A Survey on Companion Animal Owners' Perception of Veterinarians' Communication About Zoonoses and Antimicrobial Resistance in Germany

The intimate bonds between humans and their pets create favourable conditions that support the mutual transmission of pathogens in either direction. In this context, veterinarians are essential in informing and educating pet owners about health risks linked to zoonotic pathogens and antimicrobial resistance (AMR). To effectively convey this information, veterinarians should have strong communication skills. To gather insights on pet ownership, veterinary consultations, and risk communication, an online questionnaire was used to survey dog and cat owners in Germany. The survey evaluated the frequency and perception of communication concerning zoonotic pathogens and AMR, deriving a communication score. The findings showed that pet owners rated veterinarian communication with a high average score, reflecting a high satisfaction level. The longer pet owners had been clients, the more frequently they received information on zoonoses and AMR, and the better they rated the communication. However, the results also indicated that the amount of information on zoonoses and/or AMR provided by veterinarians was still lower than desired by pet owners. Risk factors, including pathogen detection, vulnerable individuals, owning imported animals, and feeding them raw meat, fish, offal, or uncooked bones, were regularly present. These findings underscore the critical role of risk communication in preventing zoonoses and AMR.

The transmission risk of multidrug-resistant organisms between hospital patients and their pets - a case-control study, Germany, 2019 to 2022

BackgroundCarriage of multidrug-resistant organisms (MDROs) in humans constitutes an important public health concern. Cross-transmission of bacteria between animals and humans has been demonstrated before.AimOur aim was to quantify the risk factor 'pet ownership' for MDRO colonisation in hospital patients.MethodsWe performed a matched case-control study from 2019 to 2022 in Berlin, Germany and compared MDRO-positive and MDRO-negative patients in terms of contact with pets and other risk factors for MDRO acquisition. Patients completed a questionnaire-based interview and provided nasal and rectal swabs. Pet owners provided swab samples from the throat and stool of their pets (dogs and cats). Phenotypically matching samples of owners and pets were analysed via whole genome sequencing.ResultsThe analyses included 2,891 patients. Reported pet ownership was 17.7% in MDRO-positives (154/871) and 23.4% in MDRO-negatives (472/2,020). Among 397 owner-pet pairs, we identified one pair sharing genotypically indistinguishable pathogens (0.3%). A risk factor analysis of pet ownership was performed for carriers of meticillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) (OR = 0.662; 95% CI: 0.343-1.277), vancomycin-resistant enterococci (VRE) (OR = 0.764; 95% CI: 0.522-1.118) and multidrug-resistant Gram-negative bacteria (MDR-GNB) (OR = 0.819; 95% CI: 0.620-1.082). Colonisation with MDRO was rare in pets, and dogs were more often colonised than cats (MRSA: 0% vs 0%, VRE: 1.5% vs 1.0%, MDR-GNB: 17.2% vs 3.6%).ConclusionTransmission of MDROs between humans and pets is possible though rare. In an urban living space, neither cat nor dog ownership appears as a relevant risk factor for MDRO carriage in hospital patients.

A Retrospective Descriptive Study of Staphylococcus Species Isolated from Canine Specimens Submitted to a Diagnostic Laboratory in South Africa, 2012-2017

There is a scarcity of published studies on the occurrence of Staphylococcus spp. Among dogs in South Africa. The objective of the study was to characterise the Staphylococcus spp. Isolated from dog samples submitted to a veterinary diagnostic laboratory in South Africa in terms of time, place, and person. This study utilised a dataset of 1627 positive Staphylococcus isolates obtained from a veterinary diagnostic laboratory in South Africa from 2012 to 2017. Out of the 1627 confirmed isolates, 10 different species of Staphylococcus were identified. Among these, 92.0% were classified as coagulase-positive staphylococci (CoPS), 6.0% were coagulase-negative staphylococci (CoNS), and 3.0% were coagulase-variable. Male dogs contributed just over half (53.2%) of the Staphylococcus isolates, while female dogs contributed the remaining 46.8%. The largest proportion of isolates (23.2%) were obtained from dogs aged ≥ 9 years, with the highest number of isolates originating from KwaZulu-Natal Province (45.0%) and the least from Northern Cape Province (0.1%). Out of the total samples included in the records, the majority (46.0%) were skin specimens. The number of Staphylococcus isolates recorded showed limited variation between the seasons (24.3% in autumn, 26.3% in winter, 26.0% in spring, and 24.0% in summer). This study highlighted the diversity of Staphylococcus spp. isolated from dogs, and the burden of staphylococcal carriage among dogs in South Africa. Further research is required to examine the factors that contribute to the observed discrepancies in the proportions of Staphylococcus spp. between the provinces.

Isolation and characterization of novel Staphylococcus aureus bacteriophage Hesat from dairy origin

A novel temperate phage, named Hesat, was isolated by the incubation of a dairy strain of Staphylococcus aureus belonging to spa-type t127 with either bovine or ovine milk. Hesat represents a new species of temperate phage within the Phietavirus genus of the Azeredovirinae subfamily. Its genome has a length of 43,129 bp and a GC content of 35.11% and contains 75 predicted ORFs, some of which linked to virulence. This includes (i) a pathogenicity island (SaPln2), homologous to the type II toxin-antitoxin system PemK/MazF family toxin; (ii) a DUF3113 protein (gp30) that is putatively involved in the derepression of the global repressor Stl; and (iii) a cluster coding for a PVL. Genomic analysis of the host strain indicates Hesat is a resident prophage. Interestingly, its induction was obtained by exposing the bacterium to milk, while the conventional mitomycin C-based approach failed. The host range of phage Hesat appears to be broad, as it was able to lyse 24 out of 30 tested S. aureus isolates. Furthermore, when tested at high titer (108 PFU/ml), Hesat phage was also able to lyse a Staphylococcus muscae isolate, a coagulase-negative staphylococcal strain. KEY POINTS: • A new phage species was isolated from a Staphylococcus aureus bovine strain. • Pathogenicity island and PVL genes are encoded within phage genome. • The phage is active against most of S. aureus strains from both animal and human origins.

Molecular characterization of non-aureus staphylococci and Mammaliicoccus from Hipposideros bats in Southwest Nigeria

Bats are not only ecologically valuable mammals but also reservoirs of zoonotic pathogens. Their vast population, ability to fly, and inhabit diverse ecological niches could play some role in the spread of antibiotic resistance. This study investigated non-aureus staphylococci and Mammaliicoccus colonization in the Hipposideros bats at Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile-Ife, Nigeria. Pharyngeal samples (n = 23) of the insectivorous bats were analyzed, and the presumptive non-aureus staphylococcal and Mammaliicoccus isolates were confirmed by matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization-time of flight mass spectrometry (MALDI-TOF MS). The isolates were characterized based on antibiotic susceptibility testing and whole-genome sequencing (WGS). Six bacterial genomes were assembled, and three species were identified, including Mammaliicoccus sciuri (n = 4), Staphylococcus gallinarum (n = 1), and Staphylococcus nepalensis (n = 1). All the isolates were resistant to clindamycin, while the M. sciuri and S. gallinarum isolates were also resistant to fusidic acid. WGS analysis revealed that the M. sciuri and S. gallinarum isolates were mecA-positive. In addition, the M. sciuri isolates possessed some virulence (icaA, icaB, icaC, and sspA) genes. Multi-locus sequence typing identified two new M. sciuri sequence types (STs) 233 and ST234. The identification of these new STs in a migratory mammal deserves close monitoring because previously known ST57, ST60, and ST65 sharing ack (8), ftsZ (13), glpK (14), gmk (6), and tpiA (10) alleles with ST233 and ST234 have been linked to mastitis in animals. Moreover, the broad host range of M. sciuri could facilitate the dispersal of antibiotic resistance genes. This study provides evidence of the importance of including migratory animals in monitoring the development and spread of antibiotic resistance.

Pathogenic Potential of Coagulase-Positive Staphylococcus Strains Isolated from Aviary Capercaillies and Free-Living Birds in Southeastern Poland

The aim of the study was to determine the occurrence and characteristics of coagulase-positive Staphylococcus strains in the carcasses of wild birds and aviary capercaillies in Southeastern Poland. In total, samples taken from 333 birds were examined. The material consisted of swabs from the internal organs of dead birds (heart, liver, and spleen), the tarsal joints, and mucous membranes (conjunctiva and palatine fissure), as well as from unhatched embryos. The isolated Staphylococcus strains were tested for sensitivity to nine antimicrobial agents and the presence of selected virulence genes. An analysis of the similarity of isolates within species was performed using pulsed-field gel electrophoresis (PFGE). The result indicates that coagulase-positive strains accounted for 5.7% and belonged to the species: Staphylococcus aureus, Staphylococcus pseudintermedius, and Staphylococcus delphini. Among isolated strains, 15.8% were multidrug resistant. The most frequently detected virulence genes were hla in 58% of isolates and hlb and hld in 47.4% of isolates. The results of multiplex PCR showed the presence of genes responsible for the production of enterotoxins C, B, E, and J, in single isolates. It can be concluded that coagulase-positive Staphylococcus strains accounted for a small percentage of staphylococci isolated from free-living birds in the study area. The occurrence of multidrug-resistant coagulase-positive Staphylococcus strains in aviary capercaillies suggests that they play a role in the transmission and spread of resistant strains into the environment. Free-living birds may also be a reservoir of enterotoxigenic Staphylococcus strains.

Virulence Mechanisms of Staphylococcal Animal Pathogens

Staphylococci are major causes of infections in mammals. Mammals are colonized by diverse staphylococcal species, often with moderate to strong host specificity, and colonization is a common source of infection. Staphylococcal infections of animals not only are of major importance for animal well-being but have considerable economic consequences, such as in the case of staphylococcal mastitis, which costs billions of dollars annually. Furthermore, pet animals can be temporary carriers of strains infectious to humans. Moreover, antimicrobial resistance is a great concern in livestock infections, as there is considerable antibiotic overuse, and resistant strains can be transferred to humans. With the number of working antibiotics continuously becoming smaller due to the concomitant spread of resistant strains, alternative approaches, such as anti-virulence, are increasingly being investigated to treat staphylococcal infections. For this, understanding the virulence mechanisms of animal staphylococcal pathogens is crucial. While many virulence factors have similar functions in humans as animals, there are increasingly frequent reports of host-specific virulence factors and mechanisms. Furthermore, we are only beginning to understand virulence mechanisms in animal-specific staphylococcal pathogens. This review gives an overview of animal infections caused by staphylococci and our knowledge about the virulence mechanisms involved.

Prevalence and epidemiological characteristics of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus isolated from cattle in Bangalore India as a part of the One Health approach

In India, limited studies are available on the epidemiological aspects of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) infections in both animal and human settings. Herein, we investigated the prevalence, antimicrobial resistance profile and molecular characteristics of MRSA isolates recovered from cattle using the One Health approach. Out of 66 mecA-positive staphylococci, species-specific multiplex PCR detected 24 % (n=16) of isolates as MRSA. Maximum antibiotic resistance was seen against cloxacillin (94 %, n=15) and least for enrofloxacin and cephalothin (each 13 %, n=2). Overall, 13 % (n=2) of MRSA isolates were multidrug-resistant. Molecular characterization by SCCmec typing identified 88 % (n=14) of MRSA isolates as type V. Twelve isolates (75 %) belonged to novel spa-type t17242, of which 67 % (n=8) belonged to agr type I. MLST analysis revealed ST 1687 (50 %, n=8) as the most predominant sequence type. Circulation of different MRSA clones among the cattle populace offers a risk of transmission to humans through direct contact, food chain or environmental contamination. Thus, continuous monitoring of MRSA strains is imperative for early diagnosis and for establishing effective treatment strategies to restrain the disease burden caused by MRSA infections.

Phenotypic and Genotypic Characterization of Methicillin Resistance in Staphylococci Isolated from an Egyptian University Hospital

Methicillin-resistant in Staphylococci is a serious public health issue. It is mostly encoded by the mecA gene. The mecC gene is a new mecA analog responsible for resistance to methicillin in some Staphylococcal clinical isolates. This mecC gene is still underestimated in Egypt. The aim of the current study was to detect mecA and mecC genes in clinical Staphylococci isolates from a tertiary care university hospital in Egypt compared to the different phenotypic methods. A total of 118 Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus) and 43 coagulase-negative Staphylococci (CoNS) were identified from various hospital-acquired infections. Methicillin resistance was identified genotypically using the PCR technique and phenotypically using the cefoxitin disc diffusion test, oxacillin broth microdilution and the VITEK2 system in all Staphylococcal isolates. The mecA gene was detected in 82.2% of S. aureus and 95.3% of CoNS isolates, while all of the isolates tested negative for the mecC gene. Interestingly, 30.2% of CoNS isolates showed the unique character of inducible oxacillin resistance, being mecA-positive but oxacillin-susceptible (OS-CoNS). The dual use of genotypic and phenotypic methods is highly recommended to avoid missing any genetically divergent strains.

Bacterial resistance to antibacterial agents: Mechanisms, control strategies, and implications for global health

The spread of bacterial drug resistance has posed a severe threat to public health globally. Here, we cover bacterial resistance to current antibacterial drugs, including traditional herbal medicines, conventional antibiotics, and antimicrobial peptides. We summarize the influence of bacterial drug resistance on global health and its economic burden while highlighting the resistance mechanisms developed by bacteria. Based on the One Health concept, we propose 4A strategies to combat bacterial resistance, including prudent Application of antibacterial agents, Administration, Assays, and Alternatives to antibiotics. Finally, we identify several opportunities and unsolved questions warranting future exploration for combating bacterial resistance, such as predicting genetic bacterial resistance through the use of more effective techniques, surveying both genetic determinants of bacterial resistance and the transmission dynamics of antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs).

Balancing the Risks and Benefits of Pet Ownership in Pediatric Transplant Recipients

In recent decades, the number of pediatric transplantations and their survival rates have increased. Psychological problems and poorer quality of life are notable among children undergoing transplantation and can have long-lasting consequences and affect immunosuppressive therapy adherence. Pet ownership and animal contact have been associated with physical, mental, and social health benefits. Despite these potential benefits, however, companion animals are known to be a source of infection, which is one of the main concerns for clinicians. Because of immunosuppression, these children are particularly vulnerable to infections. Zoonoses comprise a long list of infectious diseases and represent a major public health problem. Nevertheless, many families and most healthcare providers are unaware of these potential risks, and there is a worrisome lack of recommendations to manage the risk-benefit balance, which could pose a risk for acquiring a zoonosis. Furthermore, no data are available on the number of transplanted patients with pets, and this risk-benefit balance is difficult to adequately evaluate. In this document, we review the currently available evidence regarding the epidemiology of zoonotic infections in patients undergoing transplantation, focusing on pediatric patients from a risk-benefit perspective, to help inform decision-making for clinicians. Families and healthcare professionals should be aware of the risks, and clinicians should actively screen for pets and offer comprehensive information as part of routine clinical practice. A multidisciplinary approach will ensure proper care of patients and pets and will establish preventive measures to ensure patients are safe living with their pets.

Genomic Characterization of Livestock-Associated Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus ST7 Isolates from a Case of Human Bacteremia in China

The detection of novel livestock-associated methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) is important in both clinics and livestock. In this study, we report a MRSA-infected patient who was associated with livestock as a butcher, from whom we collected two MRSA strains FJ0318 and FJ0322. To further understand the correlation between these MRSA isolates and livestock, whole-genome sequencing and comparative genomic analyses were performed for these two isolates. Phylogenetic analysis revealed that these two strains were homologous. Multilocus sequence typing showed that these two strains belong to ST7, which is a common lineage in retail meat and meat products in China. The genetic islands in FJ0318 and FJ0322 were different from those in other common clones, such as ST59, ST8, and ST5. A mosaic plasmid with a sequence identical to that of the plasmid pE2 from livestock was found in strain FJ0318. Additionally, a novel prophage island was identified on the chromosome. Furthermore, the sequence of the island was similar to that of phage SP6 identified in livestock. ST7 may originate from livestock and be transmitted to communities, causing invasive infections.

Antimicrobial resistance and genomic analysis of staphylococci isolated from livestock and farm attendants in Northern Ghana

Background

The emergence of antimicrobial resistant bacteria in food producing animals is of growing concern to food safety and health. Staphylococci are common inhabitants of skin and mucous membranes in humans and animals. Infections involving antibiotic resistant staphylococci are associated with increased morbidity and mortality, with notable economic consequences. Livestock farms may enable cross-species transfer of antibiotic resistant staphylococci. The aim of the study was to investigate antimicrobial resistance patterns of staphylococci isolated from livestock and farm attendants in Northern Ghana using phenotypic and genotypic methods. Antimicrobial susceptibility testing was performed on staphylococci recovered from livestock and farm attendants and isolates resistant to cefoxitin were investigated using whole genome sequencing.

Results

One hundred and fifty-two staphylococci comprising S. sciuri (80%; n = 121), S. simulans (5%; n = 8), S. epidermidis (4%; n = 6), S. chromogens (3%; n = 4), S. aureus (2%; n = 3), S. haemolyticus (1%; n = 2), S. xylosus (1%; n = 2), S. cohnii (1%; n = 2), S. condimenti (1%; n = 2), S. hominis (1%; n = 1) and S. arlettae (1%; n = 1) were identified. The isolates showed resistance to penicillin (89%; n = 135), clindamycin (67%; n = 102), cefoxitin (19%; n = 29), tetracycline (15%; n = 22) and erythromycin (11%; n = 16) but showed high susceptibility to gentamicin (96%; n = 146), sulphamethoxazole/trimethoprim (98%; n = 149) and rifampicin (99%; n = 151). All staphylococci were susceptible to linezolid and amikacin. Carriage of multiple resistance genes was common among the staphylococcal isolates. Genome sequencing of methicillin (cefoxitin) resistant staphylococci (MRS) isolates revealed majority of S. sciuri (93%, n = 27) carrying mecA1 (which encodes for beta-lactam resistance) and the sal(A) gene, responsible for resistance to lincosamide and streptogramin. Most of the MRS isolates were recovered from livestock.

Conclusion

The study provides insights into the genomic content of MRS from farm attendants and livestock in Ghana and highlights the importance of using whole-genome sequencing to investigate such opportunistic pathogens. The finding of multi-drug resistant staphylococci such as S. sciuri carrying multiple resistant genes is of public health concern as they could pose a challenge for treatment of life-threatening infections that they may cause.

Prevalence and Characterization of PVL-Positive Staphylococcus aureus Isolated from Raw Cow's Milk

The present study aimed to investigate the prevalence, antibiotic susceptibility profiles, and some toxin genes of Panton-Valentine leukocidin (PVL)-positive Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus) in unpasteurized raw cow's milk collected from retail outlets located at Mansoura, Dakahliya governorate, Egypt. In that context, a total of 700 raw cow's milk samples were investigated for the presence of S. aureus, which was identified in 41.1% (288/700) of the samples. Among the S. aureus isolates, 113 PVL-positive S. aureus were identified and subjected for further analysis. The PVL-positive S. aureus were investigated for the existence of toxin-related genes, including hemolysin (hla), toxic shock syndrome toxin-1 (tst), and enterotoxins (sea, seb, sec, see, seg, sei, and selj). Genotypic resistance of PVL-positive strains was performed for the detection of blaZ and mecA genes. Among the PVL-positive S. aureus, sea, seb, and sec were detected in 44.2, 6.2%, and 0.9%, respectively, while the hla and tst genes were identified in 54.9% and 0.9%, respectively. The blaZ and mecA genes were successfully identified in 84.9 (96/113) and 32.7% (37/113) of the total evaluated S. aureus isolates, respectively. PVL-positive S. aureus displayed a high level of resistance to penicillin, ampicillin, and trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole. Multidrug resistance (resistant to ≥3 antimicrobial classes) was displayed by all methicillin-resistant S. aureus (MRSA) and 38.2% of methicillin-sensitive S. aureus (MSSA) isolates. The obtained findings are raising the alarm of virulent PVL-positive MRSA clones in retail milk in Egypt, suggesting the requirement for limiting the use of β-lactam drugs in food-producing animals and the importance of implementing strong hygiene procedures in dairy farms and processing plants.

Staphylococcus aureus in poultry, with special emphasis on methicillin-resistant strain infection: A comprehensive review from one health perspective

Staphylococcus aureus is a Gram-positive coccus normally present on the skin and internal organs of animals, birds, and humans. Under certain conditions, S. aureus could produce septicemia and affection of the skin, joints, and heart, as well as sepsis and death. The pathogenicity of S. aureus is associated with the presence of some virulent surface proteins and the production of some virulent toxins and enzymes. This pathogen is considered one of the most important and worldwide foodborne causes as it is incriminated in most cases of food poisoning. The hazardous use of antibiotics in the veterinary field leads to the development of multidrug-resistant S. aureus strains that can be transmitted to humans. The incidence of methicillin-resistant S. aureus (MRSA) strains has increased globally. These resistant strains have been detected in live animals, poultry, and humans. In addition, retail animal products, especially those of avian origin, are considered the main source of MRSA strains that can be easily transmitted to humans. MRSA infection is regarded as nosocomial or occupational. Humans get infected with MRSA strains through improper handling or preparation of contaminated animals or poultry carcasses or improper cooking with contaminated meat. Live birds also can transmit MRSA to close-contact workers in poultry farms. Transmission of MRSA infection in hospitals is from an infected individual to a healthy one. Prevention and control of MRSA are based on the application of hygienic measures in farms as well as proper processing, handling, and cooking of retail poultry products. The cooperation between veterinary and human practitioners is a must to avoid the possibility of zoonotic transmission. Accordingly, this review focused on the sources and transmission of MRSA infection, virulence and resistance factors, incidence and prevalence in poultry and different products, antibiotic resistance, and prevention and control strategies.

Therapeutic Effect of Darkling Beetle (Zophobas morio) Hemolymph on Skin Thermal Injury in Mice Infected by Staphylococcus haemolyticus

Staphylococci are the most common pathogens isolated from skin infections in livestock or companion animals. Antibiotic therapy is the best treatment for infections, but local or systemic use of antimicrobials increases the risk of bacterial resistance. Insects are rich in antimicrobial peptides, which can reduce bacterial resistance and can be used to treat bacterial infections after skin burns. We propose that the use of the darkling beetle (Z. morio) hemolymph to treat skin infections in mice by Staphylococcus haemolyticus is one of the alternatives. Z. morio hemolymph alleviated the increase in wound area temperature in mice with a skin infection, reduced the bacterial load of the wound, and accelerated the wound healing speed significantly. Pathological sections showed that Z. morio hemolymph can significantly reduce inflammatory cell infiltration, and promote skin tissue repair. Real-time fluorescent quantitative polymerase chain reaction (PCR) revealed that the Z. morio hemolymph can significantly reduce the levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines, including interleukin-1 beta (IL-1β), interleukin-6 (IL-6), tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α), and chemokine interleukin-8 (IL-8). Our findings suggest that Z. morio antibacterial hemolymph can promote wound contraction, relieve local inflammatory responses and promote wound healing in mice infected with a heat injury, which has a positive therapeutic effect and enormous potential for skin thermal injury.

Prevalence and Genetic Diversity of Coagulase Negative Staphylococcus in Food Products Collected from Riyadh Region

The goal of this study was to isolate, count, and identify coagulase-negative Staphylococci from meat and dairy products collected in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia, as well as to perform molecular identification of the mecA gene. In addition, the prevalence of these bacteria among the examined food products was determined. Ninety samples of both meat and dairy products were collected and examined between February 2018 and August 2019. Mannitol salt agar and VITEK 2 system were carried out and VITEK 2 system was used to identify all bacterial isolates. Also, the molecular technique was used to detect the target gene of mecA among CoNS. The proportion of samples in which Staphylococcus species isolated is 13.33% (Camel meat), 6.66% (Beef mortadella), 6.66% (Turkish labneh), 33.33% (Cows cheese), 6.66% (Goat labneh), 13.33% (Nabulsy cheese), 13.33% (Haloumi goat cheese) and 6.66% (Akawy white cheese). Counts of coagulase-negative Staphylococcus species (as cfu/gm) of sample were around 11×104, 10×104, 9×104, 12×104, 4×105, 11×104 (Nabulsy cheese), 14×104 and 12×104, respectively. The Prevalence of species in both products was 3.30% (Staphylococcus vitulinus), 53.30% (Staphylococcus saprophyticus), 16.66% (Staphylococcus hominis), 6.66%, (Staphylococcus equorum and Staphylococcus lentus) and 13.33% (Staphylococcus sciuri). Furthermore, results showed methicillin specific mecA gene was harbored in 40 % of the CoNS.

Disinfectant and Antimicrobial Susceptibility Studies of Staphylococcus aureus Strains and ST398-MRSA and ST5-MRSA Strains from Swine Mandibular Lymph Node Tissue, Commercial Pork Sausage Meat and Swine Feces

Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus) causes gastrointestinal illness worldwide. Disinfectants are used throughout the food chain for pathogenic bacteria control. We investigated S. aureus bioavailability in swine Mandibular lymph node tissue (MLT) and pork sausage meat (PSM), established susceptibility values for S. aureus to disinfectants, and determined the multilocus sequence type of MRSA strains. Antimicrobial and disinfectant susceptibility profiles were determined for 164 S. aureus strains isolated from swine feces (n = 63), MLT (n = 49) and PSM (n = 52). No antimicrobial resistance (AMR) was detected to daptomycin, nitrofurantoin, linezolid, and tigecycline, while high AMR prevalence was determined to erythromycin (50.6%), tylosin tartrate (42.7%), penicillin (72%), and tetracycline (68.9%). Methicillin-resistant S. aureus (MRSA) strains, ST398 (n = 6) and ST5 (n = 1), were found in the MLT and PSM, 4 MRSA in MLT and 3 MRSA strains in the PSM. About 17.5% of feces strains and 41.6% of MLT and PSM strains were resistant to chlorhexidine. All strains were susceptible to triclosan and benzalkonium chloride, with no cross-resistance between antimicrobials and disinfectants. Six MRSA strains had elevated susceptibilities to 18 disinfectants. The use of formaldehyde and tris(hydroxylmethyl)nitromethane in DC&R was not effective, which can add chemicals to the environment. Didecyldimethylammonium chloride and benzyldimethylhexadecylammonium chloride were equally effective disinfectants. ST398 and ST5 MRSA strains had elevated susceptibilities to 75% of the disinfectants tested. This study establishes susceptibility values for S. aureus strains from swine feces, mandibular lymph node tissue, and commercial pork sausage against 24 disinfectants. Since it was demonstrated that S. aureus and MRSA strains can be found deep within swine lymph node tissue, it may be beneficial for the consumer if raw swine lymph node tissue is not used in uncooked food products and pork sausage.

Design, synthesis and biological evaluation of pleuromutilin-Schiff base hybrids as potent anti-MRSA agents in vitro and in vivo

A series of pleuromutilin derivatives with 1,2,4-triazole-3-substituted Schiff base structure were designed and synthesized under mild conditions. The in vitro antibacterial activities of the synthesized derivatives against 4 strains of Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA ATCC 43300, S.aureus ATCC 29213, S.aureus 144 and S.aureus AD3) and 1 strain of E. coli (ATCC 25922) were evaluated by the broth dilution method. Among these derivatives, compound 60 exhibited superior in vitro antibacterial effect against MRSA (MIC = 0.25 μg/mL) than tiamulin (MIC = 0.5 μg/mL), and compound 60 (-2.28 log10 CFU/mL) also displayed superior in vivo antibacterial efficacy than tiamulin (-1.40 log10 CFU/mL) in reducing MRSA load in the mouse thigh infection model. The time-kill study and the post-antibiotic effect study indicated that compound 60 showed a faster bactericidal kinetic and longer PAE time (exposure to 2 × MIC and 4 × MIC for 2 h, the PAE was 4.06 and 4.27 h) against MRSA compared with tiamulin (exposure to 2 × MIC and 4 × MIC for 2 h, the PAE was 1.72 and 2.14 h). Meanwhile, most of these compounds had no significant inhibitory effect on RAW 264.7 cells and HepG2 cells at the concentration of 4 μg/mL. Additionally, the development of resistance study showed that MRSA did not easily develop resistance against compound 60 compared with tiamulin after induction for 8 passages.

First Report of CC5-MRSA-IV-SCCfus "Maltese Clone" in Bat Guano

Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) is a widespread pathogen that could cause different illnesses in both human and animals. Presence of MRSA in animals raises concerns of their capacity to act as reservoirs, particularly in wild animals. This study aimed to characterize the resistance and virulence patterns of S. aureus strains isolated from bat guano in Algeria. From March to May 2016, 98 bat guano samples from Aokas’s cave (Bejaia, Algeria) were collected. Swabs were taken for microbiological studies. Isolates were identified by Vitek^® MS system, and antibiotic susceptibility was determined by disk diffusion method. The clonal origin, virulence and antibiotic resistance profiles of S. aureus isolates were characterized by whole genome sequencing. Eleven S. aureus strains were obtained from the 98 guano samples. Seven isolates were sensitive to all antibiotics tested and four (36.3%) were resistant to penicillin G, cefoxitin and fusidic acid. The four MRSA isolates were assigned to the sequence type ST149 and related to spa type t010. These isolates harbored a SCCmecIV element and the fusidic acid resistance element Q6GD50 (fusC). They carried different virulence genes including several enterotoxins (sea, egc enterotoxin locus, sec, sel), and the toxic shock syndrome toxin (tst). Our results highlight that bat guano may constitute an important reservoir of MRSA strains.

Temporal and Microbiological Analysis of Cardiac Implantable Electrical Device Infections - A Retrospective Study

Background: Although the causative pathogens in cardiac implantable electronic device (CIED) infections are well known, the relationship between time after implantation and infection patterns has not been sufficiently investigated. This study investigated the microbiology and onset of CIED infections according to infection patterns.

Methods and Results: This retrospective study included 97 patients who underwent CIED removal due to device-related infections between April 2009 and December 2018. After device implantation, infections peaked in the first year and declined gradually over 10 years. Most infections (>60%) occurred within 5 years. Staphylococcal infections, the predominant form of CIED infections, occurred throughout the study period. CIED infections were categorized as systemic (SI; n=26) or local (LI; n=71) infections according to clinical presentation, and as CIED pocket-related (PR; n=85) and non-pocket-related (non-PR; n=12) infections according to the pathogenic pathway. The main causative pathogen in SI was Staphylococcus aureus, whereas coagulase-negative staphylococci were mainly related to LI. Both SI and LI peaked in the first year after implantation and then decreased gradually. There was no significant microbiological difference between PR and non-PR infections. PR infections showed the same temporal distribution as the overall cohort. However, non-PR infections exhibited a uniform temporal distribution after the first year.

Conclusions: The severity of CIED infections depends on the causative pathogen, whereas their temporal distribution is affected by the microbiological intrusion pathway.

Pet husbandry as a risk factor for colonization or infection with MDR organisms: a systematic meta-analysis

BACKGROUND

MDR organisms (MDROs) pose a relevant risk for patients in modern healthcare. Although ownership of pet animals is common and owners and pets commonly live in close contact, it is still unclear whether pet ownership may be considered as a risk factor for MDRO acquisition prior to hospitalization.

METHODS

We performed three separate meta-analyses in accordance with the PRISMA guidelines, assessing contact to pets as a risk factor for acquisition of MRSA, VRE and MDR Gram-negatives [namely third-generation cephalosporin-resistant Enterobacterales (3GCRE) and carbapenem-resistant Enterobacterales (CRE)].

RESULTS

We calculated an increased risk of MRSA carriage for dog owners [risk ratio (RR) 2.28, 95% CI 1.47-3.56]. Meta-analysis did not show a significantly higher risk for 3GCRE colonization among owners of different pet species compared with non-pet owners (RR 1.18, 95% CI 0.83-1.68 for pet owners in general, RR 0.88, 95% CI 0.56-1.40 for dog owners, RR 1.16, 95% CI 0.58-2.34 for cat owners, RR 1.34, 95% CI 0.43-4.18 for rodent owners, RR 0.91, 95% CI 0.38-2.18 for bird owners, and RR 2.34, 95% CI 0.33-16.63 for lizard/frog owners). For VRE, there were insufficient data to perform a meta-analysis.

CONCLUSIONS

Our analyses suggest contact to pet animals is a risk factor for MRSA, but not for 3GCRE/CRE acquisition. Evaluation of the underlying literature suggested a possible role of pet animals as: (i) vectors for the transmission of MDROs between livestock and humans; as well as (ii) a reservoir for MDROs. Pets, therefore, may promote transmission and reinfection of humans.

Feline Otitis Externa Caused by Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus with Mixed Hemolytic Phenotype and Overview of Possible Genetic Backgrounds

Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) is an important cause of nosocomial infections in humans, but its importance in small animal practice is increasing. Here, we present a case of feline otitis externa (OE) caused by MRSA; both hemolytic and nonhemolytic variants with a stable phenotype were recovered from the external auditory canal after infection was detected by routine otoscopy. One isolate per variant underwent antimicrobial susceptibility testing (AST) by broth microdilution method, conventional spa typing and whole-genome sequencing (WGS). The results showed that both variants were genetically related and were of sequence type (ST) 1327, SCCmec type IV and spa type t005. AST and WGS showed that both isolates were resistant to β-lactams and sensitive to all tested non-β-lactam antibiotics. Both isolates were pvl-negative, but encoded several other virulence genes (aur, hlgABC, sak, scn, seg, sei, sem, sen, seo and seu). Genetic background of the mixed hemolytic phenotype was not identified; no differences in the agr locus or other regulatory regions were detected. Three single-nucleotide polymorphisms were identified but could not be associated with hemolysis. This well-documented case of MRSA infection in companion animals adds to the reports of MRSA infections with a mixed hemolytic phenotype.

Systematic review and meta-analysis of veterinary-related occupational exposures to hazards

Understanding hazards within the veterinary profession is critical for developing strategies to ensure the health and safety of personnel in the work environment. This study was conducted to systematically review and synthesize data on reported risks within veterinary workplaces. A systematic review of published data on occupational hazards and associated risk factors were searched within three database platforms namely PubMed, Ebscohost, and Google scholar. To determine the proportion estimates of hazards and pooled odds ratio, two random-effects meta-analysis were performed. For the biological, chemical and physical hazards, the pooled proportion estimates were 17% (95% CI: 15.0-19.0, p < 0.001), 7.0% (95% CI: 6.0-9.0%, p < 0.001) and 65.0% (95% CI: 39.0-91.0%, p < 0.001) respectively. A pooled odds ratio indicated the risk of exposures to physical (OR=1.012, 95% CI: 1.008-1.017, p < 0.001) and biological hazards (OR=2.07, 95% CI: 1.70-2.52, p <0.001) increased when working or in contact with animals. The review has provided a better understanding of occupational health and safety status of veterinarians and gaps within the developing countries. This evidence calls for policy formulation and implementation to reduce the risks of exposures to all forms of occupational-related hazards in veterinary workplaces.

Significant increase in the secretion of extracellular vesicles and antibiotics resistance from methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus induced by ampicillin stress

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) containing specific cargo molecules from the cell of origin are naturally secreted from bacteria. EVs play significant roles in protecting the bacterium, which can contribute to their survival in the presence of antibiotics. Herein, we isolated EVs from methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) in an environment with or without stressor by adding ampicillin at a lower concentration than the minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC). We investigated whether EVs from MRSA under stress condition or normal condition could defend susceptible bacteria in the presence of several β-lactam antibiotics, and directly degrade the antibiotics. A comparative proteomic approach was carried out in both types of EVs to investigate β-lactam resistant determinants. The secretion of EVs from MRSA under antibiotic stressed conditions was increased by 22.4-fold compared with that of EVs without stress. Proteins related to the degradation of β-lactam antibiotics were abundant in EVs released from the stressed condition. Taken together, the present data reveal that EVs from MRSA play a crucial role in the survival of β-lactam susceptible bacteria by acting as the first line of defense against β-lactam antibiotics, and antibiotic stress leads to release EVs with high defense activity.

Environmental Influences of High-Density Agricultural Animal Operation on Human Forearm Skin Microflora

The human forearm skin microbiome ecosystem contains rich and diverse microbes, which are influenced by environmental exposures. The microbial representatives can be exchanged between human and environment, specifically animals, by which they share certain or similar epidermal microbes. Livestock and poultry are the microbial sources that are associated with the transmission of community-based pathogenic infections. Here, in this study, we proposed investigating the environmental influences introduced by livestock/poultry operations on forearm skin microflora of on-site farm workers. A total of 30 human skin swab samples were collected from 20 animal workers in dairy or integrated farms and 10 healthy volunteer controls. The skin microbiome was 16S metagenomics that were sequenced with Illumina MiSeq system. For skin microbial community analysis, the abundance of major phyla and genera as well as alpha and beta diversities were compared across groups. We identified distinctive microbial compositional patterns on skin of workers in farm with different animal commodities. Workers in integrated farms containing various animals were associated with higher abundances of epidermal Proteobacteria, especially Pseudomonas and Acinetobacter, but lower Actinobacteria, especially Corynebacterium and Propionibacterium. For those workers with frequent dairy cattle operations, their Firmicutes in the forearm skin microbiota were enriched. Furthermore, farm animal operations also reduced Staphylococcus and Streptococcus, as well as modulated the microbial biodiversity in farm workers' skin microbiome. The alterations of forearm skin microflora in farm workers, influenced by their frequent farm animal operations, may increase their risk in skin infections with unusual pathogens and epidermal diseases.

Methicillin resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) from community associated settings

Antibiotic resistance is a cause of concern worldwide. Community settings are important reservoir of drug resistant microorganisms like Staphylococcus aureus. The present study was to determine the prevalence, phenotypic and genotypic antibiotic resistance pattern of S. aureus isolated from different community settings of university campus. A total of 300 swab samples were collected for isolation of S. aureus from different community settings at university campus of Guru Angad Dev Veterinary and Animal Sciences University and Punjab Agriculture University, Ludhiana, India. Confirmed S. aureus isolates were further subjected to antibiotic sensitivity by Epsilometer test (E-test) and detection of antibiotic resistance genes. The prevalence of S. aureus in the community samples was 12% (36/300). Methicillin Resistant S. aureus (MRSA) contamination among community was 3.33% (10/300). Among S. aureus isolates from community samples 63.8% (23/36) and all the MRSA isolates were multidrug resistant (MDR). Five out of 10 MRSA carried SCCmec type IVa, and 4 were pvl positive gene, therefore, designated as community associated MRSA (CA-MRSA). Phenotypic resistance to antibiotics ciprofloxacin, chloramphenicol, ceftriaxone clindamycin and trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole was 69.4% (MIC ≥32 μg/ml), 63.9% (MIC 32 μg/ ml), 16.7% (MIC 16–64 μg/ml), 16.7% (MIC 256 μg/ml) and 8.3% (MIC 12–64 μg/ml), respectively. Resistance genes blaZ, mecA, tetK, tetM, ermB and aacA-aphD were present. Presence of MRSA and MDR variant in community settings is a public health concern, as cell phone, offices telephone, computer keyboard and tap faucet are commonly shared or touched by people. Therefore, have potential to disseminate widely, not only in the community settings but also in hospitals environment, complicating treatment.

How being synanthropic affects the gut bacteriome and mycobiome: comparison of two mouse species with contrasting ecologies

Background

The vertebrate gastrointestinal tract is colonised by microbiota that have a major effect on the host’s health, physiology and phenotype. Once introduced into captivity, however, the gut microbial composition of free-living individuals can change dramatically. At present, little is known about gut microbial changes associated with adaptation to a synanthropic lifestyle in commensal species, compared with their non-commensal counterparts. Here, we compare the taxonomic composition and diversity of bacterial and fungal communities across three gut sections in synanthropic house mouse (Mus musculus) and a closely related non-synanthropic mound-building mouse (Mus spicilegus).

Results

Using Illumina sequencing of bacterial 16S rRNA amplicons, we found higher bacterial diversity in M. spicilegus and detected 11 bacterial operational taxonomic units with significantly different proportions. Notably, abundance of Oscillospira, which is typically higher in lean or outdoor pasturing animals, was more abundant in non-commensal M. spicilegus. ITS2-based barcoding revealed low diversity and high uniformity of gut fungi in both species, with the genus Kazachstania clearly dominant.

Conclusions

Though differences in gut bacteria observed in the two species can be associated with their close association with humans, changes due to a move from commensalism to captivity would appear to have caused larger shifts in microbiota.

Vegetative Endocarditis due to Staphylococcus aureus in an Umbrella Cockatoo (Cacatua alba)

A 15-year-old, female cockatoo (Cacatua alba) was presented with a history of intermittent cloacal prolapse of 1-year duration. After each prolapse, the owner would digitally reduce the distended cloacal tissue within approximately 12-24 hours, for short-term resolution. The cockatoo was examined 3 times over a 7-month period and received supportive care with leuprolide acetate, behavioral modification, and diet change. After the third examination, the owner decided to proceed with a surgical cloacopexy. Five days after the last examination and before the procedure was scheduled, the cockatoo was reexamined for acute onset of weakness, anorexia, lethargy, and right-leg paresis. Despite supportive treatment, the cockatoo's clinical condition declined, and it went into respiratory arrest. Resuscitative efforts, including manual ventilation and cardiovascular support, were unsuccessful, and the bird died. Results of postmortem examination revealed vegetative endocarditis with intralesional bacteria cultured as Staphylococcus aureus, right-hindlimb myonecrosis, hepatitis, and nephritis. We suspect that the source of the hematogenous S aureus infection in this cockatoo was translocation from the owner's skin from the repeated manual manipulation and replacement of the prolapsed cloacal tissue.

Molecular detection and typing of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus and methicillin-resistant coagulase-negative staphylococci isolated from cattle, animal handlers, and their environment from Karnataka, Southern Province of India

Background and Aim:

Methicillin-resistant staphylococci are among the emerging pathogens which have become a threat to both human and animal health. The present investigation intended to examine the occurrence and the molecular characteristics of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) and methicillin-resistant coagulase-negative staphylococci (MRCoNS) recovered from cattle, its handlers, and their environment.

Materials and Methods:

A total of 666 specimens were subjected to culture method and genus-specific polymerase chain reaction (PCR) for the identification of Staphylococcus. Methicillin resistance was substantiated by PCR identification of mecA and mecC resistance determinants. Species-specific identification of mecA positive isolates was conducted by multiplex PCR. The unidentified species were deciphered by 16S rRNA gene sequencing approach. The mecA positive isolates were further characterized by staphylococcal cassette chromosome mec (SCCmec) typing and multilocus sequence typing (MLST).

Results:

Duplex PCR identified 728 Staphylococcus isolates, of which 66 (9%) were positive for mecA gene. MRSA constituted 24% of the total mecA positive isolates. Among MRCoNS, Staphylococcus epidermidis (42%), and Staphylococcus haemolyticus (11%) were the most common species identified. Overall, 47% of the mecA positive isolates belonged to SCCmec type V. MLST analysis showed eight different sequence types (STs) among MRSA isolates of which five were novel STs. Among methicillin-resistant S. epidermidis, 19 different STs were found, of which nine novel STs were detected.

Conclusion:

The increase in the prevalence of mecA positive staphylococci, especially MRCoNS in cattle is a great concern in view of their transmission potential. Hence, continuous monitoring and molecular characterization of methicillin-resistant staphylococci should be elucidated in human and animal sectors so as to prevent the spread of these resistant pathogens.

Staphylococcus aureus in Animals

Staphylococcus aureus is a mammalian commensal and opportunistic pathogen that colonizes niches such as skin, nares and diverse mucosal membranes of about 20-30% of the human population. S. aureus can cause a wide spectrum of diseases in humans and both methicillin-sensitive and methicillin-resistant strains are common causes of nosocomial- and community-acquired infections. Despite the prevalence of literature characterising staphylococcal pathogenesis in humans, S. aureus is a major cause of infection and disease in a plethora of animal hosts leading to a significant impact on public health and agriculture. Infections in animals are deleterious to animal health, and animals can act as a reservoir for staphylococcal transmission to humans.Host-switching events between humans and animals and amongst animals are frequent and have been accentuated with the domestication and/or commercialisation of specific animal species. Host-switching is typically followed by subsequent adaptation through acquisition and/or loss of mobile genetic elements such as phages, pathogenicity islands and plasmids as well as further host-specific mutations allowing it to expand into new host populations.In this chapter, we will be giving an overview of S. aureus in animals, how this bacterial species was, and is, being transferred to new host species and the key elements thought to be involved in its adaptation to new ecological host niches. We will also highlight animal hosts as a reservoir for the development and transfer of antimicrobial resistance determinants.

Genetic Profiling and Comparison of Human and Animal Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) Isolates from Serbia

The aim of this study was to characterize a collection of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) isolates of human and animal origin from Serbia. In total, 36 MRSA isolates-30 obtained from humans and six from companion animals-were investigated by PCR for the presence of antibiotic and biocide resistance determinants and virulence genes (PVL-Panton⁻Valentine leukocidin, ETs-exfoliative toxins, TSST-toxic shock syndrome toxin, SEs-staphylococcal enterotoxins, and MSCRAMMs-microbial surface components recognizing adhesive matrix molecules and biofilm). Isolates were analyzed by staphylococcal cassette chromosome mec (SCCmec), spa, and dru typing, as well as by multiple locus variable number of tandem repeat analyses (MLVA), multilocus sequence typing (MLST), and subsequently, eBURST. The majority of human MRSA isolates were resistant to gentamicin, erythromycin, clindamycin, and ciprofloxacin. Different antibiotic resistance genes were detected: aac-aphD, ant(6')-Ia, erm(A), erm(B), erm(C), tet(K), tet(M), fexA, and catpC221. All isolates were susceptible to teicoplanin and linezolid. SCCmec type III was prevalent in human isolates, while SCCmec elements in animals were mostly nontypeable. t037 was the predominant spa type in human and t242 in animal MRSA isolates. The prevalent dru type was dt11c in human and dt10a in animal MRSA isolates. MRSA isolates exhibited 27 different MLVA types. ST239 was predominant in human, while ST5 was prevalent in canine MRSA isolates. PVL was found in two, while tsst-1 was detected in three human isolates. Human-associated clones belonging to ST5, ST45, and ST239 MRSA clones were discovered in companion animals, which suggests anthropozoonotic transmission.

Zoonotic multidrug-resistant microorganisms among small companion animals in Germany

Antimicrobial multidrug-resistant microorganisms (MDRO) can be transmitted between companion animals and their human owners. Aim of this study was to determine the prevalence of extended spectrum beta-lactamase-producing Enterobacteriaceae (ESBL-E) and Staphylococcus aureus including methicillin-resistant S. aureus (MRSA) in different companion animal species. Dogs (n = 192), cats (n = 74), and rabbits (n = 17), treated in a veterinary practice and hospital or living in an animal shelter and private households, were sampled. All facilities were located in a region characterized by a high density of pig production. Nasal, buccal and perianal swabs were enriched and cultured on solid chromogenic selective media. A subgroup of 20 animals (13 dogs, 3 cats, 4 rabbits) was analyzed for the presence of staphylococci other than S. aureus. Amongst all animals (n = 283), twenty dogs (10.4%) and six cats (8.1%) carried S. aureus. MRSA was found in five dogs (2.6%) and two cats (2.7%). Isolates were of spa types t011, t034, t108 (all mecA-positive, ST398), and t843 (mecC-positive, ST130), typical for livestock-associated (LA)-MRSA. Except for one dog, MRSA-positive animals did not have direct contact to husbandry. ESBL-Escherichia coli (bla_CTX-M/bla_TEM/bla_SHV genes) were present in seven dogs (3.6%), one cat (1.4%) possessed a cefotaxime-resistant Citrobacter freundii isolate (bla_TEM/bla_CMY-2 genes). MDRO carriage was associated with animals from veterinary medical settings (p<0.05). One dog and one rabbit carried methicillin-resistant coagulase-negative staphylococci. The exclusive occurrence of MRSA lineages typically described for livestock stresses the impact of MDRO strain dissemination across species barriers in regional settings. Presence of ESBL-E and LA-MRSA among pets and probable dissemination in clinical settings support the necessity of a “One Health” approach to address the potential threats due to MDRO-carrying companion animals.

Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus CC22-MRSA-IV as an agent of dairy cow intramammary infections

Methicillin-resistant S. aureus (MRSA) lineages have become major responsible of healthcare- and community-associated infections in human population. Bovine MRSA are sporadically detected in the dairy herd, but its presence enhances the risk of zoonosis. Some lineages are able to lose the specific host tropism, being easily transmitted from animals to humans and vice-versa. The present study aims at clarifying the epidemiology of MRSA intramammary infections in a closed dairy herd, which was running a mastitis control program since years. Quarter milk samples were collected from all lactating cows once a week for 9 weeks and bacteriologically tested. At the end of the follow-up period, also a self-taken nasal swab of the milker was analysed. Three cows (12.5%) were MRSA positive, a fourth showed a transient infection and MRSA was isolated also from the milker's nose. Somatic cell counts of infected quarters fluctuated from 1000 to 1,800,000 cells/mL. The isolates were genotyped using DNA microarrays and identified as the epidemic UK-EMRSA-15 grouping in CC22. All strains carried the genes for β-lactam and macrolide resistance. The milker isolate differed from cow isolates mainly for the absence of the untruncated β-haemolysin and the presence of the immune evasion cluster. The milker had been volunteering in a nursing home since months, thus playing the role of MRSA vector into the herd. Our results showed the adaptive capacity of such MRSA to the bovine host. Therefore, we suggest that CC22-MRSA should be regarded as a potential cause of reverse zoonosis in dairy cattle herds.

Why Antibiotic Use Data in Animals Needs to Be Collected and How This Can Be Facilitated

Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) is currently recognized as one of the most significant threats to public health worldwide. It is a phenomenon that highlights the interconnectivity between human and animal health since any use of antibiotics in humans can eventually lead to resistance in the microbial populations colonizing animals and vice versa. In recent years, our understanding of the relationship between the use of antibiotics and the consequent development of resistance in microbial populations to these (or similar) antibiotics has increased. Having accurate data, ideally in a digital format, on the use of antibiotics are therefore of paramount importance. Current obstacles to having such data include, among others, the lack of consensual and harmonized technical methods and units that represent antimicrobial use (AMU), the insufficient incentives to motivate primary producers to report their use of antibiotics, and the inexistence of user-friendly technologies for the collection of such data, despite the generalized use of Internet and electronic devices. Further development and adoption of the units proposed by the European Surveillance of Veterinary Antimicrobial Consumption will contribute to the long-desired harmonization. Rewarding the animal producers (via tax incentives, for example) that use less antibiotics and the development of an app, to which producers could orally report the used antibiotics are among the solutions that could help to overcome the current challenges. I here also argue that having mandatory electronic veterinary prescriptions and awareness campaings, funded via public-private partnerships, should also be considered as methods that could help for the control of societal problems like AMR.

Genotypic and phenotypic β-lactam resistance and presence of PVL gene in Staphylococci from dry bovine udder

Dairy cows affected with subclinical mastitis can be sources of virulent, antimicrobial-resistant Staphylococci to humans because of the excretion of the bacteria through their milk. This study focussed on the phenotypic and genotypic antibiotic resistance patterns of Staphylococci isolated from dairy cows in early dry period. Among 96 isolates of Gram positive cocci from 157 cows, 76 were identified as Coagulase Negative Staphylococci and the remaining 20 were Staphylococcus aureus. Typical amplicons of coagulase gene were obtained for all 20 samples of S. aureus with three major coagulase types being identified as giving 627 bp (40%), 910 bp (35%) and 710 bp (25%) long PCR products. The groEL gene was amplified in PCR of all 76 isolates of Coagulase Negative Staphylococci, and incubation of PCR products with restriction enzyme PvuII yielded three distinct PCR-RFLP fragment patterns bearing resemblance to S. chromogenes and S. hyicus. Highest sensitivity of Coagulase Negative Staphylococci was noted for Azithromycin (92.5%) and the least to Tetracyclines (76.3%), whereas for S. aureus, it was Cefoperazone (95%) and Azithromycin (72.2%) respectively. Phenotypic resistance to Oxacillin (25 isolates), and Cefoxitin (11 isolates) was detected by dilution method with a commercial strip (Ezy MIC^TM). Genotypic resistance to β-Lactam antibiotics was found in 65 (34 with mecA gene and 31 with blaZ gene) isolates. Eighteen isolates possessed both the genes, with the PVL gene for virulence being detected in five of them. Nine isolates which had mecA gene were phenotypically susceptible to oxacillin while phenotypic resistance to oxacillin was observed in seven isolates that did not have either mecA or blaZ gene. This is the first report of persistent Staphylococcal infections possessing PVL gene and high level of genotypic resistance to β-Lactam antibiotics in small- holder dairy cattle from India.

Characterization of Staphylococcus aureus in Goose Feces from State Parks in Northeast Ohio

Staphylococcus aureus can colonize a range of species. Although numerous studies have isolated pathogenic bacteria from wild birds, very little is known regarding S. aureus and their potential to spread methicillin-resistant (MRSA) strains. The objective of this study was to determine the presence and molecular characteristics of S. aureus in geese fecal samples collected from ten state parks across Northeast Ohio (NEO). A total of 182 fecal samples from Canada geese (Branta canadensis) were collected in April 2015. Isolates were characterized using multi-locus sequence (MLST) and spa typing, as well as PCR to detect the presence of Panton-Valentine leukocidin (PVL), mecA, and scn genes. Antibiotic susceptibility testing was done via Vitek-2 system. The overall contamination by S. aureus in fecal samples was 7.1% (13/182); 7/182 (3.8%) were MRSA and 6/182 (3.3%) were methicillin-susceptible S. aureus (MSSA). One isolate was positive for PVL. A total of eight different spa types were observed. MLST included ST5, ST8, ST291, ST298, and ST2111. One (7.7%) MSSA isolate was multi-drug resistant. The S. aureus contamination in NEO state parks ranged from 0% (park 1, 4, 8, 9) to 35% (7/20) (park 5). Parks 2, 3, 6, and 7 had 5% (1/20) positive. The results of this study indicate that the feces of geese collected at various state parks in NEO may harbor S. aureus.

Survey on antimicrobial prescribing patterns in small animal veterinary practice in Emilia Romagna, Italy

This investigation provides for the first time a general view of the prescribing patterns of antimicrobials in small animal practice in Emilia Romagna, Italy. In the context of a project on antimicrobial resistance managed by the Regional Veterinary Service, veterinary clinicians were invited to voluntarily complete an online questionnaire. This was designed to gather information on antimicrobial prescribing practices and biosecurity measures and to understand the perception of the issue specific to this region of Italy. In total, 266 questionnaires correctly completed were collected. Although clinicians seemed to follow different approaches when using antimicrobials, the data analysis revealed a general awareness on resistance. Penicillins were the most commonly prescribed class, followed by (fluoro)quinolones and cephalosporins. Among those who use laboratory testing more or less frequently (microbiological analysis and susceptibility testing) to support their prescribing habits, only 7 per cent make a habit of always waiting for the results before starting the treatment. Seventy-eight per cent of the respondents declared the use of antimicrobials licensed for human beings. Biosecurity measures were carefully taken into account by the majority of the veterinarians. The results identified the antimicrobial classes that are commonly prescribed and highlighted that perioperative hygiene measures and the use of laboratory diagnosis are critical aspects that need to be emphasised in drawing up guidelines on the prudent use of these drugs in pets.

Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus in Saarland, Germany: The Long-Term Care Facility Study

Background

Multiresistant organisms pose a threat for patients and care recipients. Control interventions need to be tailored to region, the type of institution considered, and risk factors. The German state of Saarland is ideally suited to study colonisation epidemiology throughout its various health and care institutions. After conclusion of a large admission prevalence study in acute care hospitals, we now performed a methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) point prevalence study in Saarland long term care facilities (LTCF), allowing for a direct comparison with respect of MRSA prevalence and associated risk factors between these two institutional types located within a confined region.

Methodology and Principal Findings

Of all LTCF of the region, 65/136 participated in the study performed between 09/2013 and 07/2014. Overall, complete microbiological specimen and questionnaires of 2,858 of 4,275 (66.8%) LTCF residents were obtained. 136/2,858 (4.8%) screened residents revealed MRSA carrier status. Multivariate risk factor analysis yielded ulcer/deep soft tissue infection, urinary tract catheter, and MRSA history with multiple MRSA decolonisation cycles to be independently associated with MRSA carrier status.

Conclusion

As already known from previous studies, colonisation with MRSA is common in LTCF residents even in an area with relatively low MRSA prevalence. This found prevalence can now be related to the acute care admission prevalence (2.2%) as well as to the admission prevalence in acute care geriatric departments (7.6%). The common clonal attribution (spa type) of MRSA isolates prevalent in the LTCF population as well as in the acute care admission population points towards a close relationship between both types of institutions. However, the ostensible absence of risk factors such as “previous hospitalisation” in conjunction with newly identified factors such as “multiple decolonisation cycles” refers to MRSA colonisation risks independent of contact with acute care facilities. Overall, this large LTCF point prevalence study allows data-based, region-tailored decisions on MRSA screening policies and provides a basis for additional preventative measures.

Poultry-Like pA+ Biotype of Staphylococcus aureus CC346/084 Clone in Human Population

The aim of the study was (1) to analyse the prevalence of P-like pA+ biotype of S. aureus in material from healthy and diseased individuals, not employed at slaughterhouses or meat processing plants, and (2) to analyse the relatedness of these strains and their genetic variability. The study included 344 strains of Staphylococcus aureus isolated from hospitalized patients with staphylococcal infections and from healthy carriers. The biotypes of S. aureus were determined on the basis of fibrinolysin and β-haemolysin production, coagulation of bovine plasma, and type of growth on crystal violet agar. Additionally, the strains were tested for the synthesis of protein A in order to distinguish between P-like pA+ and poultry biotypes. Fibrinolysin gene (sak) and methicillin resistance (mecA) were detected by means of PCR. The clonal structure of studied strains was analysed using pulsed field gel electrophoresis and sequencing of spa gene. Finally, the strains were typed with a basic set of 23 bacteriophages. The strains belonging to P-like pA+ biotype corresponded to nearly 20 % of all the studied strains. In contrast to the human biotype, they formed one clonal complex, spa-CC346/084. The P-like pA+ biotype strains did not synthesize fibrinolysin, lacked the sak gene, and showed susceptibility to methicillin. In contrast to the human biotype strains, they belonged mostly to phage group II. The P-like pA+ biotype strains, previously described solely in meat products and meat industry workers, can be also present in hospitalized patients and extra-hospital carriers. These strains form a single, fibrinolysin-negative, clonal complex t084/CC346.

Pattern characterization of genes involved in non-specific immune response in Staphylococcus aureus isolates from intramammary infections

Staphylococcus aureus isolated from mammary gland are characterized by different genetic patterns. Ninety four isolates from 33 dairy herds were analyzed by the means of a microarray to investigate S. aureus virulence patterns and the distribution of genes believed to be involved in immune evasion. None of the 94 isolates considered were MRSA. However, 50% of the isolates belonged to complexes related to MRSA and to human diseases, while only about 25% of them can be considered as exclusively of bovine origin. The distribution of clonal complexes and the different gene patterns observed confirmed the presence of an influence of geographical localization. The assessment of the influence of genes related to immune evasion on quarter milk cell count showed as four of them showed to be significantly associated to an increase quarter milk SCC. These genes could be potential target for developing new vaccines against S. aureus.

Mini-review: Epidemiology and zoonotic potential of multiresistant bacteria and Clostridium difficile in livestock and food

AIM

Information on the epidemiology of multiresistant bacteria (MRB) with zoonotic potential is growing but still remains quite incomplete. This narrative mini-review provides a general overview of the epidemiology of the most important zoonotic MRB in cattle, swine and poultry in Europe.

METHODS

A literature search was conducted mainly on the PubMed website including articles published until April 2012.

RESULTS

Livestock-associated methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (LA-MRSA) especially poses a zoonotic risk to people working in close contact with livestock. These people may become carriers themselves and the hazard of transmission into health-care facilities needs surveillance. Extended-spectrum beta-lactamases (ESBL) producing bacteria are widely spread in both humans and livestock, sharing similar genotypes, especially of the CTX-M-group, which makes a zoonotic transfer very likely. Identical strains of vancomycin-resistant enterococci (VRE) were found both in humans and animals, after ingestion of animal strains transient colonization of the human gut may be possible. Only a few data are available on the transmission of methicillin-resistant coagulase-negative staphylococci (MR-CoNS) between humans and animals. Direct contact to colonized animals may be a risk factor as well as the exchange of resistance genes between human and animal staphylococci. Clostridium difficile (C. difficile) ribotype 078 emerges in livestock and humans and a zoonotic transmission seems probable as genotypes and diseases resemble each other.

CONCLUSION

All discussed MRB and C. difficile are important nosocomial agents which also occur in livestock and were found in foods of animal origin. Further analysis is needed to reveal the exact transmission routes and to perform a reliable risk assessment.