Growth velocity, fat-free mass and energy intake are inversely related to viral load in HIV-infected children

Health-Related Physical Fitness Evaluation in HIV-Diagnosed Children and Adolescents: A Scoping Review

BACKGROUND

Health-related physical fitness has been widely used to investigate the adverse effects of HIV infection/ART in children and adolescents. However, methods/protocols and cut-points applied for investigating health-related physical fitness are not clear. The aim of this scoping review was to map the literature to identify gaps in knowledge regarding the methods/protocols and cut-points.

METHODS

A scoping review, following the Joana Briggs Institute (JBI) guidelines, was conducted through ten major databases. Search followed the PCC strategy to construct block of terms related to population (children and adolescents), concept (health-related physical fitness components) and context (HIV infection).

RESULTS

The search resulted in 7545 studies. After duplicate removal, titles and abstracts reading and full text assessment, 246 studies were included in the scoping review. Body composition was the most investigated component (n = 244), followed by muscular strength/endurance (n = 23), cardiorespiratory fitness (n = 15) and flexibility (n = 4). The World Health Organization growth curves, and nationals' surveys were the most reference values applied to classify body composition (n = 149), followed by internal cut-points (n = 30) and cut-points developed through small populations (n = 16). Cardiorespiratory fitness was classified through cut-points from three different assessment batteries, as well as cut-points developed through studies with small populations, muscular strength/endurance and flexibility were classified through the same cut-points from five different assessment batteries.

CONCLUSIONS

The research on muscular strength/endurance, cardiorespiratory fitness and flexibility has been scarcely explored. The lack of studies that investigated method usability as well as reference values was evidenced.

High resting energy expenditure, less fat-free mass, and less muscle strength in HIV-infected children: a matched, cross-sectional study

Background and aims

Many improvements have been made in the treatment of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) in pediatric patients; however, challenges remain in terms of achieving normal growth, body composition, and metabolism during treatment, etc. Current nutritional recommendations are based on studies performed in adults, with limited data on the HIV-infected pediatric population. Therefore, this study aimed to compare the resting energy expenditure (REE) of asymptomatic HIV-infected pediatric patients with healthy counterparts and to compare body composition, dietary intake, and physical activity between the two groups.

Methods

This was a cross-sectional study of asymptomatic HIV-infected children who were receiving antiretroviral therapy; the infected group was compared with the uninfected group, matched by age (± 6 months), sex, and body mass index (± 0.5 z-score). Participants were recruited between 2021 and 2022, as outpatients. In both groups, REE was determined by indirect calorimetry and body composition by bioelectrical impedance analysis and hand strength, measured using a hydraulic hand dynamometer.

Results

Seventy-eight participants were enrolled, where n = 39 HIV-infected children and n = 39 controls, with a mean age of 11.6 ± 3.4 years old. REE was significantly higher in the HIV group (1254.4 ± 334.7 kcal/day vs. 1124.7 ± 321 kcal/day, p = 0.013) than in the control group. Fat-free mass (FFM) was lower in the HIV group (28.2 ± 10.5 kg vs. 32 ± 11.2 kg, p = 0.001); this trend continued when the index skeletal muscle was evaluated (7.2 ± 1.2 vs. 7.6 ± 1.5, p = 0.04). The strength of the dominant hand was also lower in the HIV group (12 (8-18) kg vs. 20 (10.5-26) kg, p < 0.0001).

Conclusions

Children with asymptomatic HIV infection have higher REE than their uninfected peers. They also present decreased FFM, skeletal muscle mass index, and muscle strength. These parameters should be considered during nutritional assessment in this population to have a favorable impact on nutritional status and growth.

Growth and Metabolic Changes After Antiretroviral Initiation in South African Children

BACKGROUND

Poor growth and metabolic disturbances remain concerns for children living with HIV (CLHIV). We describe the impact of viral load (VL) on growth and lipid outcomes in South African CLHIV <12 years initiating World Health Organization recommended first-line antiretroviral therapy (ART) from 2012 to 2015.

METHODS

Z scores for length-for-age (LAZ), weight-for-age (WAZ) and body mass index-for-age were calculated. Lipids (total cholesterol, low-density lipoprotein and high-density lipoprotein) were measured. Hemoglobin A1C ≥5.8 was defined as at risk for type 2 diabetes. Mixed effects models were used to assess the association of VL at ART initiation with Z scores and lipids over time.

RESULTS

Of 241 CLHIV, 151 (63%) were <3 years initiating LPV/r-based ART and 90 (37%) were ≥3 years initiating EFV-based ART. Among CLHIV <3 years, higher VL at ART initiation was associated with lower mean LAZ (ß: -0.30, P=0.03), WAZ (ß: -0.32, P=0.01) and low-density lipoprotein (ß: -6.45, P=0.03) over time. Among CLHIV ≥3, a log 10 increase in pretreatment VL was associated with lower mean LAZ (ß: -0.29, P=0.07) trending towards significance and lower WAZ (ß: -0.32, P=0.05) as well as with more rapid increases in LAZ (ß: 0.14 per year, P=0.01) and WAZ (ß: 0.19 per year, P=0.04). Thirty percent of CLHIV were at risk for type 2 diabetes at ART initiation.

CONCLUSIONS

CLHIV initiating ART <3 years exhibited positive gains in growth and lipids, though high viremia at ART initiation was associated with persistently low growth and lipids, underscoring the need for early diagnosis and rapid treatment initiation. Future studies assessing the long-term cardiometabolic impact of these findings are warranted.

Mitochondrial Impairment in Well-Suppressed Children with Perinatal HIV-Infection on Antiretroviral Therapy

Mitochondrial impairment is reported in HIV-infected children receiving antiretroviral therapy (ART), as well as those naive to ART. Whether mitochondrial function recovers with early initiation of ART and sustained viral suppression on long-term ART is unclear. In this study, we evaluate mitochondrial markers in well-suppressed perinatally HIV-infected children initiated on ART early in life. We selected a cross-sectional sample of 120 HIV-infected children with viral load <400 copies/mL and 60 age-matched uninfected children (22 HIV-exposed uninfected) enrolled in a cohort study in Johannesburg, South Africa. Complex IV (CIV) and citrate synthase (CS) activity were measured by spectrophotometry. Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) content relative to nuclear DNA (nDNA) was measured by quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction and expressed as copies/nDNA. Mitochondrial markers were impaired in HIV-infected children, including lower mean CIV activities [1.76 vs. 1.40 optical densities (OD)/min], higher risk of a CIV/CS ratio ≤0.22 (third quartile; odds ratio = 3.03, 95% confidence interval: 1.38-6.66), and lower mtDNA content. Children with shorter versus longer ART duration (<6.3 vs. ≥6.3 years) had lower means of CIV activity (1.22-1.58 OD/min) and mtDNA content (386-907 copies/nDNA). There were no differences in mitochondrial markers between children who started ART earlier (<6 months) or later (6-24 months). CIV activity was impaired in children with lower height-for-age Z-scores (HAZs). Despite early treatment and prolonged viral suppression, HIV-infected children had detectable mitochondrial impairment, particularly among those with stunted growth. Further study is required to determine if continued treatment will lead to full recovery of mitochondrial function in HIV-infected children.

Height and timing of growth spurt during puberty in young people living with vertically acquired HIV in Europe and Thailand

The aim of this study was to describe growth during puberty in young people with vertically acquired HIV.

Growth of HIV-Exposed Infants in Southwest China: A Comparative Study

Objectives. Prevention of mother-to-child HIV transmission has been globally successful leading to a decline in HIV-infected infants. Thus, the number of HIV-exposed, but uninfected, infants is increasing. As growth is an important indicator of child health, this study aimed to evaluate growth parameters of HIV-exposed Chinese infants. Methods. A prospective study was conducted among HIV-exposed (HIV-infected and uninfected) infants born during 2007 to 2015 in Liuzhou, China. Their weight and length were assessed longitudinally from birth to 18 months of age and compared with HIV-unexposed, uninfected (HUU) infants from the same region. Results. There were 467 HIV-exposed infants. Four percent of infants were HIV-infected. The mean weight-for-age (WAZ) and length-for-age (LAZ) z scores of HIV-infected infants were significantly lower than those of HIV-exposed but uninfected (HEU) infants during 9 to 18 months and 12 to 18 months of age, respectively. Additionally, the mean WAZ and LAZ scores of HIV-infected infants were significantly lower than HUU infants during the first 12 months and 18 months of life, respectively. The mean WAZ and LAZ scores of HEU infants were significantly lower than HUU infants during the first 12 months and 6 months of life, respectively. HEU infants also had a lower mean weight-for-length z score than HUU infants during the first 6 months. Conclusion. We demonstrated poor growth among HIV-exposed Chinese infants, including HIV-uninfected, compared with HUU infants. The results emphasize the need for nutritional monitoring and interventions for HIV-exposed infants regardless of HIV infection status. Research is needed on long-term growth trajectories and factors affecting growth of HIV-exposed infants in China.

Effect of Antiretroviral Therapy on Growth Parameters of Children With HIV Infection

BACKGROUND

Children living with HIV (CLHIV) commonly experience growth failure. We report growth parameters in CLHIV at baseline and during 3 years of antiretroviral therapy (ART).

METHODS

Records of CLHIV who had completed at least 3 years on ART were reviewed after excluding subjects who died, were lost to follow-up or developed treatment failure to assess impact of sustained administration of ART. Height-for-age (HFA) and body mass index for age (BFA) Z scores were calculated, and proportion of CLHIV with wasting and stunting estimated at baseline, 6, 12, 24 and 36 months after starting ART using the linear mixed model. Factors influencing significant changes in growth parameters were assessed.

RESULTS

HFA Z score improved steadily from -3.12 at baseline to -2.33 at 36 months of ART. The prevalence of stunting declined from 77.7% to 59.2% during this period. BFA Z scores improved from -1.2 at baseline to -0.4 at12 months on ART but declined to -1.0 at 36 months. The proportion of subjects with wasting was 29.3%, 9.7% and 16.7% at baseline, 12 and 36 months, respectively. Baseline clinical stage (1 + 2), absence of wasting and lower HFA Z score had significant positive influence on changes in HFA Z score, while younger age at ART initiation and a low baseline BFA Z score had a positive influence on catch-up in body mass index. Including data of children who died or developed treatment failure did not impact upon the results.

CONCLUSION

Majority of CLHIV are stunted at the start of ART. ART was only partially effective in countering malnutrition and growth failure in CLHIV.

Universal antiretroviral therapy for HIV-infected children: a review of the benefits and risks to consider during implementation

Background: The 2016 World Health Organization (WHO) consolidated guidelines on the use of antiretroviral drugs for treating and preventing HIV infection, recommended to start all HIV-infected children on antiretroviral therapy (ART). Here, we explore the possible benefits and risks of implementing universal ART for all HIV-infected children and adolescents and outline some of the key considerations that led to the 2016 revision of WHO guidelines.

Methods: We conducted a review of the published data from 2000 to 2016, to ascertain the clinical and programmatic benefits, as well as the risks of implementing universal ART for all children.

Results and discussion: Universal ART for all children has the potential to increase treatment coverage, which in 2015 was only 51% globally, as well as providing several biological benefits, by preventing: premature death/loss to follow-up, progressive destruction of the immune system, poor growth and pubertal delay, poor neuro-cognitive outcomes and future burden to the health care system with complications of untreated HIV-infection. However, the strategy could be associated with risks, notably development of HIV drug resistance, antiretroviral drug toxicities and increased costs to an already stretched health system.

Conclusion: Overall, our findings suggest that the benefits could outweigh the risks and support universal ART for all HIV-infected children, but recognize that national programmes will need to put measures in place to minimize the risks if they choose to implement the strategy.

Prevalence and risk factors of undernutrition among antiretroviral-therapy-naïve subjects aged under 5 years old in Makurdi, Nigeria: a retrospective study

Background

Undernutrition is common in human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection and it contributes significantly to its morbidity and mortality. However, as far as we are aware, few studies have described the risk factors of undernutrition among HIV-infected Nigerian children. The study reported here aimed to determine the prevalence and risk factors of undernutrition among HIV-infected, antiretroviral therapy (ART)-naïve children aged under 5 years old in Makurdi, Nigeria.

Methods

A retrospective, cross-sectional study was undertaken at the Federal Medical Centre, Makurdi, between June 2010 and June 2011. Logistic regression modelling was used to determine the risk factors of undernutrition.

Results

Data on 182 HIV-infected children (88 males and 94 females), aged between 6 weeks and 59 months were studied. The prevalence of undernutrition was 12.1%, 33.5%, and 54.4% for underweight, wasting, and stunting, respectively. In multivariate regression analyses, being female (adjusted odds ratio [AOR] 0.292, 95% [confidence interval] CI 0.104–0.820, P=0.019), the child’s caregiver being on ART (AOR 0.190, 95% CI 0.039–0.925, P=0.04), and the absence of tuberculosis in the child (AOR 0.034, 95% CI 0.003–0.357, P=0.005) were independently protective against underweight. Subjects who were exclusively breastfed in the first 6 months of life were protected from stunting (AOR 0.136, 95% CI 0.032–0.585, P=0.007). No factor impacted significantly on wasting in multivariate analyses.

Conclusion

Undernutrition among HIV-infected, ART-naïve children aged under 5 years old may be reduced if programmatic interventions are guided toward early initiation of ART among eligible HIV-infected caregivers and the promotion of HIV/tuberculosis coinfection control efforts. Also, the importance of exclusive breastfeeding in reducing undernutrition cannot be overemphasized.

Dietary intake and nutritional status of HIV-1-infected children and adolescents in Florianopolis, Brazil

This cross-sectional study aimed to investigate the nutritional status and dietary intake of HIV-infected children and adolescents and the relationship between nutritional status and dietary intake and CD4(+) T-cell count and viral load. The sample was composed of 49 subjects aged 7-17 years and living in Florianópolis, Brazil. Nutritional status was assessed by height-for-age and body mass index-for-age. Dietary intake was assessed by a food frequency questionnaire. Spearman correlations and multiple linear regressions were used to determine the relationship between energy, nutrient intake and body mass index-for-age and CD4(+) T-cell count and viral load. The mean body mass index-for-age and height-for-age values were -0.26 ± 0.86 and -0.56 ± 0.92, respectively. The energy intake was 50.8% above the estimated energy requirement and inadequate intake of polyunsaturated fat, cholesterol, fibre, calcium and vitamin C was present in 100%, 57.1%, 40.8%, 61.2% and 26.5% of the sample, respectively. Multiple linear regression analyses revealed that energy intake was correlated with CD4+ T-cell count (r = 0.33; p = 0.028) and viral load (r = -0.35; p = 0.019). These data showed low body mass index-for-age and height-for-age z-scores, high energy intake and inadequate intake of important nutrients for immune function, growth and control of chronic diseases. A lower energy intake was correlated with viral suppression and immune preservation.

Body composition in prepubertal, HIV-infected children: a comparison of bioelectrical impedance analysis and dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry

BACKGROUND

The aim of this study was to compare bioelectrical impedance analysis (BIA) equations developed for healthy pediatric populations and for HIV-infected children using dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry (DXA) as the gold standard.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

A cross-sectional study was carried out with 40 prepubertal, HIV-infected children who regularly attended the Pediatric Infectious Disease Clinic at the Universidade Federal de São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil. The study was conducted from August to November 2008. Demographic data, clinical parameters, immunological status, and use of antiretroviral therapy were obtained from the patients' medical records. We performed anthropometric parameters and body composition analyses, analyzed body composition by BIA and DXA, and compared the results obtained from BIA through using equations for both healthy and HIV-infected populations.

RESULTS

The mean ± SD age of the study population was 9.8 ± 1.2 years. Half of the population were females, and 82.5% of the children were clinically classified as B and C. Total body fat, by both absolute mass and by percentage, exhibited high homogeneity between the results obtained from BIA and DXA. However, there was no concordance in fat-free mass. The equation for healthy children showed good sensitivity and specificity when comparing the percentage of total body fat measured by DXA.

CONCLUSION

BIA provides reliable data on total body fat but not fat-free mass when compared with DXA. The BIA equation developed for healthy pediatric populations can be used to determine total body fat in HIV-infected children.

Growth patterns among HIV-exposed infants receiving nevirapine prophylaxis in Pune, India

Background

India has among the highest rates of infant malnutrition. Few studies investigating the growth patterns of HIV-exposed infants in India or the impact of timing of HIV infection on growth in settings such as India exist.

Methods

We used data from the Six Week Extended Nevirapine (SWEN) trial to compare the growth patterns of HIV-infected and HIV-exposed but uninfected infants accounting for timing of HIV infection, and to identify risk factors for stunting, underweight and wasting. Growth and timing of HIV infection were assessed at weeks 1, 2, 4, 6, 10, 14 weeks and 6, 9, 12 months of life. Random effects multivariable logistic regression method was used to assess factors associated with stunting, underweight and wasting.

Results

Among 737 HIV-exposed infants, 93 (13%) were HIV-infected by 12 months of age. Among HIV-infected and uninfected infants, baseline prevalence of stunting (48% vs. 46%), underweight (27% vs. 26%) and wasting (7% vs. 11%) was similar (p>0.29), but by 12 months stunting and underweight, but not wasting, were significantly higher in HIV-infected infants (80% vs. 56%, 52% vs. 29%, p< 0.0001; 5% vs. 6%, p=0.65, respectively). These differences rapidly manifested within 4–6 weeks of birth. Infants infected in utero had the worst growth outcomes during the follow-up period. SWEN was associated with non-significant reductions in stunting and underweight among HIV-infected infants and significantly less wasting in HIV-uninfected infants. In multivariate analysis, maternal CD4 < 250, infant HIV status, less breastfeeding, low birth weight, non-vaginal delivery, and infant gestational age were significant risk factors for underweight and stunting.

Conclusion

Baseline stunting and underweight was high in both HIV-infected and uninfected infants; growth indices diverged early and were impacted by timing of infection and SWEN prophylaxis. Early growth monitoring of all HIV-exposed infants is an important low-cost strategy for improving health and survival outcomes of these infants.

Trial Registration

NCT00061321

Variability of growth in children starting antiretroviral treatment in southern Africa

BACKGROUND

Poor growth is an indication for antiretroviral therapy (ART) and a criterion for treatment failure. We examined variability in growth response to ART in 12 programs in Malawi, Zambia, Zimbabwe, Mozambique, and South Africa.

METHODS

Treatment naïve children aged <10 years were included. We calculated weight for age z scores (WAZs), height for age z scores (HAZs), and weight for height z scores (WHZs) up to 3 years after starting ART, by using the World Health Organization standards. Multilevel regression models were used.

RESULTS

A total of 17990 children (range, 238-8975) were followed for 36181 person-years. At ART initiation, most children were underweight (50%) and stunted (66%). Lower baseline WAZ, HAZ, and WHZ were the most important determinants of faster catch-up growth on ART. WAZ and WHZ increased rapidly in the first year and stagnated or reversed thereafter, whereas HAZ increased continuously over time. Three years after starting ART, WAZ ranged from -2.80 (95% confidence interval [CI]: -3.66 to -2.02) to -1.98 (95% CI: -2.41 to -1.48) in children with a baseline z score < -3 and from -0.79 (95% CI: -1.62 to 0.02) to 0.05 (95% CI: -0.42 to 0.51) in children with a baseline WAZ ≥ -1. For HAZ, the corresponding range was -2.33 (95% CI: -2.62 to -2.02) to -1.27 (95% CI: -1.58 to -1.00) for baseline HAZ < -3 and -0.24 (95% CI: -0.56 to 0.15) to 0.84 (95% CI: 0.53 to 1.16) for HAZ ≥ -1.

CONCLUSIONS

Despite a sustained growth response and catch-up growth in children with advanced HIV disease treated with ART, normal weights and heights are not achieved over 3 years of ART.

Clinical predictors of HIV infection in hospitalized children aged 2-18 months in Harare, Zimbabwe

BACKGROUND

In Africa without antiretroviral treatment more than half of the HIV infected children die by 2 years. The recommended HIV virological testing for early infant diagnosis is not widely available in developing countries therefore a presumptive diagnosis is made in infants presenting with symptoms suggestive of HIV disease.

OBJECTIVES

To identify presenting signs and symptoms predictive of HIV infection in hospitalized children aged between 2- 18 months at Harare Hospital, Zimbabwe.

METHODS

In a cross sectional study the baseline clinical information was collected and HIV infection confirmed using DNA PCR. Multiple logistic regression analysis was used to identify significant predictors of symptomatic HIV infection. Diagnostic parameters (sensitivity, specificity) and their 95% confidence intervals were calculated.

RESULTS

355 children with an overall median age of 6 months (IQR: 3, 10.5 months) of whom 203 (57.2%) were HIV DNA PCR positive. Clinical signs independently predictive of HIV infection were cyanosis, generalized lymphadenopathy, oral thrush, weight for age z-score <-2 and splenomegaly. The sensitivity of these signs ranged from 43-49% with a higher specificity (ranging from 72.3-89.5%).

CONCLUSION

Clinical identification using individual signs for probable HIV infection in hospitalized children below 18 months would provide an opportunity for early diagnosis, treatment.

Growth patterns and anaemia status of HIV-infected children living in an institutional facility in India

OBJECTIVE

To understand the health status of HIV orphans in a well-structured institutional facility in India.

METHOD

Prospective longitudinal analysis of growth and anaemia prevalence among these children, between June 2008 and May 2011.

RESULTS

A total of 85 HIV-infected orphan children residing at Sneha Care Home, Bangalore, for at least 1 year, were included in the analysis. Prevalence of anaemia at entry into the home was 40%, with the cumulative incidence of anaemia during the study period being 85%. At baseline, 79% were underweight and 72% were stunted. All children, irrespective of their antiretroviral therapy (ART) status, showed an improvement in nutritional status over time as demonstrated by a significant increase in weight (median weight-for-age Z-score: -2.75 to -1.74, P < 0.001) and height Z-scores (median height-for-age Z-score: -2.69 to -1.63, P < 0.001).

CONCLUSION

These findings suggest that good nutrition even in the absence of ART can bring about improvement in growth. The Sneha Care Home model indicates that the holistic approach used in the Home may have been helpful in combating HIV and poor nutritional status in severely malnourished orphaned children.

Growth of infants born to HIV-infected women in South Africa according to maternal and infant characteristics

OBJECTIVE

To evaluate growth parameters assessed by weight and length in HIV-infected and HIV-uninfected infants born to HIV-infected mothers in South Africa from birth to 6 months of age.

METHODS

We calculated z-scores for weight-for-age (WAZ), length-for-age (LAZ) and weight-for-length (WLZ) among a cohort of 840 mother-infant dyads. Multivariable Cox proportional hazards models with time-varying covariates were used to estimate the risk of falling <-2 z-scores for WAZ, LAZ, and WLZ as a function of infant and maternal characteristics.

RESULTS

By 6 months after birth, a fifth of infants had WAZ <-2, 19% had an LAZ <-2, and 29% had a WLZ <-2. WLZ and WAZ were significantly lower in HIV-infected infants than in uninfected infants by 3 months of age and LAZ by 6 months of age (P<0.001). The risk of WAZ falling <-2 was associated with decreasing maternal CD4 cell count (adj. HR for CD4 cell count <200 cells/μl: 1.64; 95% CI: 1.10-2.43), premature birth (adj. HR: 2.82; 95% CI: 2.06-3.86) and formula feeding (adj. HR: 3.35; 95% CI: 1.64-6.85). The risk of LAZ falling <-2 was associated with increasingly lower maternal age (adj. HR for<20 years: 0.54; 95% CI: 0.31-0.96), lower maternal CD4 cell count (adj. HR for CD4 cell count <200 cells/μl: 1.72; 95% CI: 1.14-2.59), premature birth (adj. HR: 2.37; 95% CI: 1.70-3.30) and formula feeding (adj. HR: 4.22; 95% CI: 1.85-9.62). The risk of WLZ falling <-2 was significantly associated with infant HIV infection (adj. HR: 1.64; 95% CI: 1.16-2.32) and formula feeding (adj. HR: 1.78; 95% CI: 1.11-2.83). The risk of WAZ and LAZ falling <-2 was more than two times greater for HIV-infected infants than for uninfected infants with gastrointestinal infections.

CONCLUSIONS

HIV-infected infants were more likely to be stunted and wasted than uninfected infants, which often occurred within 3 months after birth. Infants who were born to mothers with advanced HIV disease, formula-fed and co-infected with HIV and gastrointestinal infections were at greater risk for growth disturbances. Further interventions are needed to promptly initiate both HIV-infected mothers and infants on appropriate antiretroviral therapy and nutritional supplementation.

Increased resting energy expenditure is associated with failure to thrive in infants with severe combined immunodeficiency

OBJECTIVES

To measure resting energy expenditure (REE) and determine whether increased REE (hypermetabolism) is associated with failure to thrive (FTT) in patients with severe combined immunodeficiency (SCID) at diagnosis.

STUDY DESIGN

REE was measured in 26 patients with SCID in a single transplant center. Predicted REE was determined with World Health Organization standards. Measured REE >110% of predicted REE was classified as hypermetabolism. Other data collected included FTT status, infections, genotype, phenotype, and the feeding methods used.

RESULTS

Fifteen of 26 patients (57.7%) had FTT, and 18 of 26 patients (69.2%) were hypermetabolic. Hypermetabolism occured in 14 of 15 patients (93%) with FTT, and only 4 of 11 patients (36%) without FTT had hypermetabolism (P = .003). There was a significant difference between the measured REE (71.75 ± 16.6 kcal/kg) and the predicted REE (52.85 ± 2.8 kcal/kg; P < .0001). Eleven of 17 patients (65%) required nasogastric feeding, parenteral nutrition, or both to meet their energy needs.

CONCLUSIONS

Hypermetabolism is common in patients with SCID and may contribute to the development of FTT. The hypermetabolism in these patients may necessitate intensive nutrition support.

Longitudinal anthropometric assessment of infants born to HIV-1-infected mothers, Belo Horizonte, Southeastern Brazil

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the growth parameters in infants who were born to HIV-1-infected mothers. METHODS: The study was a longitudinal evaluation of the z-scores for the weight-for-age (WAZ), weight-for-length (WLZ) and length-for-age (LAZ) data collected from a cohort. A total of 97 non-infected and 33 HIV-infected infants born to HIV-1-infected mothers in Belo Horizonte, Southeastern Brazil, between 1995 and 2003 was studied. The average follow-up period for the infected and non-infected children was 15.8 months (variation: 6.8 to 18.0 months) and 14.3 months (variation: 6.3 to 18.6 months), respectively. A mixed-effects linear regression model was used and was fitted using a restricted maximum likelihood. RESULTS: There was an observed decrease over time in the WAZ, LAZ and WLZ among the infected infants. At six months of age, the mean differences in the WAZ, LAZ and WLZ between the HIV-infected and non-infected infants were 1.02, 0.59, and 0.63 standard deviations, respectively. At 12 months, the mean differences in the WAZ, LAZ and WLZ between the HIV-infected and non-infected infants were 1.15, 1.01, and 0.87 standard deviations, respectively. CONCLUSIONS: The precocious and increasing deterioration of the HIV-infected infants' anthropometric indicators demonstrates the importance of the early identification of HIV-infected infants who are at nutritional risk and the importance of the continuous assessment of nutritional interventions for these infants.

Treatment of short stature and growth hormone deficiency in children with somatotropin (rDNA origin)

Somatotropin (growth hormone, GH) of recombinant DNA origin has provided a readily available and safe drug that has greatly improved management of children and adolescents with GH deficiency (GHD) and other disorders of growth. In the US and Europe, regulatory agencies have given approval for the use of GH in children and adults who meet specific criteria. However, clinical and ethical controversies remain regarding the diagnosis of GHD, dosing of GH, duration of therapy and expected outcomes. Areas which also require consensus include management of pubertal patients, transitioning pediatric patients to adulthood, management of children with idiopathic short stature and the role of recombinant IGF-1 in treatment. Additionally, studies have demonstrated anabolic benefits of GH in children who have inflammatory-based underlying disease and efficacy of GH in overcoming growth delays in people treated chronically with corticosteroids. These areas are open for possible new uses of this drug. This review summarizes current indications for GH use in children and discusses areas of clinical debate and potential anabolic uses in chronic illness.

Nutritional assessment and lipid profile in HIV-infected children and adolescents treated with highly active antiretroviral therapy

INTRODUCTION

HIV-infected children and adolescents treated with highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART) regimens that include a protease inhibitor (PI) can show significant improvements in clinical outcomes, nutritional status and quality of life. The study aimed to report nutritional and metabolic alterations for pediatric patients continuously exposed to HAART and for healthy controls for up to 1 year.

METHODS

Clinical, anthropometric, lipid profile and food intake data were collected prospectively over approximately 12-months for each patient.

RESULTS

Fifty-one individuals were studied, of these, 16 were healthy. After 12 months follow-up, HIV-positive individuals remained below the healthy control group parameters. No change was observed concerning food intake. Triglyceride serum levels were higher in patients using protease inhibitor at the onset of the study [PI groups: 114 (43 - 336), and 136 (63 - 271) versus control group: 54.5 (20 - 162); p = 0.003], but after twelve months follow-up, only the group using protease inhibitor for up to two months presented higher values [140 (73 - 273) versus 67.5 (33 - 117); p = 0.004]. HDL-cholesterol was lower in HIV-positive individuals [HIV-positive groups: 36 (27 - 58) and 36 (23 - 43); control 49.5 (34 - 69); p = 0.004].

CONCLUSIONS

HIV-infected children and adolescents treated with highly active antiretroviral therapy showed compromised nutritional parameters compared to a paired healthy control group. Individuals using protease inhibitor presented worse triglyceride serum levels compared to their healthy counterparts.

Duration of hospitalization and appetite of HIV-infected South African children

Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)-infected children generally show poor growth. Episodes of diarrhoea and pneumonia in HIV-infected children are thought to be more severe than in HIV-uninfected children. The objective of this study was to compare duration of hospitalization, appetite and nutritional status of HIV-infected children with that of uninfected children. A cross-sectional study was performed on children (2-24 months) admitted with diarrhoea or pneumonia to the university hospital. Children were tested for HIV, and the duration of hospitalization was noted for 189 children. Follow-up for blood analysis (n=154) and appetite measurement (n=48) was performed 4-8 weeks after discharge. Appetite was measured as ad libitum intake of a commercial infant cereal using highly standardized procedures. Hospitalization (in days) was significantly longer in HIV-infected children; among children admitted with diarrhoea (5.9 ± 1.9 vs. 3.8 ± 1.5) (mean ± standard deviation) and with pneumonia (9.0 ± 2.5 vs. 5.9 ± 1.9). Serum zinc, iron and transferrin concentrations, and haemoglobin levels were significantly lower in HIV-infected children compared with uninfected children. Appetites [amounts eaten (g) per kg body weight] of HIV-infected children were significantly poorer than those of HIV-uninfected children (18.6 ± 5.8 vs. 25.2 ± 7.4). The eating rates (g min(-1) ) of HIV-infected children were also slower (17.6 ± 6.2 vs. 10.1 ± 3.7) Mean Z-scores for length-for-age were significantly lower among HIV-infected children compared with HIV-uninfected children. Weight-for-length Z-scores were not significantly different. In summary, HIV-infected children had a 55% longer duration of hospitalization and a 21% lower appetite.

Growth, immune and viral responses in HIV infected African children receiving highly active antiretroviral therapy: a prospective cohort study

Background

Scale up of paediatric antiretroviral therapy in resource limited settings continues despite limited access to routine laboratory monitoring. We documented the weight and height responses in HIV infected Ugandan children on highly active antiretroviral therapy and determined clinical factors associated with successful treatment outcomes.

Methods

A prospective cohort of HIV infected children were initiated on HAART and followed for 48 weeks. Body mass index for age z scores(BAZ), weight and height-for-age z scores (WAZ & HAZ) were calculated: CD4 cell % and HIV-1 RNA were measured at baseline and every 12 weeks. Treatment outcomes were classified according to; both virological and immunological success (VS/IS), virological failure and immunological success (VF/IS). virological success and immunological failure (VS/IF) and both virological and immunological failure (VF/IF).

Results

From March 2004 until May 2006, 124 HIV infected children were initiated on HAART. The median age (IQR) was 5.0 years (2.1 - 7.0) and 49% (61/124) were female. The median [95% confidence interval (CI)] BAZ, WAZ and HAZ at baseline were 0.29 (-2.9, -1.2), -1.2 (-2.1, -0.5) and -2.06 (-2.9, -1.2) respectively. Baseline median CD4 cell % and log10 HIV-1 RNA were; 11.8% (7.5-18.0) and 5.6 (5.2-5.8) copies/ml. By 48 weeks, mean WAZ and HAZ in the VF/IS group, which was younger, increased from - 0.98 (SD 1.7) to + 1.22 (SD 1.2) and from -1.99 (1.7) to + 0.76 (2.4) respectively. Mean increase in WAZ and HAZ in the VS/IF group, an older group was modest, from -1.84 (1.3) to - 0.41 (1.2) and -2.25 (1.2) to -1.16 (1.3) respectively. Baseline CD4 cell % [OR 6.97 95% CI (2.6 -18.6)], age [OR 4.6 95% CI (1.14 -19.1)] and WHO clinical stage [OR 3.5 95%CI (1.05 -12.7)] were associated with successful treatment outcome.

Conclusions

HIV infected Ugandan children demonstrated a robust increase in height and weight z scores during the first 48 weeks of HAART, including those who failed to completely suppress virus. Older children initiating HAART with severe immune suppression were less likely to achieve a successful treatment outcome. These data emphasize the importance of initiating HAART early to ensure adequate immune and growth responses.

Impact of HAART on survival, weight gain and resting energy expenditure in HIV-1-infected children in India

BACKGROUND

In resource-limited countries, use of highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART) in HIV-infected children is still poorly documented in terms of impact on survival, the immune system and growth. Since the availability of HAART, nutrition of HIV-infected children has been neglected.

AIM

To evaluate the effect of HAART on survival and immune response in HIV-infected children and to investigate the response to nutritional support.

METHODS

In December, 2002 a cohort study was carried out on vertically HIV-1-infected children and was observed longitudinally for CD4(+) T-cell count, antiretroviral treatment and weight until 31 December 2007. Z-scores were calculated for CD4(+) T-cell count to account for age-related differences. Nutritional supplementation was given to all the HIV-infected children and resting energy expenditure (REE) was calculated. Mortality rates were also calculated for the perinatally infected children followed up at the HIV clinic.

RESULTS

A total of 180 children were assessed, 100 (56%) of whom were on HAART. Baseline body mass index was lower in the HAART group (p<0.05). Median duration of survival from date of diagnosis was 15.1 years. Those who received HAART survived significantly longer. The average annual mortality rate was 1.2% during 2005-2006. During HAART, a CD4 Z-score increase of 1 SD was associated with a 0.35 increase in body weight Z-score (p<0.001). The increase in daily energy intake owing to nutritional supplementation was associated with increase in weight Z-score in both the no-HAART and HAART group. REE was independently associated with weight change in the models which tested association of changes in CD4(+) T-cell Z-score and daily REE/kg body weight with changes in body weight Z-score in both the HAART and no-HAART group and then separately in the two groups (p<0.001).

CONCLUSION

Survival rates of children improved which correlated with an increase in CD4(+) T-cell count concurrent with the expanded use of HAART. HAART had a positive effect on growth in HIV-1-infected children. Nutrition supplementation improved the health of children in both the no-HAART and HAART groups.

Predictors of growth and body composition in HIV-infected children beginning or changing antiretroviral therapy

OBJECTIVES

The aim of the study was to describe growth and body composition changes in HIV-positive children after they had initiated or changed antiretroviral therapy (ART) and to correlate these with viral, immune and treatment parameters.

METHODS

Ninety-seven prepubertal HIV-positive children were observed over 48 weeks upon beginning or changing ART. Anthropometry and bioelectrical impedance analysis results were compared with results from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 1999-2002 (NHANES) to generate z-scores and with results for HIV-exposed, uninfected children from the Women and Infants Transmission Study (WITS). Multivariate analysis was used to evaluate associations between growth and body composition and disease parameters.

RESULTS

All baseline lean and fat mass measures were below those of controls from NHANES. Weight, height and fat free mass (FFM) index (FFM/height(2)) z-scores increased over time (P = 0.004, 0.037 and 0.027, respectively) and the waist:height ratio z-score decreased (P = 0.045), but body mass index and per cent body fat z-scores did not change. Measures did not increase more than in uninfected WITS controls. In multivariate analysis, baseline height, mid-thigh circumference and FFM z-scores related to CD4 percentage (P = 0.029, P = 0.008 and 0.020, respectively) and change in FFM and FFM index z-scores to CD4 percentage increase (P = 0.010 and 0.011, respectively). Compared with WITS controls, baseline differences in height and mid-thigh muscle circumference were also associated with CD4 percentage. Case-control differences in change in both subscapular skinfold (SSF) thickness and the SSF:triceps skinfold ratio were inversely associated with viral suppression. No measures related to ART class(es) at baseline or over time.

CONCLUSIONS

In these HIV-positive children, beginning or changing ART was associated with improved growth and lean body mass (LBM), as indicated by FFM index. Height and LBM related to CD4 percentage at baseline and over time. Altered fat distribution and greater central adiposity were associated with detectable virus but not ART class(es) received.

Improved appetite after multi-micronutrient supplementation for six months in HIV-infected South African children

The aim of the study was to assess the effect of multi-micronutrient supplementation on the appetite of HIV-infected children. HIV-infected children (6-24 months) who had previously been hospitalized were enrolled into a double-blind randomized trial, and given daily multi-micronutrient supplements or placebos for six months. Appetite tests were performed at enrollment and after three and six months. Appetite was measured as ad libitum intake of a commercial cereal test food served after an overnight fast according to standardized procedures. Body weights and total amount of test food eaten were measured. In total, 99 children completed the study (50 on supplements and 49 on placebos). Amounts eaten per kilogram body weight in the supplement group at enrollment and after six months were 36.7+/-17.7 g/kg (mean+/-SD) and 41.3+/-15.0 g/kg respectively, while the amounts in the placebo group were 47.1+/-14.9 g/kg and 45.7+/-13.1g/kg respectively. The change in amount eaten per kilogram body weight over six months was significantly higher in the supplement group (4.7+/-14.7 g/kg) than in the placebo group (-1.4+/-15.1g/kg). Multi-micronutrient supplementation for six months seems to significantly improve the appetite of HIV-infected children.

Patterns of postnatal growth in HIV-infected and HIV-exposed children

HIV infection can contribute to disturbances in both linear growth and weight gain in early childhood, with disturbances often apparent as early as 3 months of age. There is little evidence for a difference in the early growth of HIV-exposed but uninfected children compared to healthy controls. Owing to the close association of growth with immune function and clinical progression, an understanding of growth patterns may be an important tool to ensure the provision of appropriate care to HIV-infected and exposed children. Timely growth monitoring may be used to improve the clinical course and quality of life of these children.

Longitudinal growth of infants born to HIV-1-infected mothers in Belo Horizonte, Brazil

Objective

To prospectively evaluate growth parameters assessed by weight and length in infected and uninfected infants born to HIV-1-infected mothers and followed from birth to 18 months.

Methods

A cohort consisting of ninety-seven uninfected and forty-two infected infants born to HIV-infected mothers enrolled from 1995 to 2004, and admitted during their first 3 months of life at a referral Pediatric AIDS Clinic in Belo Horizonte, Brazil. Infants were followed until 18 months of age. Data were analysed using mixed-effects linear regression models for weight and length fitted by restricted maximum likelihood.

Results

Infected infants contributed to 466 weight and 411 recumbent length measurements. Uninfected infants provided 924 weight and 907 length measurements. Mean birth weight and length were similar in both groups, 3·1 (sd 0·4) and 3·0 (sd 0·5) kg, and 48·7 (sd 1·4) and 48·8 (sd 2·9) cm for uninfected and infected infants, respectively. However, HIV-1 infection had an early impact in growth impairment: at 6 months of age, HIV-infected children were 1 kg lighter and 2 cm shorter than the uninfected.

Conclusions

Growth faltering in weight, but not length, in HIV-infected children in Brazil is more marked than that reported in a European cohort, probably reflecting background nutritional deficiencies and concomitant infections. In these settings, early and aggressive nutritional management in HIV-1-infected infants should be a priority intervention associated with the antiretroviral therapy.

Growth parameters in HIV-vertically-infected adolescents on antiretroviral therapy in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil

BACKGROUND

Growth failure in HIV-infected children is an important factor in either initiating or changing antiretroviral therapy (ART). This study assesses the impact of HIV infection on growth parameters of adolescents who acquired HIV vertically.

METHODS

This retrospective, longitudinal study involved adolescents aged 10-20 years with vertically-acquired HIV infection who were followed up in one of the three main referral centres for paediatric HIV/AIDS in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. Length, weight and variables related to demographic, clinical and laboratory issues were analysed.

RESULTS

108 subjects were enrolled. Median age was 12.7 years, median duration of follow-up was 97.2 months and 61 (56.5%) were female. The difference between the baseline and final weight Z-scores was -0.31 (p=0.02). Patients with final weight Z-scores < or = -2 used more ART regimens (average 4.13) than those with Z-scores > -2 (average 2.90, p<0.01) and also had a lower final CD4+ cell percentage--average 19% vs 24% (p<0.01), respectively. The difference between baseline and final-height Z-scores was -0.27 (p<0.01). Several factors were associated with a final-height Z-score < or = -2: clinical stage C during follow-up (RR 1.60, 95% CI 1.11-2.31), chronic diarrhoea during follow-up (RR 2.02, 95% CI 1.04-3.90), HAART use (RR 1.41, 95% CI 1.16-1.71), number of ART regimens (p<0.01) and final CD4+ cell percentage (p<0.01). In multivariate analysis, presentation in clinical stage C during follow-up was the only significant variable (OR 4.04, 95% CI 1.23-13.28).

CONCLUSION

Even on HAART, HIV-infected adolescents have lower growth parameters than the normal population and this is associated with a worse prognosis.

Twenty years of recombinant human growth hormone in children: relevance to pediatric care providers

Recombinant human growth hormone has revolutionized the management of children and adolescents with growth hormone deficiency and other growth disorders, but clinical and ethical controversies remain regarding diagnostic approach, optimal recombinant human growth hormone dose and duration, and expected outcomes. Management of pubertal and transitioning patients with growth hormone deficiency has also commanded increased attention. Recent clinical studies that demonstrate the positive health benefits of recombinant human growth hormone in children with cystic fibrosis, inflammatory bowel disease, and juvenile rheumatoid arthritis have not yet clarified issues about patient selection and appropriate long-term use. An understanding of current recombinant human growth hormone indications and controversies can facilitate patient evaluation and expedite referral for potential treatment. This review summarizes current indications for recombinant human growth hormone use, discusses clinical challenges, and provides recommendations for pediatricians caring for children who may be appropriate candidates for recombinant human growth hormone therapy.

Insights into energy requirements in disease

Accurate information about the energy needs of a range of acute and chronic diseases and morbidity is lacking and often complicated by the medication prescribed to treat the condition and also because of the presence of pre-existing malnutrition. Assessing the energy requirements of patients with acute and chronic diseases is more complex than for those in good health. These requirements not only depend on the aggressiveness of the disease and level of inactivity it causes, but also on the treatment, and the presence of prior malnutrition. It used to be generally believed that the energy requirements were increased in a number of diseases. It is now realised that this is not usually the case. Therefore, it is necessary to put these changing ideas into context by considering a wide range of acute and chronic diseases which this paper proposes to do. This paper is almost exclusively restricted to studies that have measured total energy expenditure (TEE) using tracer techniques in both hospital and the community (mostly doubly labelled water and to a lesser extent bicarbonate–urea), and continuous 24–hour indirect calorimetry in artificially ventilated patients in hospital.

The effect of nutritional support on weight gain of HIV-infected children with prolonged diarrhoea

AIM

To examine the effect on growth and immunity of enhanced calorie and protein provision to HIV-infected children presenting with prolonged diarrhoea.

METHODS

A total of 169 HIV-infected children aged 6-36 months with diarrhoea for 7 days or more were randomly assigned to either standard nutrition support for children with prolonged diarrhoea or an enhanced diet started during hospitalisation and continued after discharge. The change in weight between enrolment and 8, 14 and 26 weeks and changes in plasma HIV-RNA and CD4 cell count at 8 and 26 weeks were estimated.

RESULTS

Children receiving enhanced nutrition achieved significantly more weight gain (p < 0.001) between enrolment and 8 weeks than children on the standard diet (median increase in weight-for-age standard deviation score +1.02 vs. +0.01). After 8 weeks median weight velocity was normal and similar in both groups. The change in median CD4 count was similar in both groups. The 26-week mortality rate was high in both groups (standard support: 22%, enhanced support: 29%).

CONCLUSIONS

Nutrition support of children with advanced HIV infection and prolonged diarrhoea resulted in significant and sustained weight gain, but did not improve CD4 counts or survival. These results support integrated nutrition interventions for HIV-infected children.

Progression of stunting and its predictors among school-aged children in western Kenya

OBJECTIVE

The objectives of this study were (1) to assess whether a cohort of school-aged children experiences progression of stunting over a 2-y-period of observation and (2) to identify baseline nutritional and body composition risk factors for the progression of stunting.

METHODS

As part of a large-scale, randomized controlled trial assessing the impact of insecticide-treated bednets (ITNs) on nutritional status, we longitudinally followed a cohort of school-aged children over a 2-y-period in western Kenya. Anthropometric measurements were made at four time points from which Z-scores for height-for-age (HAZ), weight-for-age (WAZ), and body mass index (BMIZ) were calculated. Two measures of body composition, upper arm fat area and upper arm muscle area, were derived from mid-upper arm circumference (MUAC) and triceps skinfold thickness.

RESULTS

Subjects experienced a mean change in HAZ from baseline to 9 months of -0.16 [-0.19, -0.13], from baseline to 16 months of -0.18 [-0.22, -0.15], and from baseline to 24 months of -0.36 [-0.41, -0.31]. Thus, the average individual's change in HAZ at the three follow-up time points is significantly less than zero, meaning that, on average, the cohort is deviating further from NCHS reference medians over time. The baseline nutritional measure that explained the greatest amount of variance in the progression of stunting was the upper arm muscle area Z-score (F=8.1; P=0.005).

CONCLUSIONS

This longitudinal study provides further evidence from a distinct ecological setting regarding the progression of undernutrition during middle childhood in the developing world. It suggests that school-aged children in the developing world do not experience catch-up growth or remain stable. Rather, they continue to deviate from NCHS standards, accruing greater height deficits with age. In addition, absolute lean body mass explained the most variability in the progression of stunting, which supports cross-sectional findings from other studies.

Investigating heterogeneity in studies of resting energy expenditure in persons with HIV/AIDS: a meta-analysis

BACKGROUND

There is conflict in the literature about the extent of alterations of resting energy expenditure (REE) in persons with HIV.

OBJECTIVE

The study was conducted to ascertain the mean difference in REE (in kJ) per kilogram of fat-free mass (FFM; REE/FFM) between HIV-positive subjects and control subjects and to investigate heterogeneity in the literature.

DESIGN

A meta-analysis comparing classical and Bayesian methods was conducted. Heterogeneity was investigated by using subgroup analysis, metaregression, and a mixed indirect comparison.

RESULTS

Of 58 studies meeting the inclusion criteria, 32 included both HIV-positive and control groups; 24 of these 32 were included. Thirty-seven studies were used in the mixed indirect comparison, and 30 were used in the subgroup comparisons of the HIV-symptomatic, lipodystrophy, weight-losing, and weight-stable subgroups and the healthy (HIV-negative) control group. Mean REE/FFM was significantly higher in 732 HIV-positive subjects than in 340 control subjects [11.93 kJ/kg (95% CI: 8.44,15.43 kJ/kg) and 12.47 kJ/kg (95% CI: 8.19,16.57 kJ/kg), classical and Bayesian random effects, respectively]; the test for heterogeneity was significant (P < 0.001). Both the mixed indirect comparison and the subgroup analysis indicated that REE/FFM was highest in the symptomatic subgroup; however, the small number of studies investigating symptomatic subjects limited statistical comparisons. The presence of lipodystrophy, use of highly active antiretroviral therapy, subject age, and method of body-composition measurement could not explain the heterogeneity in the data with the use of metaregression.

CONCLUSIONS

REE/FFM (kJ/kg) is significantly higher in HIV-positive subjects than in healthy control subjects. Symptomatic HIV infection may contribute to the variations reported in the literature.

Growth, survival and viral load in symptomatic childhood human immunodeficiency virus infection

BACKGROUND

The relationships among weight and height growth, viral load and survival in HIV-infected children remain unclear.

OBJECTIVES

To determine whether weight or height growth velocity independently predicts survival and to investigate associations of weight, height and head circumference growth velocities with viral loads in symptomatic HIV-infected children.

METHODS

We analyzed data from a prospective antiretroviral study utilizing clinical endpoints (PACTG 152). Viral load [log(RNA PCR)] and anthropometric measures 12 weeks before and after viral load measures were available in 494 of 831 children. Interval changes during 24 weeks in z-scores for weight-for-age (DeltaWAZ), height-for-age (DeltaHAZ) and head circumference-for-age (DeltaHCZ) were used as growth velocity surrogates. Logistic regression determined whether DeltaWAZ and/or DeltaHAZ correlated with survival when age, viral load and CD4+ cell count were controlled. Bivariate analysis assessed correlation among viral load and DeltaWAZ, DeltaHAZ and/or DeltaHCZ.

RESULTS

Survival related significantly to height growth velocity (P = 0.03, n = 434) but not to weight growth velocity (P = 0.84, n = 446) or head circumference growth velocity (P = 0.67, n = 148). Viral load was not significantly associated with changes in weight-, height-, or head circumference-for-age z scores (P = 0.86, n = 235; P = 0.07, n = 226; and P = 0.09, n = 165, respectively) in children <30 months of age or with changes in weight- or height-for-age z scores (P = 0.27, n = 259; P = 0.11, n = 251) in older children.

CONCLUSIONS

Height growth velocity predicted survival independently of age, viral load and CD4+ cell count. Weight, height and head circumference growth velocities were not significantly associated with viral load in symptomatic HIV-infected children in this large prospective trial of nucleoside reverse transcriptase therapy.

Assessment of nutritional status, body composition, and human immunodeficiency virus-associated morphologic changes

Nutritional status should be assessed at regular intervals as part of management of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection. The simplest approach to assessment is serial weight measurement. A comprehensive nutritional assessment includes (1) anthropometric measurements of body composition; (2) biochemical measurements of serum protein, micronutrients, and metabolic parameters; (3) clinical assessment of altered nutritional requirements and social or psychological issues that may preclude adequate intake; and (4) measurement of dietary intake. Techniques for measuring body composition of fat and lean body mass include anthropometry and bioelectric impedance analysis. Other techniques, including dual X-ray absorptiometry (DXA), hydrodensitometry, total body potassium measurement, and cross-sectional computed tomography or magnetic resonance imaging are available in research centers. Anthropometry, including waist-hip ratios, regional DXA, and cross-sectional imaging, is best for detecting morphologic changes associated with fat redistribution syndrome. Nutritional assessment and intervention in children with HIV can help to prevent stunted growth and development.

Nutritional aspects of HIV-infected children receiving highly active antiretroviral therapy

The presentation of the nutritional problems of HIV-infected children is changing over time with improved antiretroviral regimens. Early reports of HIV infection in the 1980s, included such problems as malnutrition and wasting. However, as treatment and prophylactic regimens improve, the current nutritional problems of HIV-infected children in developed countries include truncal obesity and insulin resistance in addition to malnutrition. Background data on the wasting syndrome, etiology of malnutrition, nutritional effects of highly active antiretroviral therapies, and nutritional intervention strategies for HIV-infected children will be presented.

Height, weight, and growth in children born to mothers with HIV-1 infection in Europe

OBJECTIVES

Little is known about the independent long-term effect on growth of exposure to maternal human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection. Growth patterns in uninfected children who are born to infected mothers have not been described in detail previously beyond early childhood, and patterns over age for infected and uninfected children have not been based on appropriate general population standards. In vertically HIV-infected children, poor growth has been suggested to be an early marker of infection or progression of disease. However, whether growth faltering is an independent HIV-related symptom or caused indirectly by other HIV clinical symptoms requires clarification. This information is needed to inform the debate on a possible effect of antiretroviral combination therapy on the height of infected children and would provide evidence for the use of specific interventions to improve height. The objective of this study was to describe growth (height and weight) patterns in infected and uninfected children who are born to HIV-infected mothers with respect to standards from a general population and to assess age-related differences in height and weight by infection status, allowing for birth weight, gestational age, gender, HIV-related clinical status, and antiretroviral therapy (ART).

METHODS

Since 1987, children who were born to HIV-infected mothers in 11 centers in 8 European countries were enrolled at birth in the European Collaborative Study and followed prospectively according to a standard protocol. Height and weight were measured at every visit, scheduled at birth; 3 and 6 weeks; 3, 6, 9, 12, 15, 18, and 24 months; and every 6 months thereafter. Serial measurements of height and weight from birth to 10 years of age of 1403 uninfected and 184 infected children were assessed. We fitted linear mixed effects models allowing for variance changes over age and within-subject correlation using fractional polynomials and natural cubic splines. Growth patterns were compared with British 1990 growth standards and by infection status.

RESULTS

Of the 1587 children enrolled, 810 were male and 777 were female; 1403 were not infected (681 boys, 722 girls), and 184 were infected (88 boys, 96 girls). Neither height nor weight was associated significantly with the main effects of HIV infection status at birth, but differences between infected and uninfected children increased with age. Uninfected children had normal growth patterns from early ages. Infected children were estimated to be significantly shorter and lighter than uninfected children with growth differences increasing with age. Differences in growth velocities between the infected and uninfected children increased after 2 years of age for height and after 4 years of age for weight and were more marked in the latter. Between 6 and 12 months, uninfected children grew an estimated 1.6% faster in height and 6.2% in weight than infected children; between ages 8 and 10 years, these figures were 16% and 44%, respectively. By 10 years, uninfected children were on average an estimated 7 kg heavier and 7.5 cm taller than infected children. Growth in uninfected children who were born before 1994, before the widespread use of ART prophylaxis to reduce vertical transmission, did not substantially differ from that of children who were born after 1994. To investigate whether the growth differences between infected and uninfected children were associated with HIV disease progression, we analyzed growth of infected children using the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) clinical classification, in 3 groups: no symptoms, mild or moderate symptoms (A and B), and severe symptoms (C or death). Infected children with mild or serious symptoms lagged behind asymptomatic children in both height and weight, and these differences increased with age. Infected children who were born before availability of ART, before 1988, were more likely to reach a weight below the third centile for age than children who were born after 1994 when effective HIV treatment was widely available. Of the 184 infected children, 67 had been weighed and/or measured at least once while on combination (> or = 2 drugs) ART. Reflecting the longitudinal nature of the European Collaborative Study and the changing availability of HIV treatment, most of these measurements took place after 7 years of age, and therefore analyzing the possible effect of combination therapy on growth is difficult. The z scores for height and weight gain improved substantially in several children who received combination therapy regardless of their CDC clinical classification. To increase available information, we pooled all measurements according to CDC clinical classification and presence of combination therapy at the time of the observation. Weight and height significantly improved for severely ill children after combination therapy.

CONCLUSION

Using data from this large prospective European study, we investigated in comparison with general British standards growth patterns in the first 10 years of life of HIV-infected and uninfected children who were born to HIV-infected mothers. The duration of follow-up of uninfected as well as infected children makes this a unique data set. We allowed for repeated measurements for each child and the increase of variability in height and weight with age. Growth faltering may be related to the social environment, and our finding that uninfected children have normal growth, which is unaffected by exposure to maternal HIV infection, is consistent with observations that in Europe the HIV-infected population is more like the general population and less socioeconomically disadvantaged than that in the United States. However, HIV-infected children grew considerably slower, and differences between infected and uninfected children increased with age. Growth patterns in asymptomatic infected children were similar to those with only mild or moderate symptoms. However, compared with these 2 groups combined, severely ill children had poorer growth at all ages. Although limited by the small number of children who received combination therapy, severely ill children may benefit from such therapy in terms of improvements in weight and, to a smaller extent, in height. Growth faltering, particularly stunting, may adversely affect a child's quality of life, especially once they reach adolescence, and this should be taken into account when making decisions about starting and changing ART. Additional research will help to elucidate the relationship between combination therapy and improved growth, in particular regarding different regimens and the best timing of initiation for optimizing growth of infected children.

Endocrinologic and immunologic factors associated with recovery of growth in children with human immunodeficiency virus type 1 infection treated with protease inhibitors

INTRODUCTION

Growth failure is a common presenting sign in children with HIV disease and is a sensitive indicator of disease progression in children with AIDS. Highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART) is associated with a significant decrease in viral load and a subsequent rise in CD4+ T cell counts in HIV-1-infected children and also with increased height and weight. The underlying mechanisms of catch-up growth during HAART are yet unknown.

METHODS

Height and weight measurements, blood sample analyses for HIV-1 RNA and peripheral blood CD4+ T cell counts were obtained twice within 1 month before the start of HAART and after 12, 24, 36 and 48 weeks of treatment. Serum concentrations of insulin-like growth factor I (IGF-1), IGFs complexed to specific, structurally homologous binding proteins (IGFBP-3), cortisol, free thyroxine and tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-alpha) were measured before the start of therapy and after 24 weeks. In addition serum IGF-1 and IGFBP-3 values were determined after 48 weeks.

RESULTS

Twenty-seven HIV-1-infected children with a median age of 5.5 years (range, 0.3 to 14.9 years) were included. Overall no significant changes in height and body mass index (BMI) z scores were observed. The median baseline plasma viral load of 68,800 copies/ml decreased to less than the detection limit of 500 copies/ml in 80% of the children after 48 weeks. TNF-alpha values were elevated (44 pg/ml) at baseline and decreased significantly to 37 pg/ml after 24 weeks. At baseline elevated TNF-alpha was observed in 78%, which decreased to 55% after 24 weeks. Baseline free thyroxine and cortisol values were normal and did not change during therapy. Baseline serum of IGF-1 and IGFBP-3 concentrations were normal, but IGF-1 tended to be lower than IGFBP-3. Both values increased significantly after the initiation of therapy. IGFBP-3 decreased after 48 weeks whereas IGF-1 stabilized. The increase in IGF-1 was significantly higher in children in whom the BMI and length (after correction for age and sex) increased the most.

CONCLUSION

Hypothyroidism and adrenal axis abnormalities are not associated with restoration of growth after the initiation of antiretroviral therapy in HIV-1-infected children. The combination of relatively high serum IGFBP-3 concentration and relatively lower serum IGF-1 suggests the presence of a growth hormone-resistant state. During treatment with a protease inhibitor-containing regimen, decreased serum IGFBP-3 and stabilization of IGF-1 after a significant initial increase suggest restoration of normal sensitivity to growth hormone and recovery to an anabolic condition.

HIV exposure: neonatal considerations

The presence of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) in pregnant women puts infants at risk for exposure through placental infection and contact with contaminated maternal blood and genital secretions. Efforts to combat this inevitably fatal disease continue to focus on preventing transmission of the virus from a mother who has HIV to her newborn during the prenatal, intrapartum, and postnatal periods. Prophylaxis against transmission and vigilant assessment for indicators of infection are hallmarks of appropriate health care for infants exposed to HIV.

Vitamin A supplements ameliorate the adverse effect of HIV-1, malaria, and diarrheal infections on child growth

OBJECTIVE

Evidence from animal experiments and observational studies in humans suggests that vitamin A plays a fundamental role in physical growth. However, results from vitamin A supplementation trials in children are inconsistent; whereas some did not find an overall effect on growth, others found benefits only among specific groups, including children with low concentrations of serum retinol or short duration of breastfeeding. The apparent lack of an overall effect of vitamin A on growth could be attributed to context-specific distribution of conditions that affect both growth and the response to supplementation, eg, baseline vitamin A status, deficiency of other nutrients (fat, zinc), and the presence of infectious diseases. Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection, malaria, and diarrheal disease adversely affect growth and are associated with increased prevalence of vitamin A deficiency. We hypothesize that vitamin A supplementation could ameliorate the adverse effect of these infections on child growth.

METHODS

We conducted a randomized, clinical trial among 687 Tanzanian children who were 6 to 60 months of age and admitted to the hospital with pneumonia. Children were assigned to oral doses of 200 000 IU vitamin A (half that dose if <12 months) or placebo on the day of admission, a second dose on the following day, and third and fourth doses at 4 and 8 months after discharge from the hospital, respectively. Anthropometric measurements were obtained at baseline and at monthly visits to the study clinics during 12 months after the initial hospitalization. Surveillance on the incidence and severity of diarrhea and respiratory infections was conducted during biweekly visits, alternately at a study clinic and the child's home, using a pictorial diary that the mothers were trained to use. A blood specimen was drawn at baseline for determination of HIV status, malaria infection, and hemoglobin levels. We used mixed effects models to compare estimated total weight and height increases after 1 year of follow-up between treatment arms, overall and within levels of HIV status, malaria, and other possible baseline effect modifiers. We also assessed the potential modulating effect of vitamin A on the risk of stunting (height-for-age <-2 standard deviations of the gender-specific National Center for Health Statistics median reference) attributable to diarrheal and respiratory infections during follow-up, in the subset of children who were not stunted at baseline. A similar approach was followed for wasting (weight-for-height <-2 standard deviations of the reference median). Cox regression models were used to estimate relative risks and 95% confidence intervals (CI), treating episodes of infection as time-dependent covariates.

RESULTS

A total of 554 children had at least 2 follow-up measurements of height or weight and constituted the study base. Baseline characteristics did not differ significantly by treatment arm. Seventy-three percent of the children were <2 years of age, and 37% were <12 months; 31% were stunted at baseline and 9% were wasted. Malaria (Plasmodium falciparum) and HIV infection were found in 24% and 9% of the children, respectively. Median duration of follow-up was 351 days, with 10 measurements/child, on average, irrespectively of treatment assignment. Supplementation with vitamin A among children who had HIV infection and were <18 months of age resulted in a significant length increase. Four months after the first dose, infants who were HIV positive in the vitamin A arm had gained, on average, 2.8 cm (95% CI: 1.0-4.6) more than children who received placebo, whereas no effect was observed among infants who were HIV negative (difference at 4 months: -0.2 cm; 95% CI: -0.8-0.5). Children who were <12 months of age and had malaria at enrollment experienced a 747-g (95% CI: 71-1423) higher yearly weight gain attributable to vitamin A; among children without malaria, however, the supplements did not have a significant effect (-57 g; 95% CI: -461-348). These results remained unchanged after controlling for indicators of the socioeconomic and nutritional status at baseline. Linear growth was also improved by vitamin A among children from households with poor water supply (0.8 cm/year; 95% CI: 0-1.5) but not in children with tap water in the house or compound (-1.0 cm/year; 95% CI: -1.9-0). Weight gain was greater among children with mid-upper arm circumference below the 25th percentile of the age-specific distribution at baseline (458 g/year; 95% CI: 1-905), but no benefit was evident among children with higher mid-upper arm circumference. The risk of stunting associated with episodes of persistent diarrhea (lasting 14 or more days) during follow-up was virtually eliminated by vitamin A supplements. Among children in the placebo group, the average risk of stunting associated with 1 or more episodes of persistent diarrhea between 2 consecutive visits was 5.2 times higher (95% CI: 2.4-11.2) than that of children without diarrhea or with acute episodes. In contrast, among children who received vitamin A, there was virtually no risk of stunting associated with persistent diarrhea (relative risk: 1.0; 95% CI: 0.3-1.3). This effect was slightly attenuated after controlling for the number of household possessions, gender, baseline low arm circumference, HIV infection, and presence of malaria parasites in blood. Vitamin A supplements did not modify the associations between respiratory infections and the risk of stunting or wasting.

CONCLUSIONS

Vitamin A supplementation improves linear and ponderal growth in infants who are infected with HIV and malaria, respectively, and decreases the risk of stunting associated with persistent diarrhea. Supplementation could constitute a low-cost, effective intervention to decrease the burden of growth retardation in settings where infectious diseases are highly prevalent.

Maternal and infant factors associated with failure to thrive in children with vertically transmitted human immunodeficiency virus-1 infection: the prospective, P2C2 human immunodeficiency virus multicenter study

OBJECTIVE

Many children with human immunodeficiency virus-1 (HIV-1) have chronic problems with growth and nutrition, yet limited information is available to identify infected children at high risk for growth abnormalities. Using data from the prospective, multicenter P2C2 HIV study, we evaluated the relationships between maternal and infant clinical and laboratory factors and impaired growth in this cohort.

METHODS

Children of HIV-1-infected women were enrolled prenatally or within the first 28 days of life. Failure to thrive (FTT) was defined as an age- and sex-adjusted weight z score < or =-2.0 SD. Maternal baseline covariates included age, race, illicit drug use, zidovudine use, CD4+ T-cell count, and smoking. Infant baseline predictors included sex, race, CD4+ T-cell count, Centers for Disease Control stage, HIV-1 RNA, antiretroviral therapy, pneumonia, heart rate, cytomegalovirus, and Epstein-Barr virus infection status.

RESULTS

The study cohort included 92 HIV-1-infected and 439 uninfected children. Infected children had a lower mean gestational age, but birth weights, lengths, and head circumferences in the 2 groups were similar. Mothers of growth-delayed infants were more likely to have smoked tobacco and used illicit drugs during pregnancy. In repeated-measures analyses of weight and length or height z scores, the means of the HIV-1-infected group were significantly lower at 6 months of age (P <.001) and remained lower throughout the first 5 years of life. In a multivariable Cox regression analysis, FTT was associated with a history of pneumonia (relative risk [RR] = 8.78; 95% confidence interval [CI]: 3.59-21.44), maternal use of cocaine, crack, or heroin during pregnancy (RR = 3.17; 95% CI: 1.51-6.66), infant CD4+ T-cell count z score (RR = 2.13 per 1 SD decrease; 95% CI: 1.25-3.57), and any antiretroviral therapy by 3 months of age (RR = 2.77; 95% CI: 1.16-6.65). After adjustment for pneumonia and antiretroviral therapy, HIV-1 RNA load remained associated with FTT in the subset of children whose serum was available for viral load analysis.

CONCLUSIONS

Clinical and laboratory factors associated with FTT among HIV-1-infected children include history of pneumonia, maternal illicit drug use during pregnancy, lower infant CD4+ T-cell count, exposure to antiretroviral therapy by 3 months of age (non-protease inhibitor), and HIV-1 RNA viral load.