3000, Australia
| | - Naba K Dutta
- School of Engineering, RMIT University, Melbourne, VIC 3000, Australia
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9
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Boublil BL, Diebold CA, Moss CF. Mechanosensory Hairs and Hair-like Structures in the Animal Kingdom: Specializations and Shared Functions Serve to Inspire Technology Applications. SENSORS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2021; 21:6375. [PMID: 34640694 PMCID: PMC8512044 DOI: 10.3390/s21196375] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/27/2021] [Revised: 09/20/2021] [Accepted: 09/21/2021] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Biological mechanosensation has been a source of inspiration for advancements in artificial sensory systems. Animals rely on sensory feedback to guide and adapt their behaviors and are equipped with a wide variety of sensors that carry stimulus information from the environment. Hair and hair-like sensors have evolved to support survival behaviors in different ecological niches. Here, we review the diversity of biological hair and hair-like sensors across the animal kingdom and their roles in behaviors, such as locomotion, exploration, navigation, and feeding, which point to shared functional properties of hair and hair-like structures among invertebrates and vertebrates. By reviewing research on the role of biological hair and hair-like sensors in diverse species, we aim to highlight biological sensors that could inspire the engineering community and contribute to the advancement of mechanosensing in artificial systems, such as robotics.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Cynthia F. Moss
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, Johns Hopkins University, 3400 N Charles St., Baltimore, MD 21218, USA; (B.L.B.); (C.A.D.)
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10
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Wang J, Wan Y, Wang X, Xia Z. Bioinspired Smart Materials With Externally-Stimulated Switchable Adhesion. FRONTIERS IN NANOTECHNOLOGY 2021. [DOI: 10.3389/fnano.2021.667287] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Living organisms have evolved, over billions of years, to develop specialized biostructures with switchable adhesion for various purposes including climbing, perching, preying, sensing, and protecting. According to adhesion mechanisms, switchable adhesives can be divided into four categories: mechanically-based adhesion, liquid-mediated adhesion, physically-actuated adhesion and chemically-enhanced adhesion. Mimicking these biostructures could create smart materials with switchable adhesion, appealing for many engineering applications in robotics, sensors, advanced drug-delivery, protein separation, etc. Progress has been made in developing bioinspired materials with switchable adhesion modulated by external stimuli such as electrical signal, magnetic field, light, temperature, pH value, etc. This review will be focused on new advance in biomimetic design and synthesis of the materials and devices with switchable adhesion. The underlying mechanisms, design principles, and future directions are discussed for the development of high-performance smart surfaces with switchable adhesion.
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11
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Büscher TH, Gorb SN. Physical constraints lead to parallel evolution of micro- and nanostructures of animal adhesive pads: a review. BEILSTEIN JOURNAL OF NANOTECHNOLOGY 2021; 12:725-743. [PMID: 34354900 PMCID: PMC8290099 DOI: 10.3762/bjnano.12.57] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/07/2021] [Accepted: 06/30/2021] [Indexed: 05/25/2023]
Abstract
Adhesive pads are functional systems with specific micro- and nanostructures which evolved as a response to specific environmental conditions and therefore exhibit convergent traits. The functional constraints that shape systems for the attachment to a surface are general requirements. Different strategies to solve similar problems often follow similar physical principles, hence, the morphology of attachment devices is affected by physical constraints. This resulted in two main types of attachment devices in animals: hairy and smooth. They differ in morphology and ultrastructure but achieve mechanical adaptation to substrates with different roughness and maximise the actual contact area with them. Species-specific environmental surface conditions resulted in different solutions for the specific ecological surroundings of different animals. As the conditions are similar in discrete environments unrelated to the group of animals, the micro- and nanostructural adaptations of the attachment systems of different animal groups reveal similar mechanisms. Consequently, similar attachment organs evolved in a convergent manner and different attachment solutions can occur within closely related lineages. In this review, we present a summary of the literature on structural and functional principles of attachment pads with a special focus on insects, describe micro- and nanostructures, surface patterns, origin of different pads and their evolution, discuss the material properties (elasticity, viscoelasticity, adhesion, friction) and basic physical forces contributing to adhesion, show the influence of different factors, such as substrate roughness and pad stiffness, on contact forces, and review the chemical composition of pad fluids, which is an important component of an adhesive function. Attachment systems are omnipresent in animals. We show parallel evolution of attachment structures on micro- and nanoscales at different phylogenetic levels, focus on insects as the largest animal group on earth, and subsequently zoom into the attachment pads of the stick and leaf insects (Phasmatodea) to explore convergent evolution of attachment pads at even smaller scales. Since convergent events might be potentially interesting for engineers as a kind of optimal solution by nature, the biomimetic implications of the discussed results are briefly presented.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thies H Büscher
- Department of Functional Morphology and Biomechanics, Institute of Zoology, Kiel University, Am Botanischen Garten 9, 24118 Kiel, Germany
| | - Stanislav N Gorb
- Department of Functional Morphology and Biomechanics, Institute of Zoology, Kiel University, Am Botanischen Garten 9, 24118 Kiel, Germany
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12
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He Z, Liu Z, Li M, Hui CY, Jagota A. Meso-scale dislocations and friction of shape-complementary soft interfaces. J R Soc Interface 2021; 18:20200940. [PMID: 33530861 DOI: 10.1098/rsif.2020.0940] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
The interface between two surfaces patterned with complementary shapes such as arrays of ridge-channel structures or pillars accommodates relative misorientation and lattice mismatch by spontaneous production of dislocation arrays. Here, we show that the relative sliding of such an interface is accomplished by dislocation glide on the interfacial plane. An exception is the singular case where the lattices are perfectly matched across the sample dimension, in which case sliding is accompanied by motion of edge-nucleated defects. These are meso-scale analogues of molecular sliding friction mechanisms between crystalline interfaces. The dislocations, in addition to the long-range elastic energy associated with their Burgers vectors, also cause significant out-of-plane dilation, which props open the interface locally. For this reason, the sliding friction is strongly pressure dependent; it also depends on the relative orientation of the patterns. Sliding friction can be strongly enhanced compared with a control, showing that shape-complementary interfaces can be engineered for strongly enhanced pressure- and orientation-dependent frictional properties in soft solids.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhenping He
- Department of Bioengineering, Lehigh University, Bethlehem, PA, USA
| | - Zezhou Liu
- Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, USA
| | - Meng Li
- Department of Bioengineering, Lehigh University, Bethlehem, PA, USA.,College of Mechanical and Electrical Engineering, Nanjing University of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Nanjing 210016, People's Republic of China
| | - Chung-Yuen Hui
- Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, USA
| | - Anand Jagota
- Department of Bioengineering, Lehigh University, Bethlehem, PA, USA.,Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, Lehigh University, Bethlehem, PA, USA
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13
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Chun C, Biswas T, Bhandawat V. Drosophila uses a tripod gait across all walking speeds, and the geometry of the tripod is important for speed control. eLife 2021; 10:65878. [PMID: 33533718 PMCID: PMC7932689 DOI: 10.7554/elife.65878] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/17/2020] [Accepted: 01/22/2021] [Indexed: 01/23/2023] Open
Abstract
Changes in walking speed are characterized by changes in both the animal's gait and the mechanics of its interaction with the ground. Here we study these changes in walking Drosophila. We measured the fly's center of mass movement with high spatial resolution and the position of its footprints. Flies predominantly employ a modified tripod gait that only changes marginally with speed. The mechanics of a tripod gait can be approximated with a simple model - angular and radial spring-loaded inverted pendulum (ARSLIP) - which is characterized by two springs of an effective leg that become stiffer as the speed increases. Surprisingly, the change in the stiffness of the spring is mediated by the change in tripod shape rather than a change in stiffness of individual legs. The effect of tripod shape on mechanics can also explain the large variation in kinematics among insects, and ARSLIP can model these variations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chanwoo Chun
- Department of Biology, Duke University, Durham, United States
| | - Tirthabir Biswas
- Department of Physics, Loyola University, New Orleans, United States.,Janelia Research Campus, Howard Medical Institute, Ashburn, United States
| | - Vikas Bhandawat
- School of Biomedical Engineering, Sciences and Health Systems, Drexel University, Duke Institute for Brain Sciences, Duke University, Durham, United States
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14
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Boudinot BE, Beutel RG, Gorb SN, Polilov AA. Functional diversity of attachment and grooming leg structures is retained in all but the smallest insects. J Zool (1987) 2020. [DOI: 10.1111/jzo.12840] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- B. E. Boudinot
- Department of Entomology & Nematology University of California Davis CA USA
| | - R. G. Beutel
- Institut für Zoologie und Evolutionsforschung Friedrich‐Schiller‐Universität Jena Germany
- Economo Group Okinawa Institute of Science and Technology (OIST) Tancha Japan
| | - S. N. Gorb
- Department Functional Morphology and Biomechanics Zoological Institute of the University of Kiel Kiel Germany
| | - A. A. Polilov
- Department of Entomology Biological faculty Lomonosov Moscow State University Moscow Russia
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15
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Rivera J, Hosseini MS, Restrepo D, Murata S, Vasile D, Parkinson DY, Barnard HS, Arakaki A, Zavattieri P, Kisailus D. Toughening mechanisms of the elytra of the diabolical ironclad beetle. Nature 2020; 586:543-548. [DOI: 10.1038/s41586-020-2813-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/06/2019] [Accepted: 08/18/2020] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
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16
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Park J, Lee Y, Lee H, Ko H. Transfer Printing of Electronic Functions on Arbitrary Complex Surfaces. ACS NANO 2020; 14:12-20. [PMID: 31913600 DOI: 10.1021/acsnano.9b09846] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/27/2023]
Abstract
Transfer printing of electronic functions on arbitrary surfaces is essential for next-generation applications of skin-attachable electronics, wearable sensors, and implantable/medical devices. For transfer printing of electronic functions on multidimensional surfaces, such as curved regions of the skin and different objects, various strategies have been devised based on the materials and structural design of electronic components and transfer stamps, such as ultrathin membranes or in-plane structures of electronic components, soft interfacial glues or adhesives between devices and surfaces, and smart transfer adhesives with bioinspired micro/nanostructures. These techniques enable high conformity of adhesion, mechanical robustness, and high compliance of electronic devices on arbitrary surfaces under mechanical deformation. In this Perspective, we provide an overview of recent transfer printing techniques and discuss their advantages and challenges. In addition, we report a recently developed transfer printing technique based on bioinspired smart adhesives with reversible adhesion, which enables compliant electronics on various arbitrary complex surfaces without performance degradation, providing solutions for various technical challenges remaining in transfer printing. Finally, we present potential applications of transfer printing and future perspectives for this emerging field.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jonghwa Park
- School of Energy and Chemical Engineering , Ulsan National Institute of Science and Technology (UNIST) , Ulsan Metropolitan City 689-798 , Republic of Korea
| | - Youngsu Lee
- School of Energy and Chemical Engineering , Ulsan National Institute of Science and Technology (UNIST) , Ulsan Metropolitan City 689-798 , Republic of Korea
| | - Hochan Lee
- School of Energy and Chemical Engineering , Ulsan National Institute of Science and Technology (UNIST) , Ulsan Metropolitan City 689-798 , Republic of Korea
| | - Hyunhyub Ko
- School of Energy and Chemical Engineering , Ulsan National Institute of Science and Technology (UNIST) , Ulsan Metropolitan City 689-798 , Republic of Korea
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17
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Huang C, Kang L, Zhang N, Wan S, Zhou X, Zhang J. Bioinspired Interfacial Strengthening Flexible Supercapacitors via Hierarchically Topological Interlocking Strategy. ACS APPLIED MATERIALS & INTERFACES 2019; 11:38303-38312. [PMID: 31536321 DOI: 10.1021/acsami.9b12436] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/21/2023]
Abstract
Flexible micro-supercapacitors (MSCs) featured with high storage capacity and mechanical stability are essential and indispensable for the development of wearable devices. Since the active materials physically deposited on the current collectors are rigid and will be desquamated under the mechanical cycling, the performance of flexible MSCs is still limited by the weak interfacial adhesions between materials and collectors. The effective strategy to strengthen the interfacial adhesion is one important key to achieve high-performance flexible MSCs. In this work, a flexible symmetrical micro-supercapacitor with a bioinspired hierarchically topological interlocking interfacial enhancement strategy was presented. Based on the high stability metal current collectors on the polyimide substrate, two-level 3D interlocking structures between the active materials and the current collectors were further utilized, which was inspired by the structures of a gecko's feet and a tree's roots in rock cracks, respectively. Through these 3D interlocking structures, the effective contact areas and the adhesion strengths of two interfaces, that is, the active material/current collectors and the current collector/substrate interfaces, are significantly enhanced. The energy density of the interfacial enhanced active carbon symmetrical MSC (IE SMSC) has been improved over 3 times in comparison with the in-plane active carbon SMSC (SMSC). The capacitance of IE SMSC can remain 92.9% even after 5000 cycles of bending treatment. Even more remarkable, the potential window of the IE SMSC can expand to 1.6 V in the aqueous electrolyte. The results show that the hierarchically topological interlocking strategy can not only ensure the mechanical stability of the flexible MSC but also improve its energy efficiency. Our strategy provides a new perspective for the study of flexible supercapacitors and various flexible devices to achieve high adhesion, high flexibility, and high electrical capacitive performance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chun Huang
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of Multidimensional Information Processing , East China Normal University , 500 Dongchuan Road , 200241 Shanghai , China
| | - Ling Kang
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of Multidimensional Information Processing , East China Normal University , 500 Dongchuan Road , 200241 Shanghai , China
| | - Nan Zhang
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of Multidimensional Information Processing , East China Normal University , 500 Dongchuan Road , 200241 Shanghai , China
| | - Shangshang Wan
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of Multidimensional Information Processing , East China Normal University , 500 Dongchuan Road , 200241 Shanghai , China
| | - Xiaofeng Zhou
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of Multidimensional Information Processing , East China Normal University , 500 Dongchuan Road , 200241 Shanghai , China
| | - Jian Zhang
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of Multidimensional Information Processing , East China Normal University , 500 Dongchuan Road , 200241 Shanghai , China
- Shanghai Institute of Intelligent Electronics Systems , Fudan University , Shanghai 200433 , China
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18
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Cao F, Sato H. Insect–Computer Hybrid Robot Achieves a Walking Gait Rarely Seen in Nature by Replacing the Anisotropic Natural Leg Spines With Isotropic Artificial Leg Spines. IEEE T ROBOT 2019. [DOI: 10.1109/tro.2019.2903416] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
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19
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Baik S, Lee HJ, Kim DW, Kim JW, Lee Y, Pang C. Bioinspired Adhesive Architectures: From Skin Patch to Integrated Bioelectronics. ADVANCED MATERIALS (DEERFIELD BEACH, FLA.) 2019; 31:e1803309. [PMID: 30773697 DOI: 10.1002/adma.201803309] [Citation(s) in RCA: 106] [Impact Index Per Article: 21.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/24/2018] [Revised: 10/31/2018] [Indexed: 05/21/2023]
Abstract
The attachment phenomena of various hierarchical architectures found in nature have extensively drawn attention for developing highly biocompatible adhesive on skin or wet inner organs without any chemical glue. Structural adhesive systems have become important to address the issues of human-machine interactions by smart outer/inner organ-attachable devices for diagnosis and therapy. Here, advances in designs of biologically inspired adhesive architectures are reviewed in terms of distinct structural properties, attachment mechanisms to biosurfaces by physical interactions, and noteworthy fabrication methods. Recent demonstrations of bioinspired adhesive architectures as adhesive layers for medical applications from skin patches to multifunctional bioelectronics are presented. To conclude, current challenges and prospects on potential applications are also briefly discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sangyul Baik
- School of Chemical Engineering, Sungkyunkwan University (SKKU), Seobu-ro, Jangan-gu, Suwon, Gyeonggi-do, 16419, Republic of Korea
| | - Heon Joon Lee
- School of Chemical Engineering, Sungkyunkwan University (SKKU), Seobu-ro, Jangan-gu, Suwon, Gyeonggi-do, 16419, Republic of Korea
| | - Da Wan Kim
- School of Chemical Engineering, Sungkyunkwan University (SKKU), Seobu-ro, Jangan-gu, Suwon, Gyeonggi-do, 16419, Republic of Korea
| | - Ji Won Kim
- School of Chemical Engineering, Sungkyunkwan University (SKKU), Seobu-ro, Jangan-gu, Suwon, Gyeonggi-do, 16419, Republic of Korea
| | - Youngkwan Lee
- School of Chemical Engineering, Sungkyunkwan University (SKKU), Seobu-ro, Jangan-gu, Suwon, Gyeonggi-do, 16419, Republic of Korea
| | - Changhyun Pang
- School of Chemical Engineering, Sungkyunkwan University (SKKU), Seobu-ro, Jangan-gu, Suwon, Gyeonggi-do, 16419, Republic of Korea
- SKKU Advanced Institute of Nanotechnology (SAINT), Samsung Advanced Institute for Health Science & Technology (SAIHST), Sungkyunkwan University (SKKU), Seobu-ro, Jangan-gu, Suwon, Gyeonggi-do, 16419, Republic of Korea
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20
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Sun J, Liu C, Bhushan B. A review of beetle hindwings: Structure, mechanical properties, mechanism and bioinspiration. J Mech Behav Biomed Mater 2019; 94:63-73. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jmbbm.2019.02.031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/07/2018] [Revised: 02/11/2019] [Accepted: 02/28/2019] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
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21
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Meng L, Liang H, Yu H, Yang J, Li F, Wang Z, Zeng X. The energy absorption and bearing capacity of light-weight bio-inspired structures produced by selective laser melting. J Mech Behav Biomed Mater 2019; 93:170-182. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jmbbm.2019.02.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/13/2018] [Revised: 02/12/2019] [Accepted: 02/13/2019] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
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22
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Kumar C, Palacios A, Surapaneni VA, Bold G, Thielen M, Licht E, Higham TE, Speck T, Le Houérou V. Replicating the complexity of natural surfaces: technique validation and applications for biomimetics, ecology and evolution. PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. SERIES A, MATHEMATICAL, PHYSICAL, AND ENGINEERING SCIENCES 2019; 377:20180265. [PMID: 30967061 PMCID: PMC6335282 DOI: 10.1098/rsta.2018.0265] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 10/09/2018] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
The surfaces of animals, plants and abiotic structures are not only important for organismal survival, but they have also inspired countless biomimetic and industrial applications. Additionally, the surfaces of animals and plants exhibit an unprecedented level of diversity, and animals often move on the surface of plants. Replicating these surfaces offers a number of advantages, such as preserving a surface that is likely to degrade over time, controlling for non-structural aspects of surfaces, such as compliance and chemistry, and being able to produce large areas of a small surface. In this paper, we compare three replication techniques among a number of species of plants, a technical surface and a rock. We then use two model parameters (cross-covariance function ratio and relative topography difference) to develop a unique method for quantitatively evaluating the quality of the replication. Finally, we outline future directions that can employ highly accurate surface replications, including ecological and evolutionary studies, biomechanical experiments, industrial applications and improving haptic properties of bioinspired surfaces. The recent advances associated with surface replication and imaging technology have formed a foundation on which to incorporate surface information into biological sciences and to improve industrial and biomimetic applications. This article is part of the theme issue 'Bioinspired materials and surfaces for green science and technology'.
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Affiliation(s)
- Charchit Kumar
- Institut Charles Sadron, CNRS UPR022, Université de Strasbourg, Strasbourg, France
- Plant Biomechanics Group and Botanic Garden, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
- FIT, Freiburg Center for Interactive Materials and Bioinspired Technologies, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Alejandro Palacios
- Institut Charles Sadron, CNRS UPR022, Université de Strasbourg, Strasbourg, France
- Plant Biomechanics Group and Botanic Garden, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Venkata A. Surapaneni
- Plant Biomechanics Group and Botanic Garden, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
- FMF, Freiburg Materials Research Center, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Georg Bold
- Plant Biomechanics Group and Botanic Garden, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
- FIT, Freiburg Center for Interactive Materials and Bioinspired Technologies, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Marc Thielen
- Plant Biomechanics Group and Botanic Garden, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
- FMF, Freiburg Materials Research Center, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Erik Licht
- Basell Deutschland GmbH, LyondellBasell Industries, Frankfurt a.M, Germany
| | - Timothy E. Higham
- Plant Biomechanics Group and Botanic Garden, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
- Department of Evolution, Ecology, and Organismal Biology, University of California, Riverside, CA, USA
| | - Thomas Speck
- Plant Biomechanics Group and Botanic Garden, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
- FIT, Freiburg Center for Interactive Materials and Bioinspired Technologies, Freiburg, Germany
- FMF, Freiburg Materials Research Center, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Vincent Le Houérou
- Institut Charles Sadron, CNRS UPR022, Université de Strasbourg, Strasbourg, France
- ICube, UMR7357, Université de Strasbourg, Strasbourg, France
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23
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Petersen DS, Kreuter N, Heepe L, Büsse S, Wellbrock AHJ, Witte K, Gorb SN. Holding tight to feathers - structural specializations and attachment properties of the avian ectoparasite Crataerina pallida (Diptera, Hippoboscidae). ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2018; 221:jeb.179242. [PMID: 29712747 DOI: 10.1242/jeb.179242] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/12/2018] [Accepted: 04/23/2018] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
The louse fly Crataerina pallida is an obligate blood-sucking ectoparasite of the common swift Apus apus As a result of reduction of the wings, C. pallida is unable to fly; thus, an effective and reliable attachment to their host's plumage is of utmost importance. The attachment system of C. pallida shows several modifications in comparison to that of other calyptrate flies, notably the large tridentate claws and the dichotomously shaped setae located on the pulvilli. Based on data from morphological analysis, confocal laser scanning microscopy, cryo-scanning electron microscopy and attachment force experiments performed on native (feathers) as well as artificial substrates (glass, epoxy resin and silicone rubber), we showed that the entire attachment system is highly adapted to the fly's lifestyle as an ectoparasite. The claws in particular are the main contributor to strong attachment to the host. Resulting attachment forces on feathers make it impossible to detach C. pallida without damage to the feathers or to the legs of the louse fly itself. Well-developed pulvilli are responsible for the attachment to smooth surfaces. Both dichotomously shaped setae and high setal density explain high attachment forces observed on smooth substrates. For the first time, we demonstrate a material gradient within the setae, with soft, resilin-dominated apical tips and stiff, more sclerotized bases in Diptera. The empodium seems not to be directly involved in the attachment process, but it might operate as a cleaning device and may be essential to maintain the functionality of the entire attachment system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dennis S Petersen
- Department of Functional Morphology and Biomechanics Zoological Institute, Kiel University, Am Botanischen Garten 1-9, 24098 Kiel, Germany
| | - Nils Kreuter
- Department of Functional Morphology and Biomechanics Zoological Institute, Kiel University, Am Botanischen Garten 1-9, 24098 Kiel, Germany
| | - Lars Heepe
- Department of Functional Morphology and Biomechanics Zoological Institute, Kiel University, Am Botanischen Garten 1-9, 24098 Kiel, Germany
| | - Sebastian Büsse
- Department of Functional Morphology and Biomechanics Zoological Institute, Kiel University, Am Botanischen Garten 1-9, 24098 Kiel, Germany
| | - Arndt H J Wellbrock
- Research Group of Ecology and Behavioral Biology, Institute of Biology, Department of Chemistry-Biology, University of Siegen, Adolf-Reichwein-Str. 2, 57076 Siegen, Germany
| | - Klaudia Witte
- Research Group of Ecology and Behavioral Biology, Institute of Biology, Department of Chemistry-Biology, University of Siegen, Adolf-Reichwein-Str. 2, 57076 Siegen, Germany
| | - Stanislav N Gorb
- Department of Functional Morphology and Biomechanics Zoological Institute, Kiel University, Am Botanischen Garten 1-9, 24098 Kiel, Germany
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24
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White ZW, Vernerey FJ. Armours for soft bodies: how far can bioinspiration take us? BIOINSPIRATION & BIOMIMETICS 2018; 13:041004. [PMID: 29595522 DOI: 10.1088/1748-3190/aababa] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
The development of armour is as old as the dawn of civilization. Early man looked to natural structures to harvest or replicate for protection, leaning on millennia of evolutionary developments in natural protection. Since the advent of more modern weaponry, Armor development has seemingly been driven more by materials research than bio-inspiration. However, parallels can still be drawn between modern bullet-protective armours and natural defensive structures. Soft armour for handgun and fragmentation threats can be likened to mammalian skin, and similarly, hard armour can be compared with exoskeletons and turtle shells. Via bio-inspiration, it may be possible to develop structures previously un-researched for ballistic protection. This review will cover current modern ballistic protective structures focusing on energy dissipation and absorption methods, and their natural analogues. As all armour is a compromise between weight, flexibility and protection, the imbricated structure of scaled skin will be presented as a better balance between these factors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zachary W White
- Mechanical Engineering, University of Colorado Boulder, 427 UCB, Boulder, United States of America
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25
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He T, Lin C, Shi L, Wang R, Sun J. Through-Layer Buckle Wavelength-Gradient Design for the Coupling of High Sensitivity and Stretchability in a Single Strain Sensor. ACS APPLIED MATERIALS & INTERFACES 2018; 10:9653-9662. [PMID: 29493211 DOI: 10.1021/acsami.7b17975] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
Recent years have witnessed a breathtaking development of wearable strain sensors. Coupling high sensitivity and stretchability in a strain sensor is greatly desired by emerging wearable applications but remains a big challenge. To tackle this issue, a through-layer buckle wavelength-gradient design is proposed and a facile and universal fabrication strategy is demonstrated to introduce such a gradient into the sensing film with multilayered sensing units. Following this strategy, strain sensors are fabricated using graphene woven fabrics (GWFs) as sensing units, which exhibit highly tunable electromechanical performances. Specifically, the sensor with 10-layer GWFs has a gauge factor (GF) of 2996 at a maximum strain of 242.74% and an average GF of 327. It also exhibits an extremely low minimum detection limit of 0.02% strain, a fast signal response of less than 90 ms, and a high cyclic durability through more than 10 000 cycling test. Such excellent performances qualify it in accurately monitoring full-range human activities, ranging from subtle stimuli (e.g., pulse, respiration, and voice recognition) to vigorous motions (finger bending, walking, jogging, and jumping). The combination of experimental observations and modeling study shows that the predesigned through-layer buckle wavelength gradient leads to a layer-by-layer crack propagation process, which accounts for the underlying working mechanism. Modeling study shows a great potential for further improvement of sensing performances by adjusting fabrication parameters such as layers of sensing units ( n) and step pre-strain (εsp). For one thing, when εsp is fixed, the maximum sensing strain could be adjusted from >240% ( n = 10) to >450% ( n = 15) and >1200% ( n = 20). For the other, when n is fixed, the maximum sensing strain could be adjusted from >240% (εsp = 13.2%) to >400% (εsp = 18%) and >800% (εsp = 25%).
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Affiliation(s)
- Tengyu He
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences , 19(A) Yuquan Road , Beijing 100049 , China
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26
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Sarmiento-Ponce EJ, Sutcliffe MPF, Hedwig B. Substrate texture affects female cricket walking response to male calling song. ROYAL SOCIETY OPEN SCIENCE 2018; 5:172334. [PMID: 29657819 PMCID: PMC5882743 DOI: 10.1098/rsos.172334] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2017] [Accepted: 02/07/2018] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
Field crickets are extensively used as a model organism to study female phonotactic walking behaviour, i.e. their attraction to the male calling song. Laboratory-based phonotaxis experiments generally rely on arena or trackball-based settings; however, no attention has been paid to the effect of substrate texture on the response. Here, we tested phonotaxis in female Gryllus bimaculatus, walking on trackballs machined from methyl-methacrylate foam with different cell sizes. Surface height variations of the trackballs, due to the cellular composition of the material, were measured with profilometry and characterized as smooth, medium or rough, with roughness amplitudes of 7.3, 16 and 180 µm. Female phonotaxis was best on a rough and medium trackball surface, a smooth surface resulted in a significant lower phonotactic response. Claws of the cricket foot were crucial for effective walking. Females insert their claws into the surface pores to allow mechanical interlocking with the substrate texture and a high degree of attachment, which cannot be established on smooth surfaces. These findings provide insight to the biomechanical basis of insect walking and may inform behavioural studies that the surface texture on which walking insects are tested is crucial for the resulting behavioural response.
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Affiliation(s)
- E. J. Sarmiento-Ponce
- Department of Zoology, University of Cambridge, Downing Street, Cambridge CB2 3EJ, UK
| | - M. P. F. Sutcliffe
- Department of Engineering, University of Cambridge, Trumpington Street, Cambridge CB2 1PZ, UK
| | - B. Hedwig
- Department of Zoology, University of Cambridge, Downing Street, Cambridge CB2 3EJ, UK
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27
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Rebora M, Michels J, Salerno G, Heepe L, Gorb E, Gorb S. Tarsal attachment devices of the southern green stink bug Nezara viridula
(Heteroptera: Pentatomidae). J Morphol 2018; 279:660-672. [DOI: 10.1002/jmor.20801] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/2017] [Revised: 01/26/2018] [Accepted: 01/28/2018] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Manuela Rebora
- Dipartimento di Chimica, Biologia e Biotecnologie; University of Perugia; Perugia 06121 Italy
| | - Jan Michels
- Department of Functional Morphology and Biomechanics; Zoological Institute, Kiel University; 24118 Kiel Germany
| | - Gianandrea Salerno
- Dipartimento di Scienze Agrarie, Alimentari e Ambientali; University of Perugia; Perugia Italy
| | - Lars Heepe
- Department of Functional Morphology and Biomechanics; Zoological Institute, Kiel University; 24118 Kiel Germany
| | - Elena Gorb
- Department of Functional Morphology and Biomechanics; Zoological Institute, Kiel University; 24118 Kiel Germany
| | - Stanislav Gorb
- Department of Functional Morphology and Biomechanics; Zoological Institute, Kiel University; 24118 Kiel Germany
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28
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Gart SW, Yan C, Othayoth R, Ren Z, Li C. Dynamic traversal of large gaps by insects and legged robots reveals a template. BIOINSPIRATION & BIOMIMETICS 2018; 13:026006. [PMID: 29394160 DOI: 10.1088/1748-3190/aaa2cd] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
It is well known that animals can use neural and sensory feedback via vision, tactile sensing, and echolocation to negotiate obstacles. Similarly, most robots use deliberate or reactive planning to avoid obstacles, which relies on prior knowledge or high-fidelity sensing of the environment. However, during dynamic locomotion in complex, novel, 3D terrains, such as a forest floor and building rubble, sensing and planning suffer bandwidth limitation and large noise and are sometimes even impossible. Here, we study rapid locomotion over a large gap-a simple, ubiquitous obstacle-to begin to discover the general principles of the dynamic traversal of large 3D obstacles. We challenged the discoid cockroach and an open-loop six-legged robot to traverse a large gap of varying length. Both the animal and the robot could dynamically traverse a gap as large as one body length by bridging the gap with its head, but traversal probability decreased with gap length. Based on these observations, we developed a template that accurately captured body dynamics and quantitatively predicted traversal performance. Our template revealed that a high approach speed, initial body pitch, and initial body pitch angular velocity facilitated dynamic traversal, and successfully predicted a new strategy for using body pitch control that increased the robot's maximal traversal gap length by 50%. Our study established the first template of dynamic locomotion beyond planar surfaces, and is an important step in expanding terradynamics into complex 3D terrains.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sean W Gart
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Johns Hopkins University, 3400 N. Charles St, 126 Hackerman Hall, Baltimore, MD 21218-2683, United States of America
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29
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Gart SW, Li C. Body-terrain interaction affects large bump traversal of insects and legged robots. BIOINSPIRATION & BIOMIMETICS 2018; 13:026005. [PMID: 29394159 DOI: 10.1088/1748-3190/aaa2d0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
Small animals and robots must often rapidly traverse large bump-like obstacles when moving through complex 3D terrains, during which, in addition to leg-ground contact, their body inevitably comes into physical contact with the obstacles. However, we know little about the performance limits of large bump traversal and how body-terrain interaction affects traversal. To address these, we challenged the discoid cockroach and an open-loop six-legged robot to dynamically run into a large bump of varying height to discover the maximal traversal performance, and studied how locomotor modes and traversal performance are affected by body-terrain interaction. Remarkably, during rapid running, both the animal and the robot were capable of dynamically traversing a bump much higher than its hip height (up to 4 times the hip height for the animal and 3 times for the robot, respectively) at traversal speeds typical of running, with decreasing traversal probability with increasing bump height. A stability analysis using a novel locomotion energy landscape model explained why traversal was more likely when the animal or robot approached the bump with a low initial body yaw and a high initial body pitch, and why deflection was more likely otherwise. Inspired by these principles, we demonstrated a novel control strategy of active body pitching that increased the robot's maximal traversable bump height by 75%. Our study is a major step in establishing the framework of locomotion energy landscapes to understand locomotion in complex 3D terrains.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sean W Gart
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Johns Hopkins University, 3400 N. Charles St, 126 Hackerman Hall, Baltimore, MD 21218-2683, United States of America
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30
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Stark AY, Arstingstall K, Yanoviak SP. Adhesive performance of tropical arboreal ants varies with substrate temperature. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2018; 221:jeb.171843. [PMID: 29146768 DOI: 10.1242/jeb.171843] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/08/2017] [Accepted: 11/09/2017] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
The surface temperature of tree branches in the tropical rainforest canopy can reach up to 55°C. Ants and other small cursorial organisms must maintain adequate attachment in this extreme microenvironment to forage effectively and avoid falling. Ant adhesion depends on liquid secretions that should become less viscous at high temperatures, causing ants to slip. However, tropical arboreal ants have high thermal tolerance and actively forage on hot canopy surfaces, suggesting that these ants can maintain adhesion on hot substrates. We measured tarsal pad shear adhesion of 580 workers (representing 11 species and four subfamilies) of tropical arboreal ants at temperatures spanning the range observed in the field (23-55°C). Adhesive performance among species showed three general trends: (1) a linear decrease with increasing temperature, (2) a non-linear relationship with peak adhesive performance at ca. 30-40°C, and (3) no relationship with temperature. The mechanism responsible for these large interspecific differences remains to be determined, but likely reflects variation in the composition of the secreted adhesive fluid. Understanding such differences will reveal the diverse ways that ants cope with highly variable, and often unpredictable, thermal conditions in the forest canopy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alyssa Y Stark
- Department of Biology, University of Louisville, 139 Life Sciences Building, Louisville, KY 40292, USA
| | - Katherine Arstingstall
- Department of Biology, University of Louisville, 139 Life Sciences Building, Louisville, KY 40292, USA
| | - Stephen P Yanoviak
- Department of Biology, University of Louisville, 139 Life Sciences Building, Louisville, KY 40292, USA.,Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute, Balboa, Republic of Panama
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Abdel-Aal HA. Surface structure and tribology of legless squamate reptiles. J Mech Behav Biomed Mater 2017; 79:354-398. [PMID: 29352677 DOI: 10.1016/j.jmbbm.2017.11.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/19/2017] [Revised: 10/26/2017] [Accepted: 11/03/2017] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
Squamate reptiles (around 10,000 species of snakes and lizards) comprise a myriad of distinct terrestrial vertebrates. The diversity within this biological group offers a great opportunity for customized bio-inspired solutions that address a variety of current technological problems especially within the realm of surface engineering and tribology. One subgroup within squamata is of interest in that context, namely the legless reptiles (mainly snakes and few lizards). The promise of that group lies within their functional adaptation as manifested in optimized surface designs and locomotion that is distinguished by economy of effort even when functioning within hostile tribological environments. Legless reptiles are spread over a wide range in the planet, this geographical diversity demands customized response to local habitats. Customization, in turn, is facilitated through specialized surface design features. In legless reptiles, micro elements of texture, their geometry and topological layout advance mitigation of frictional effects both in locomotion and in general function. Lately, the synergy between functional traits and intrinsic surface features has emerged as focus of research across disciplines. Many investigations have sought to characterize the structural as well as the tribological response of legless species from an engineering point of view. Despite the sizable amount of data that have accumulated in the literature over the past two decades or so, no effort to review the available information, whence this review. This manuscript, therefore, endeavors to assess available data on surface metrology and tribological behavior of legless reptiles and to define aspects of that performance necessary to formulate an advanced paradigm for bio-inspired surface engineering.
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Gnaspini P, Antunes-Carvalho C, Newton AF, Leschen RAB. Show me your tenent setae and I tell you who you are - Telling the story of a neglected character complex with phylogenetic signals using Leiodidae (Coleoptera) as a case study. ARTHROPOD STRUCTURE & DEVELOPMENT 2017; 46:662-685. [PMID: 28652106 DOI: 10.1016/j.asd.2017.06.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/10/2017] [Revised: 06/20/2017] [Accepted: 06/22/2017] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
The tarsal setae in 97 species of Leiodidae and eight outgroups were examined using SEM imaging and dissections. Modified adhesive setae present in males are referred to as "male tenent setae" (MTS). In most cases, dilated tarsomeres were associated with MTS, which were always present on the protarsi and sometimes the mesotarsi. MTS are reported for the first time on the mesotarsi of Leptodirini and on the metatarsi in two genera of Sogdini. Contrary to reports in the literature, the reduction in the number of the MTS bearing mesotarsomeres is considered a derived condition. Both sexes of Leptinus (Platypsyllinae) have modified setae (referred to as tenent setae in the literature), probably related to their specialised association with mammals, and a patch of MTS was recognized for the first time among those modified setae among males. Four main types of MTS are recognised: (1) a plesiomorphic discoidal type that has a shaft with a round cross-section and maintains a similar diameter throughout its length until forming the expanded discoidal terminal plate; (2) a minidiscoidal type, similar to discoidal but with a relatively small terminal plate, found in Cholevinae; (3) a conical type, present in Leiodinae (excluding Estadiini) where the shaft increases in diameter until forming the terminal plate; and (4) a spatulate type, where an even wider terminal plate has a lateral projection, derived from the conical form and synapomorphic for the leiodine tribes Pseudoliodini, Scotocryptini, and possibly Agathidiini.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pedro Gnaspini
- Departamento de Zoologia, Instituto de Biociências, Universidade de São Paulo (IBUSP), São Paulo, SP, Brazil.
| | - Caio Antunes-Carvalho
- Departamento de Zoologia, Instituto de Biociências, Universidade de São Paulo (IBUSP), São Paulo, SP, Brazil.
| | - Alfred F Newton
- Integrative Research Center, Field Museum of Natural History (FMNH), Chicago, IL, USA.
| | - Richard A B Leschen
- Landcare Research, New Zealand Arthropod Collection (NZAC), Auckland, AK, New Zealand.
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33
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Attachment ability of the southern green stink bug Nezara viridula (Heteroptera: Pentatomidae). J Comp Physiol A Neuroethol Sens Neural Behav Physiol 2017; 203:601-611. [DOI: 10.1007/s00359-017-1177-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/27/2017] [Revised: 04/28/2017] [Accepted: 04/29/2017] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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England MW, Sato T, Yagihashi M, Hozumi A, Gorb SN, Gorb EV. Surface roughness rather than surface chemistry essentially affects insect adhesion. BEILSTEIN JOURNAL OF NANOTECHNOLOGY 2016; 7:1471-1479. [PMID: 27826522 PMCID: PMC5082711 DOI: 10.3762/bjnano.7.139] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/24/2016] [Accepted: 09/20/2016] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
The attachment ability of ladybird beetles Coccinella septempunctata was systematically investigated on eight types of surface, each with different chemical and topographical properties. The results of traction force tests clearly demonstrated that chemical surface properties, such as static/dynamic de-wettability of water and oil caused by specific chemical compositions, had no significant effect on the attachment of the beetles. Surface roughness was found to be the dominant factor, strongly affecting the attachment ability of the beetles.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matt W England
- National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology (AIST), 2266-98, Anagahora, Shimoshidami, Moriyama, Nagoya 463-8560, Japan
| | - Tomoya Sato
- National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology (AIST), 2266-98, Anagahora, Shimoshidami, Moriyama, Nagoya 463-8560, Japan
| | - Makoto Yagihashi
- Nagoya Municipal Industrial Research Institute, 4-41, Rokuban, Atsuta, Nagoya 456-0058, Japan
| | - Atsushi Hozumi
- National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology (AIST), 2266-98, Anagahora, Shimoshidami, Moriyama, Nagoya 463-8560, Japan
| | - Stanislav N Gorb
- Zoological Institute: Functional Morphology and Biomechanics, Kiel University, Am Botanischen Garten 9, D - 24118 Kiel, Germany
| | - Elena V Gorb
- Zoological Institute: Functional Morphology and Biomechanics, Kiel University, Am Botanischen Garten 9, D - 24118 Kiel, Germany
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35
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Heepe L, Wolff JO, Gorb SN. Influence of ambient humidity on the attachment ability of ladybird beetles ( Coccinella septempunctata). BEILSTEIN JOURNAL OF NANOTECHNOLOGY 2016; 7:1322-1329. [PMID: 27826506 PMCID: PMC5082439 DOI: 10.3762/bjnano.7.123] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/14/2016] [Accepted: 09/09/2016] [Indexed: 05/29/2023]
Abstract
Many insects possess adhesive foot pads, which enable them to scale smooth vertical surfaces. The function of these organs may be highly affected by environmental conditions. Ladybird beetles (Coccinellidae) possess dense tarsal soles of tenent setae, supplemented with an adhesive fluid. We studied the attachment ability of the seven-spotted ladybird beetle (Coccinella septempunctata) at different humidities by horizontal traction experiments. We found that both low (15%) and high (99%) relative humidities lead to a decrease of attachment ability. The significantly highest attachment forces were revealed at 60% humidity. This relationship was found both in female and male beetles, despite of a deviating structure of adhesive setae and a significant difference in forces between sexes. These findings demonstrate that not only dry adhesive setae are affected by ambient humidity, but also setae that stick due to the capillarity of an oily secretion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lars Heepe
- Department of Functional Morphology and Biomechanics, Kiel University, Am Botanischen Garten 1–9, D-24118 Kiel, Germany
- Mads Clausen Institute, University of Southern Denmark, NanoSYD Alsion 2, 6400 Sønderborg, Denmark
| | - Jonas O Wolff
- Department of Functional Morphology and Biomechanics, Kiel University, Am Botanischen Garten 1–9, D-24118 Kiel, Germany
- Department of Biological Sciences, Macquarie University, Sydney, NSW 2109, Australia
| | - Stanislav N Gorb
- Department of Functional Morphology and Biomechanics, Kiel University, Am Botanischen Garten 1–9, D-24118 Kiel, Germany
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36
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Michels J, Appel E, Gorb SN. Functional diversity of resilin in Arthropoda. BEILSTEIN JOURNAL OF NANOTECHNOLOGY 2016; 7:1241-1259. [PMID: 27826498 PMCID: PMC5082342 DOI: 10.3762/bjnano.7.115] [Citation(s) in RCA: 75] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/18/2016] [Accepted: 07/15/2016] [Indexed: 05/12/2023]
Abstract
Resilin is an elastomeric protein typically occurring in exoskeletons of arthropods. It is composed of randomly orientated coiled polypeptide chains that are covalently cross-linked together at regular intervals by the two unusual amino acids dityrosine and trityrosine forming a stable network with a high degree of flexibility and mobility. As a result of its molecular prerequisites, resilin features exceptional rubber-like properties including a relatively low stiffness, a rather pronounced long-range deformability and a nearly perfect elastic recovery. Within the exoskeleton structures, resilin commonly forms composites together with other proteins and/or chitin fibres. In the last decades, numerous exoskeleton structures with large proportions of resilin and various resilin functions have been described. Today, resilin is known to be responsible for the generation of deformability and flexibility in membrane and joint systems, the storage of elastic energy in jumping and catapulting systems, the enhancement of adaptability to uneven surfaces in attachment and prey catching systems, the reduction of fatigue and damage in reproductive, folding and feeding systems and the sealing of wounds in a traumatic reproductive system. In addition, resilin is present in many compound eye lenses and is suggested to be a very suitable material for optical elements because of its transparency and amorphousness. The evolution of this remarkable functional diversity can be assumed to have only been possible because resilin exhibits a unique combination of different outstanding properties.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jan Michels
- Department of Functional Morphology and Biomechanics, Institute of Zoology, Christian-Albrechts-Universität zu Kiel, Am Botanischen Garten 1–9, D-24118 Kiel, Germany
| | - Esther Appel
- Department of Functional Morphology and Biomechanics, Institute of Zoology, Christian-Albrechts-Universität zu Kiel, Am Botanischen Garten 1–9, D-24118 Kiel, Germany
| | - Stanislav N Gorb
- Department of Functional Morphology and Biomechanics, Institute of Zoology, Christian-Albrechts-Universität zu Kiel, Am Botanischen Garten 1–9, D-24118 Kiel, Germany
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37
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Filippov AE, Matsumura Y, Kovalev AE, Gorb SN. Stiffness gradient of the beetle penis facilitates propulsion in the spiraled female spermathecal duct. Sci Rep 2016; 6:27608. [PMID: 27334674 PMCID: PMC4918010 DOI: 10.1038/srep27608] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/11/2016] [Accepted: 05/23/2016] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
It is well known that sexual selection is the main driving force of substantial diversity of genitalia found in animals. However, how it facilitates the diversity is still largely unknown, because genital morpho/physical features and motions/functional morphology of the structures in sexual intercourse are not linked for the vast majority of organisms. Here we showed the presence of material gradient and numerically studied an effect of stiffness gradient of the beetle penis during its propulsion through the female duct. We found that stiffness gradient on the penis essentially affects its propulsion. Microscopic investigation suggests the possibility that the tip of the hyper-elongated penis is softer than the rest of it, and our numerical model confirms that this type of distribution of stiffness gradient aids in faster propulsion than other types. This result indicates that previously ignored physical properties of genital materials are of crucial importance in evolutionary studies of genitalia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexander E Filippov
- Department Functional Morphology and Biomechanics, Zoological Institute of the Kiel University, Am Botanischen Garten 9, D-24118 Kiel, Germany.,Donetsk Institute for Physics and Engineering, National Academy of Science, 340114, Donetsk, Ukraine
| | - Yoko Matsumura
- Department Functional Morphology and Biomechanics, Zoological Institute of the Kiel University, Am Botanischen Garten 9, D-24118 Kiel, Germany.,Department of Biology, Keio University, 4-1-1 Hiyoshi, Yokohama 223-8521, Japan
| | - Alexander E Kovalev
- Department Functional Morphology and Biomechanics, Zoological Institute of the Kiel University, Am Botanischen Garten 9, D-24118 Kiel, Germany
| | - Stanislav N Gorb
- Department Functional Morphology and Biomechanics, Zoological Institute of the Kiel University, Am Botanischen Garten 9, D-24118 Kiel, Germany
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38
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Song Y, Dai Z, Wang Z, Ji A, Gorb SN. The synergy between the insect-inspired claws and adhesive pads increases the attachment ability on various rough surfaces. Sci Rep 2016; 6:26219. [PMID: 27198650 PMCID: PMC4873747 DOI: 10.1038/srep26219] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/01/2015] [Accepted: 04/29/2016] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
To attach reliably on various inclined rough surfaces, many insects have evolved both claws and adhesive pads on their feet. However, the interaction between these organs still remains unclear. Here we designed an artificial attachment device, which mimics the structure and function of claws and adhesive pads, and tested it on stiff spheres of different dimensions. The results show that the attachment forces of claws decrease with an increase of the sphere radius. The forces may become very strong, when the sphere radius is smaller or comparable to the claw radius, because of the frictional self-lock. On the other hand, adhesive pads generate considerable adhesion on large sphere diameter due to large contact areas. The synergy effect between the claws and adhesive pads leads to much stronger attachment forces, if compared to the action of claw or adhesive pads independently (or even to the sum of both). The results carried out by our insect-inspired artificial attachment device clearly demonstrate why biological evolution employed two attachment organs working in concert. The results may greatly inspire the robot design, to obtain reliable attachment forces on various substrates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yi Song
- Institute of Bio-inspired Structure and Surface Engineering, Nanjing University of Aeronautics and Astronautics, 29 Yudao Street, 210016, Nanjing, China.,College of Mechanical and Electrical Engineering, Nanjing University of Aeronautics and Astronautics, 29 Yudao Street, 210016, Nanjing, China
| | - Zhendong Dai
- Institute of Bio-inspired Structure and Surface Engineering, Nanjing University of Aeronautics and Astronautics, 29 Yudao Street, 210016, Nanjing, China
| | - Zhouyi Wang
- Institute of Bio-inspired Structure and Surface Engineering, Nanjing University of Aeronautics and Astronautics, 29 Yudao Street, 210016, Nanjing, China
| | - Aihong Ji
- Institute of Bio-inspired Structure and Surface Engineering, Nanjing University of Aeronautics and Astronautics, 29 Yudao Street, 210016, Nanjing, China
| | - Stanislav N Gorb
- Institute of Bio-inspired Structure and Surface Engineering, Nanjing University of Aeronautics and Astronautics, 29 Yudao Street, 210016, Nanjing, China.,Department of Functional Morphology and Biomechanics, Kiel University, Am Botanischen Garten 1-9, D-24098 Kiel, Germany
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39
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Structure and function of the elastic organ in the tibia of a tenebrionid beetle. Naturwissenschaften 2016; 103:41. [PMID: 27118185 DOI: 10.1007/s00114-016-1363-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/18/2015] [Revised: 03/30/2016] [Accepted: 04/04/2016] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
Many insects have a pair of claws on the tip of each foot (tarsus and pretarsus). The movement of the pretarsal claws is mediated by a long apodeme that originates from the claw retractor muscles in the femur. It is generally accepted that the pulling of the apodeme by the muscles flexes the claws to engage with a rough surface of a substrate, and the flexed claws return to their initial position by passive elastic forces within the tarso-pretarsal joint. We found that each tibia of the tenebrionid beetle Zophobas atratus had a chordal elastic organ that tied the apodeme to the distal end of the tibia and assisted the pulled apodeme to return smoothly. The elastic body of the elastic organ consists of a bundle of more than 1000 thin fibrils (0.3-1.5 μm in diameter) with a hairy yarn-shaped structure made by assemblies of intricately interwoven microfibers. Both ends of the fibrillar elastic body were supported by clusters of columnar cells. Ablation of the elastic organ often disturbed the rapid and smooth return of claws from a flexed position when the tarsal segments were forced to curve in order to increase the friction between the apodeme and surrounding tissues in the segments. The result suggests that rapid claw disengagement is an important step in each cycle of leg movements, and the elastic organ may have evolved to assist the reliable detachment of claws that engage tightly with the substrate when climbing or traversing inverted surfaces.
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Jayaram K, Full RJ. Cockroaches traverse crevices, crawl rapidly in confined spaces, and inspire a soft, legged robot. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2016; 113:E950-7. [PMID: 26858443 PMCID: PMC4776529 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1514591113] [Citation(s) in RCA: 103] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Jointed exoskeletons permit rapid appendage-driven locomotion but retain the soft-bodied, shape-changing ability to explore confined environments. We challenged cockroaches with horizontal crevices smaller than a quarter of their standing body height. Cockroaches rapidly traversed crevices in 300-800 ms by compressing their body 40-60%. High-speed videography revealed crevice negotiation to be a complex, discontinuous maneuver. After traversing horizontal crevices to enter a vertically confined space, cockroaches crawled at velocities approaching 60 cm⋅s(-1), despite body compression and postural changes. Running velocity, stride length, and stride period only decreased at the smallest crevice height (4 mm), whereas slipping and the probability of zigzag paths increased. To explain confined-space running performance limits, we altered ceiling and ground friction. Increased ceiling friction decreased velocity by decreasing stride length and increasing slipping. Increased ground friction resulted in velocity and stride length attaining a maximum at intermediate friction levels. These data support a model of an unexplored mode of locomotion--"body-friction legged crawling" with body drag, friction-dominated leg thrust, but no media flow as in air, water, or sand. To define the limits of body compression in confined spaces, we conducted dynamic compressive cycle tests on living animals. Exoskeletal strength allowed cockroaches to withstand forces 300 times body weight when traversing the smallest crevices and up to nearly 900 times body weight without injury. Cockroach exoskeletons provided biological inspiration for the manufacture of an origami-style, soft, legged robot that can locomote rapidly in both open and confined spaces.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kaushik Jayaram
- Department of Integrative Biology, University of California, Berkeley, CA 94720
| | - Robert J Full
- Department of Integrative Biology, University of California, Berkeley, CA 94720
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41
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Extreme positive allometry of animal adhesive pads and the size limits of adhesion-based climbing. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2016; 113:1297-302. [PMID: 26787862 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1519459113] [Citation(s) in RCA: 63] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Organismal functions are size-dependent whenever body surfaces supply body volumes. Larger organisms can develop strongly folded internal surfaces for enhanced diffusion, but in many cases areas cannot be folded so that their enlargement is constrained by anatomy, presenting a problem for larger animals. Here, we study the allometry of adhesive pad area in 225 climbing animal species, covering more than seven orders of magnitude in weight. Across all taxa, adhesive pad area showed extreme positive allometry and scaled with weight, implying a 200-fold increase of relative pad area from mites to geckos. However, allometric scaling coefficients for pad area systematically decreased with taxonomic level and were close to isometry when evolutionary history was accounted for, indicating that the substantial anatomical changes required to achieve this increase in relative pad area are limited by phylogenetic constraints. Using a comparative phylogenetic approach, we found that the departure from isometry is almost exclusively caused by large differences in size-corrected pad area between arthropods and vertebrates. To mitigate the expected decrease of weight-specific adhesion within closely related taxa where pad area scaled close to isometry, data for several taxa suggest that the pads' adhesive strength increased for larger animals. The combination of adjustments in relative pad area for distantly related taxa and changes in adhesive strength for closely related groups helps explain how climbing with adhesive pads has evolved in animals varying over seven orders of magnitude in body weight. Our results illustrate the size limits of adhesion-based climbing, with profound implications for large-scale bio-inspired adhesives.
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42
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Park J, Lee Y, Ha M, Cho S, Ko H. Micro/nanostructured surfaces for self-powered and multifunctional electronic skins. J Mater Chem B 2016; 4:2999-3018. [DOI: 10.1039/c5tb02483h] [Citation(s) in RCA: 99] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Abstract
We introduce recent advances in the design of bioinspired micro/nanostructures and 2D/3D structures for the enhancement of energy harvesting and multifunctional sensing properties of flexible electronic skins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jonghwa Park
- School of Energy and Chemical Engineering
- Ulsan National Institute of Science and Technology (UNIST)
- Ulsan Metropolitan City
- Republic of Korea
| | - Youngoh Lee
- School of Energy and Chemical Engineering
- Ulsan National Institute of Science and Technology (UNIST)
- Ulsan Metropolitan City
- Republic of Korea
| | - Minjeong Ha
- School of Energy and Chemical Engineering
- Ulsan National Institute of Science and Technology (UNIST)
- Ulsan Metropolitan City
- Republic of Korea
| | - Seungse Cho
- School of Energy and Chemical Engineering
- Ulsan National Institute of Science and Technology (UNIST)
- Ulsan Metropolitan City
- Republic of Korea
| | - Hyunhyub Ko
- School of Energy and Chemical Engineering
- Ulsan National Institute of Science and Technology (UNIST)
- Ulsan Metropolitan City
- Republic of Korea
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43
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Labonte D, Federle W. Rate-dependence of 'wet' biological adhesives and the function of the pad secretion in insects. SOFT MATTER 2015; 11:8661-73. [PMID: 26376599 DOI: 10.1039/c5sm01496d] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/05/2023]
Abstract
Many insects use soft adhesive footpads for climbing. The surface contact of these organs is mediated by small volumes of a liquid secretion, which forms thin films in the contact zone. Here, we investigate the role of viscous dissipation by this secretion and the 'bulk' pad cuticle by quantifying the rate-dependence of the adhesive force of individual pads. Adhesion increased with retraction speed, but this effect was independent of the amount of pad secretion present in the contact zone, suggesting that the secretion's viscosity did not play a significant role. Instead, the rate-dependence can be explained by relating the strain energy release rate to the speed of crack propagation, using an established empirical power law. The 'wet' pads' behaviour was akin to that of 'dry' elastomers, with an equilibrium energy release rate close to that of dry van-der-Waals contacts. We suggest that the secretion mainly serves as a 'release layer', minimising viscous dissipation and thereby reducing the time- and 'loading-history'-dependence of the adhesive pads. In contrast to many commercial adhesives which derive much of their strength from viscous dissipation, we show that the major modulator of adhesive strength in 'wet' biological adhesive pads is friction, exhibiting a much larger effect than retraction speed. A comparison between 'wet' and 'dry' biological adhesives, using both results from this study and the literature, revealed a striking lack of differences in attachment performance under varying experimental conditions. Together, these results suggest that 'wet' and 'dry' biological adhesives may be more similar than previously thought.
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44
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Endlein T, Federle W. On Heels and Toes: How Ants Climb with Adhesive Pads and Tarsal Friction Hair Arrays. PLoS One 2015; 10:e0141269. [PMID: 26559941 PMCID: PMC4641605 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0141269] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/27/2015] [Accepted: 10/05/2015] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Ants are able to climb effortlessly on vertical and inverted smooth surfaces. When climbing, their feet touch the substrate not only with their pretarsal adhesive pads but also with dense arrays of fine hairs on the ventral side of the 3rd and 4th tarsal segments. To understand what role these different attachment structures play during locomotion, we analysed leg kinematics and recorded single-leg ground reaction forces in Weaver ants (Oecophylla smaragdina) climbing vertically on a smooth glass substrate. We found that the ants engaged different attachment structures depending on whether their feet were above or below their Centre of Mass (CoM). Legs above the CoM pulled and engaged the arolia ('toes'), whereas legs below the CoM pushed with the 3rd and 4th tarsomeres ('heels') in surface contact. Legs above the CoM carried a significantly larger proportion of the body weight than legs below the CoM. Force measurements on individual ant tarsi showed that friction increased with normal load as a result of the bending and increasing side contact of the tarsal hairs. On a rough sandpaper substrate, the tarsal hairs generated higher friction forces in the pushing than in the pulling direction, whereas the reverse effect was found on the smooth substrate. When the tarsal hairs were pushed, buckling was observed for forces exceeding the shear forces found in climbing ants. Adhesion forces were small but not negligible, and higher on the smooth substrate. Our results indicate that the dense tarsal hair arrays produce friction forces when pressed against the substrate, and help the ants to push outwards during horizontal and vertical walking.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas Endlein
- Max Planck Institute for Intelligent Systems, Heisenbergstr. 3, 70569 Stuttgart, Germany
| | - Walter Federle
- University of Cambridge, Department of Zoology, Downing Street, Cambridge, CB2 3EJ, United Kingdom
- * E-mail:
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45
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Functional morphology of the first pereiopod in crangonoid shrimps (Crustacea, Decapoda, Caridea, Crangonoidea). ZOOMORPHOLOGY 2015. [DOI: 10.1007/s00435-015-0270-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
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46
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Gottardo M, Vallotto D, Beutel RG. Giant stick insects reveal unique ontogenetic changes in biological attachment devices. ARTHROPOD STRUCTURE & DEVELOPMENT 2015; 44:195-199. [PMID: 25601633 DOI: 10.1016/j.asd.2015.01.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/05/2014] [Revised: 01/08/2015] [Accepted: 01/08/2015] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
A strong modification of tarsal and pretarsal attachment pads during the postembryonic development is described for the first time. In the exceptionally large thorny devil stick insect Eurycantha calcarata a functional arolium is only present in the immature instars, enabling them to climb on smooth surfaces, especially leaves. Nymphs are also characterized by greyish and hairy euplantulae on tarsomeres 1-4. The gradual modifications of the arolium and the euplantula of tarsomere 5 in the nymphal development are probably mainly related to increased weight. The distinct switch in the life style between the leaf-dwelling nymphal stages and the ground-dwelling adults results in the final abrupt change of the adhesive devices, resulting in a far-reaching reduction of the arolium, the presence of a fully-developed, elongated euplantula on tarsomere 5, and white and smooth euplantulae on tarsomeres 1-4. The developmental remodelling of attachment pads also reflects a phylogenetic pattern. The attachment devices of the earlier instars are similar to those found in the basalmost lineage of extant stick insects, Timema, which is characterized by a very large pan-shaped arolium and a hairy surface of the tarsal and pretarsal attachment pads.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marco Gottardo
- Department of Life Sciences, University of Siena, Via A. Moro 4, 53100 Siena, Italy.
| | | | - Rolf G Beutel
- Institut für Spezielle Zoologie und Evolutionsbiologie mit Phyletischem Museum, Friedrich-Schiller-Universität Jena, Ebertstrasse 1, D-07743 Jena, Germany
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Zurek DB, Gorb SN, Voigt D. Locomotion and attachment of leaf beetle larvae Gastrophysa viridula (Coleoptera, Chrysomelidae). Interface Focus 2015; 5:20140055. [PMID: 25657837 DOI: 10.1098/rsfs.2014.0055] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
While adult green dock leaf beetles Gastrophysa viridula use tarsal adhesive setae to attach to and walk on smooth vertical surfaces and ceilings, larvae apply different devices for similar purposes: pretarsal adhesive pads on thoracic legs and a retractable pygopod at the 10th abdominal segment. Both are soft smooth structures and capable of wet adhesion. We studied attachment ability of different larval instars, considering the relationship between body weight and real contact area between attachment devices and the substrate. Larval gait patterns were analysed using high-speed video recordings. Instead of the tripod gait of adults, larvae walked by swinging contralateral legs simultaneously while adhering by the pygopod. Attachment ability of larval instars was measured by centrifugation on a spinning drum, revealing that attachment force decreases relative to weight. Contributions of different attachment devices to total attachment ability were investigated by selective disabling of organs by covering them with melted wax. Despite their smaller overall contact area, tarsal pads contributed to a larger extent to total attachment ability, probably because of their distributed spacing. Furthermore, we observed different behaviour in adults and larvae when centrifuged: while adults gradually slipped outward on the centrifuge drum surface, larvae stayed at the initial position until sudden detachment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel B Zurek
- Evolutionary Biomaterials Group, Department of Thin Films and Biological Systems , Max Planck Institute for Intelligent Systems , Heisenbergstraße 03, 70569 Stuttgart , Germany
| | - Stanislav N Gorb
- Evolutionary Biomaterials Group, Department of Thin Films and Biological Systems , Max Planck Institute for Intelligent Systems , Heisenbergstraße 03, 70569 Stuttgart , Germany ; Functional Morphology and Biomechanics, Zoological Institute , Christian-Albrechts-Universität zu Kiel , Am Botanischen Garten 1-9, 24098 Kiel , Germany
| | - Dagmar Voigt
- Evolutionary Biomaterials Group, Department of Thin Films and Biological Systems , Max Planck Institute for Intelligent Systems , Heisenbergstraße 03, 70569 Stuttgart , Germany ; Functional Morphology and Biomechanics, Zoological Institute , Christian-Albrechts-Universität zu Kiel , Am Botanischen Garten 1-9, 24098 Kiel , Germany
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Reitz M, Gerhardt H, Schmitt C, Betz O, Albert K, Lämmerhofer M. Analysis of chemical profiles of insect adhesion secretions by gas chromatography–mass spectrometry. Anal Chim Acta 2015; 854:47-60. [DOI: 10.1016/j.aca.2014.10.056] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/28/2014] [Revised: 10/02/2014] [Accepted: 10/31/2014] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
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Gandyra D, Walheim S, Gorb S, Barthlott W, Schimmel T. The capillary adhesion technique: a versatile method for determining the liquid adhesion force and sample stiffness. BEILSTEIN JOURNAL OF NANOTECHNOLOGY 2015; 6:11-8. [PMID: 25671147 PMCID: PMC4311649 DOI: 10.3762/bjnano.6.2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/12/2014] [Accepted: 11/21/2014] [Indexed: 05/21/2023]
Abstract
We report a novel, practical technique for the concerted, simultaneous determination of both the adhesion force of a small structure or structural unit (e.g., an individual filament, hair, micromechanical component or microsensor) to a liquid and its elastic properties. The method involves the creation and development of a liquid meniscus upon touching a liquid surface with the structure, and the subsequent disruption of this liquid meniscus upon removal. The evaluation of the meniscus shape immediately before snap-off of the meniscus allows the quantitative determination of the liquid adhesion force. Concurrently, by measuring and evaluating the deformation of the structure under investigation, its elastic properties can be determined. The sensitivity of the method is remarkably high, practically limited by the resolution of the camera capturing the process. Adhesion forces down to 10 µN and spring constants up to 2 N/m were measured. Three exemplary applications of this method are demonstrated: (1) determination of the water adhesion force and the elasticity of individual hairs (trichomes) of the floating fern Salvinia molesta. (2) The investigation of human head hairs both with and without functional surface coatings (a topic of high relevance in the field of hair cosmetics) was performed. The method also resulted in the measurement of an elastic modulus (Young's modulus) for individual hairs of 3.0 × 10(5) N/cm(2), which is within the typical range known for human hair. (3) Finally, the accuracy and validity of the capillary adhesion technique was proven by examining calibrated atomic force microscopy cantilevers, reproducing the spring constants calibrated using other methods.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel Gandyra
- Institute of Applied Physics and Center for Functional Nanostructures (CFN), Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT), 76128 Karlsruhe, Germany
| | - Stefan Walheim
- Institute of Applied Physics and Center for Functional Nanostructures (CFN), Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT), 76128 Karlsruhe, Germany
| | - Stanislav Gorb
- Zoological Institute, University of Kiel, 24118 Kiel, Germany
| | - Wilhelm Barthlott
- Nees Institute for Biodiversity of Plants, University of Bonn, 53115 Bonn, Germany
| | - Thomas Schimmel
- Institute of Applied Physics and Center for Functional Nanostructures (CFN), Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT), 76128 Karlsruhe, Germany
- Institute of Nanotechnology (INT), Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT), 76021 Karlsruhe, Germany
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Zill SN, Chaudhry S, Exter A, Büschges A, Schmitz J. Positive force feedback in development of substrate grip in the stick insect tarsus. ARTHROPOD STRUCTURE & DEVELOPMENT 2014; 43:441-455. [PMID: 24951882 DOI: 10.1016/j.asd.2014.06.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/23/2014] [Accepted: 06/09/2014] [Indexed: 06/03/2023]
Abstract
The mechanics of substrate adhesion has recently been intensively studied in insects but less is known about the sensorimotor control of substrate engagement. We characterized the responses and motor effects of tarsal campaniform sensilla in stick insects to understand how sensory signals of force could contribute to substrate grip. The tarsi consist of a chain of segments linked by highly flexible articulations. Morphological studies showed that one to four campaniform sensilla are located on the distal end of each segment. Activities of the receptors were recorded neurographically and sensilla were identified by stimulation and ablation of their cuticular caps. Responses were characterized to bending forces and axial loads, muscle contractions and to forces applied to the retractor apodeme (tendon). The tarsal sensilla effectively encoded both the rate and amplitude of loads and muscle forces, but only when movement was resisted. Mechanical stimulation of the receptors produced activation of motor neurons in the retractor unguis and tibial flexor muscles. These findings indicate that campaniform sensilla can provide information about the effectiveness of the leg muscles in generating substrate adherence. They can also produce positive force feedback that could contribute to the development of substrate grip and stabilization of the tarsal chain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sasha N Zill
- Department of Anatomy and Pathology, Joan C. Edwards School of Medicine, Marshall University, Huntington, WV 25704, USA.
| | - Sumaiya Chaudhry
- Department of Anatomy and Pathology, Joan C. Edwards School of Medicine, Marshall University, Huntington, WV 25704, USA
| | - Annelie Exter
- Department of Biological Cybernetics, University of Bielefeld, 33501 Bielefeld, Germany
| | - Ansgar Büschges
- Department of Animal Physiology, Zoological Institute, Biocenter Cologne, University of Cologne, 50923 Cologne, Germany
| | - Josef Schmitz
- Department of Biological Cybernetics, University of Bielefeld, 33501 Bielefeld, Germany
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