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Ebea PO, Vidyasagar S, Connor JR, Frazer DM, Knutson MD, Collins JF. Oral iron therapy: Current concepts and future prospects for improving efficacy and outcomes. Br J Haematol 2024; 204:759-773. [PMID: 38253961 PMCID: PMC10939879 DOI: 10.1111/bjh.19268] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/24/2023] [Revised: 12/01/2023] [Accepted: 12/08/2023] [Indexed: 01/24/2024]
Abstract
Iron deficiency (ID) and iron-deficiency anaemia (IDA) are global public health concerns, most commonly afflicting children, pregnant women and women of childbearing age. Pathological outcomes of ID include delayed cognitive development in children, adverse pregnancy outcomes and decreased work capacity in adults. IDA is usually treated by oral iron supplementation, typically using iron salts (e.g. FeSO4 ); however, dosing at several-fold above the RDA may be required due to less efficient absorption. Excess enteral iron causes adverse gastrointestinal side effects, thus reducing compliance, and negatively impacts the gut microbiome. Recent research has sought to identify new iron formulations with better absorption so that lower effective dosing can be utilized. This article outlines emerging research on oral iron supplementation and focuses on molecular mechanisms by which different supplemental forms of iron are transported across the intestinal epithelium and whether these transport pathways are subject to regulation by the iron-regulatory hormone hepcidin.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pearl O. Ebea
- Food Science & Human Nutrition Department, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
| | | | - James R. Connor
- Department of Neurosurgery, Penn State College of Medicine, Hershey, PA, USA
| | - David M. Frazer
- Molecular Nutrition Laboratory, QIMR Berghofer Medical Research Institute, Brisbane, Australia
| | - Mitchell D. Knutson
- Food Science & Human Nutrition Department, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
| | - James F. Collins
- Food Science & Human Nutrition Department, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
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2
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Comparison of bioavailability and transporters gene expression of four iron fortificants added to infant cereals. FOOD BIOSCI 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.fbio.2022.102023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
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3
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Duan N, Guo F, Deng B, Yang S, Tian H, Sun B. Application of a luminous intensity variation fluorescent probe for the detection of ferric ions. LUMINESCENCE 2022; 37:803-809. [PMID: 35274440 DOI: 10.1002/bio.4224] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/23/2021] [Revised: 02/25/2022] [Accepted: 03/04/2022] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
A luminous intensity variation fluorescent probe (Probe 1) for the detection of ferric ion was developed. The quantitative range of Fe3+ content detected was 0 to 600 μM with the LOD at 0.76 μM. Further, after 20 minutes of Fe3+ addition, the intensity of luminescence of Probe 1 solution gradually decreased with increased Fe3+ concentration. In addition, the B and G values of these images showed a linear relationship with Fe3+ concentration (0-500 μM). Probe 1 was successfully used for the rapid determination of Fe3+ concentration in real samples. This study demonstrates that Probe 1 is an excellent tool for the rapid determination of Fe3+ content in real samples using a smart phone without professional equipment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ning Duan
- Beijing Key laboratory of Flavor Chemistry, Beijing Technology and Business University, Beijing, PR China
| | - Feng Guo
- Beijing Key laboratory of Flavor Chemistry, Beijing Technology and Business University, Beijing, PR China
| | - Bing Deng
- Beijing Key laboratory of Flavor Chemistry, Beijing Technology and Business University, Beijing, PR China
| | - Shaoxiang Yang
- Beijing Key laboratory of Flavor Chemistry, Beijing Technology and Business University, Beijing, PR China
| | - Hongyu Tian
- Beijing Key laboratory of Flavor Chemistry, Beijing Technology and Business University, Beijing, PR China
| | - Baoguo Sun
- Beijing Key laboratory of Flavor Chemistry, Beijing Technology and Business University, Beijing, PR China
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Li N, Li X, Yang P, Liu H, Kong L, Yu X. Microencapsulation of Fe2+ in Spray-Dried Lactose for Improved Bioavailability. Bioinorg Chem Appl 2021; 2021:5840852. [PMID: 34567097 PMCID: PMC8457961 DOI: 10.1155/2021/5840852] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/20/2021] [Accepted: 08/31/2021] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
The development of spray drying technology has been widely used for drying and preservation of food products. Though infant milk powder iron fortification is necessary for infants and children, iron fortification is accompanied by some limitations that reduce its quality and oxidation of Fe2+ into Fe3+, causing sensory problems and even a decrease in iron absorption, which does not meet the normal requirements of infant and child body development. To overcome this adverse effect and to improve the bioavailability of iron, a spray drying method was used to simulate the milk powder production process by codrying a mixture of ascorbic acid and ferrous sulfate, where ascorbic acid was uniformly coated on the outer layer of ferrous sulfate. It was demonstrated that ascorbic acid had a very obvious inhibitory effect on the oxidation of ferrous iron and could maintain the stability of ferrous iron in solid and solution for a long time, thus improving the bioavailability of iron.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nan Li
- Pharmaceutical Analysis Center of Tianjin Institute of Medical and Pharmaceutical Sciences, 79 Duolun Road, Heping District, Tianjin 300020, China
| | - Xu Li
- Cardiovascular and Cerebrovascular Drugs Research and Development Center of Tianjin Institute of Medical and Pharmaceutical Sciences, 79 Duolun Road,Heping District, Tianjin 300020, China
| | - Ping Yang
- Pharmaceutical Analysis Center of Tianjin Institute of Medical and Pharmaceutical Sciences, 79 Duolun Road, Heping District, Tianjin 300020, China
| | - Hongbin Liu
- Tianjin Institute of Medical and Pharmaceutical Sciences, 79 Duolun Road, Heping District, Tianjin 300020, China
| | - Lingyu Kong
- Pharmaceutical Analysis Center of Tianjin Institute of Medical and Pharmaceutical Sciences, 79 Duolun Road, Heping District, Tianjin 300020, China
| | - Xiaomeng Yu
- Experimental Animal Center of Tianjin Institute of Medical and Pharmaceutical Sciences, 2 Wanquan Road, Hepign District, Tianjin 300020, China
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Rajagukguk YV, Arnold M, Gramza-Michałowska A. Pulse Probiotic Superfood as Iron Status Improvement Agent in Active Women-A Review. Molecules 2021; 26:molecules26082121. [PMID: 33917113 PMCID: PMC8067853 DOI: 10.3390/molecules26082121] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/02/2021] [Revised: 04/02/2021] [Accepted: 04/05/2021] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Active women or women of reproductive age (15–49 years old) have a high risk of suffering from anaemia. Anaemia is not solely caused by iron deficiency, however, the approaches to improve iron status in both cases are greatly related. Improving the iron status of active women can be done by dietary intervention with functional food. This review aims to provide insights about the functional food role to increase iron absorption in active women and the potency of pulse probiotic superfood development in dry matrices. Results showed that the beneficial effect of iron status is significantly improved by the synergic work between probiotic and prebiotic. Furthermore, chickpeas and lentils are good sources of prebiotic and the consumption of pulses are related with 21st century people’s intention to eat healthy food. There are wide possibilities to develop functional food products incorporated with probiotics to improve iron status in active woman.
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Yadav AK, Sinha AK, Egnew N, Romano N, Kumar V. Potential amelioration of waterborne iron toxicity in channel catfish (Ictalurus punctatus) through dietary supplementation of vitamin C. ECOTOXICOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL SAFETY 2020; 205:111337. [PMID: 32979804 DOI: 10.1016/j.ecoenv.2020.111337] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/22/2020] [Revised: 09/09/2020] [Accepted: 09/10/2020] [Indexed: 05/20/2023]
Abstract
Iron overload in water is a problem in many areas of the world, which could exert toxic effects on fish. To achieve maximum growth and overall fitness, iron induced toxicity must be alleviated. Therefore, this research was undertaken to investigate the potential mitigation of iron toxicity by dietary vitamin C supplementation in channel catfish (Ictalurus punctatus). Two doses of vitamin C (143 and 573 mg/kg diet) were tested against high environmental iron (HEI, 9.5 mg/L representing 25% of 96 h LC50). Fish were randomly divided into six groups with four replicated tanks. The groups were Control (vitamin C deficient feed), LVc (143 mg vitamin C supplemented per kg diet), HVc (573 mg vitamin C supplemented per kg diet), Con + Fe (control exposed to HEI), LVc + Fe (LVc exposed to HEI) and HVc + Fe (HVc exposed to HEI). Following an 8 week trial, there was a significant reduction in weight gain (WG%) in Con + Fe compared to the control, indicating a toxic effect of HEI on fish growth performance. Interestingly, WG% in both LVc + Fe and HVc + Fe groups were significantly higher than Cont + Fe, signifying that HEI inhibited growth, but this was alleviated by vitamin C. Both hemoglobin content and hematocrit were higher in LVc + Fe compared to the control and Con + Fe. In addition, exposure to HEI (Con + Fe) incited hepatic oxidative stress based on an over-accumulation of malondialdehyde (MDA) along with a significant inhibition in superoxide dismutase (SOD) and catalase (CAT) activities; whereas in LVc + Fe and HVc + Fe, the MDA content restored to basal level. A series of histopathological alterations were observed in the liver and gills, with the most severe lesions in Con + Fe, which was also complemented with a remarkable increase in hepatic iron accumulation. Vitamin C supplementations reduced the augmented concentrations of iron accumulation to that of the control. No effect, regardless of the treatments, was noted for fatty acid composition of muscle. Overall, our findings suggest that the vitamin C supplementation can be an effective therapeutic approach for boosting growth as well as alleviating iron toxicity in catfish.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amit K Yadav
- Aquaculture Research Institute, Department of Animal, Veterinary and Food Sciences, University of Idaho, Moscow, ID, 83844, USA
| | - Amit K Sinha
- Department of Aquaculture and Fisheries, University of Arkansas at Pine Bluff, 1200 North University Drive, Pine Bluff, 71601, AR, USA
| | - Nathan Egnew
- Department of Aquaculture and Fisheries, University of Arkansas at Pine Bluff, 1200 North University Drive, Pine Bluff, 71601, AR, USA
| | - Nicholas Romano
- Department of Aquaculture and Fisheries, University of Arkansas at Pine Bluff, 1200 North University Drive, Pine Bluff, 71601, AR, USA
| | - Vikas Kumar
- Aquaculture Research Institute, Department of Animal, Veterinary and Food Sciences, University of Idaho, Moscow, ID, 83844, USA; Hagerman Fish Culture Experiment Station, University of Idaho, 3059F National Fish Hatchery Road, Hagerman, ID, 83332, USA.
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Nicholaus C, Martin HD, Kassim N, Matemu AO, Kimiywe J. Dietary Practices, Nutrient Adequacy, and Nutrition Status among Adolescents in Boarding High Schools in the Kilimanjaro Region, Tanzania. J Nutr Metab 2020; 2020:3592813. [PMID: 32685204 PMCID: PMC7350084 DOI: 10.1155/2020/3592813] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2019] [Revised: 03/25/2020] [Accepted: 04/23/2020] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
A cross-sectional study was conducted to assess dietary practices, nutrient adequacy, and nutrition status among 164 adolescents aged between 16 and 19 years in boarding secondary schools in the Kilimanjaro region. In-depth interviews and a survey guided by a semistructured and structured questionnaire, including 24-hour recall and food frequency questionnaire techniques, were used to collect information. Nutrition status was assessed using anthropometric measurements and hemoglobin levels. WHO AnthroPlus software and NutriSurvey software were used to analyze anthropometry and dietary data, respectively. Diet in boarding schools was monotonous comprising mainly of cereal-legume meal with low intake of animal sources, fruits, and vegetables. Mean intake of energy, vitamin C, iron, calcium, and zinc was 1392 kcal, 24.8 mg, 9.2 mg, 134.5 mg, and 4.3 mg, respectively, which were below the Recommended Daily Allowance. The average carbohydrate, fat, and protein intake of 471.9 g, 73.7 g, and 80.7 g, respectively, were slightly higher than the Recommended Daily Allowance in both sexes. Male had a significantly higher intake of protein and carbohydrates (P < 0.001). Female had a significantly (P < 0.001) high intake of fat compared to male adolescents. Overall, 23.1% of the adolescents were anaemic, 25% were overweight, and 6.1% were obese. Boarding secondary schools' diet is monotonous and are inadequate in key micronutrients, iron, zinc, calcium, and vitamin C. There is a coexistence of undernutrition and overnutrition among adolescents in boarding schools. Therefore, monitoring adolescents' dietary intake and nutrition status is a key in preventing adolescents' malnutrition in the short term and diet-related diseases in the long term.
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Affiliation(s)
- Calista Nicholaus
- Department of Food Biotechnology and Nutrition Sciences, Nelson Mandela African Institution of Science and Technology, P.O. Box 447, Arusha, Tanzania
| | - Haikael D. Martin
- Department of Food Biotechnology and Nutrition Sciences, Nelson Mandela African Institution of Science and Technology, P.O. Box 447, Arusha, Tanzania
| | - Neema Kassim
- Department of Food Biotechnology and Nutrition Sciences, Nelson Mandela African Institution of Science and Technology, P.O. Box 447, Arusha, Tanzania
| | - Athanasia O. Matemu
- Department of Food Biotechnology and Nutrition Sciences, Nelson Mandela African Institution of Science and Technology, P.O. Box 447, Arusha, Tanzania
| | - Judith Kimiywe
- Department of Food, Nutrition and Dietetics, Kenyatta University, P.O. Box 43844-00100, Nairobi, Kenya
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Bochicchio S, Dalmoro A, Lamberti G, Barba AA. Advances in Nanoliposomes Production for Ferrous Sulfate Delivery. Pharmaceutics 2020; 12:E445. [PMID: 32403375 PMCID: PMC7284685 DOI: 10.3390/pharmaceutics12050445] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/05/2020] [Revised: 05/06/2020] [Accepted: 05/08/2020] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
In this study, a continuous bench scale apparatus based on microfluidic fluid dynamic principles was used in the production of ferrous sulfate-nanoliposomes for pharmaceutical/nutraceutical applications, optimizing their formulation with respect to the products already present on the market. After an evaluation of its fluid dynamic nature, the simil-microfluidic (SMF) apparatus was first used to study the effects of the adopted process parameters on vesicles dimensional features by using ultrasonic energy to enhance liposomes homogenization. Subsequently, iron-nanoliposomes were produced at different weight ratios of ferrous sulfate to the total formulation components (0.06, 0.035, 0.02, and 0.01 w/w) achieving, by using the 0.01 w/w, vesicles of about 80 nm, with an encapsulation efficiency higher than 97%, an optimal short- and long-term stability, and an excellent bioavailability in Caco-2 cell line. Moreover, a comparison realized between the SMF method and two more conventional production techniques showed that by using the SMF setup the process time was drastically reduced, and the process yield increased, achieving a massive nanoliposomes production. Finally, duty-cycle sonication was detected to be a scalable technique for vesicles homogenization.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sabrina Bochicchio
- Eng4Life Srl, Spin-Off Accademico, Via Fiorentino, 32, 83100 Avellino, Italy; (S.B.); (A.D.); (G.L.)
| | - Annalisa Dalmoro
- Eng4Life Srl, Spin-Off Accademico, Via Fiorentino, 32, 83100 Avellino, Italy; (S.B.); (A.D.); (G.L.)
- Dipartimento di Farmacia, Università degli Studi di Salerno, via Giovanni Paolo II, 132 84084 Fisciano (SA), Italy
| | - Gaetano Lamberti
- Eng4Life Srl, Spin-Off Accademico, Via Fiorentino, 32, 83100 Avellino, Italy; (S.B.); (A.D.); (G.L.)
- Dipartimento di Ingegneria Industriale, Università degli Studi di Salerno, via Giovanni Paolo II, 132 84084 Fisciano (SA), Italy
| | - Anna Angela Barba
- Eng4Life Srl, Spin-Off Accademico, Via Fiorentino, 32, 83100 Avellino, Italy; (S.B.); (A.D.); (G.L.)
- Dipartimento di Farmacia, Università degli Studi di Salerno, via Giovanni Paolo II, 132 84084 Fisciano (SA), Italy
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Blanco-Rojo R, Vaquero MP. Iron bioavailability from food fortification to precision nutrition. A review. INNOV FOOD SCI EMERG 2019. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ifset.2018.04.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
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10
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Abstract
Nutritionally, the first 1,000 days of an infant's life - from conception to two years - has been identified as a highly influential period, during which lasting health can be achieved. Significant evidence links patterns of infant feeding to both short and long-term health outcomes, many of which can be prevented through nutritional modifications. Recommended globally, breastfeeding is recognised as the gold standard of infant nutrition; providing key nutrients to achieve optimal health, growth and development, and conferring immunologic protective effects against disease. Nevertheless, infant formulas are often the sole source of nutrition for many infants during the first stage of life. Producers of infant formula strive to supply high quality, healthy, safe alternatives to breast milk with a comparable balance of nutrients to human milk imitating its composition and functional performance measures. The concept of 'nutritional programming', and the theory that exposure to specific conditions, can predispose an individual's health status in later life has become an accepted dictum, and has sparked important nutritional research prospects. This review explores the impact of early life nutrition, specifically, how different feeding methods affect health outcomes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Susan Finn
- Nutrition and Health Science from Cork Institute of Technology
| | | | | | - Roy D. Sleator
- University College Cork and National University of Ireland
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Sheftel J, Loechl C, Mokhtar N, Tanumihardjo SA. Use of Stable Isotopes to Evaluate Bioefficacy of Provitamin A Carotenoids, Vitamin A Status, and Bioavailability of Iron and Zinc. Adv Nutr 2018; 9:625-636. [PMID: 30239582 PMCID: PMC6140444 DOI: 10.1093/advances/nmy036] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/17/2018] [Revised: 02/25/2018] [Accepted: 05/14/2018] [Indexed: 01/25/2023] Open
Abstract
The ability of nutrition scientists to measure the status, bioavailability, and bioefficacy of micronutrients is affected by lack of access to the parts of the body through which a nutrient may travel before appearing in accessible body compartments (typically blood or urine). Stable isotope-labeled tracers function as safe, nonradioactive tools to follow micronutrients in a quantitative manner because the absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion of the tracer are assumed to be similar to the unlabeled vitamin or mineral. The International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) supports research on the safe use of stable isotopes in global health and nutrition. This review focuses on IAEA's contributions to vitamin A, iron, and zinc research. These micronutrients are specifically targeted by the WHO because of their importance in health and worldwide prevalence of deficiency. These 3 micronutrients are included in food fortification and biofortification efforts in low- and middle-income regions of the world. Vitamin A isotopic techniques can be used to evaluate the efficacy and effectiveness of interventions. For example, total body retinol stores were estimated by using 13C2-retinol isotope dilution before and after feeding Zambian children maize biofortified with β-carotene to determine if vitamin A reserves were improved by the intervention. Stable isotopes of iron and zinc have been used to determine mineral bioavailability. In Thailand, ferrous sulfate was better absorbed from fish sauce than was ferrous lactate or ferric ammonium citrate, determined with the use of different iron isotopes in each compound. Comparisons of one zinc isotope injected intravenously with another isotope taken orally from a micronutrient powder proved that the powder increased total absorbed zinc from a meal in Pakistani infants. Capacity building by the IAEA with appropriate collaborations in low- and middle-income countries to use stable isotopes has resulted in many advancements in human nutrition.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jesse Sheftel
- Interdepartmental Graduate Program in Nutritional Sciences, University of Wisconsin–Madison, Madison, WI
| | | | | | - Sherry A Tanumihardjo
- Interdepartmental Graduate Program in Nutritional Sciences, University of Wisconsin–Madison, Madison, WI
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12
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Mansouri S, Chen XD, Woo MW. Design of micron-sized salt particles by ethanol vapour drying. POWDER TECHNOL 2018. [DOI: 10.1016/j.powtec.2016.06.050] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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Genetically engineered Escherichia coli Nissle 1917 synbiotic counters fructose-induced metabolic syndrome and iron deficiency. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 2017; 101:4713-4723. [DOI: 10.1007/s00253-017-8207-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/13/2017] [Revised: 02/14/2017] [Accepted: 02/17/2017] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
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Jalili M. Chemical composition and sensory characteristics of Feta cheese fortified with iron and ascorbic acid. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2016. [DOI: 10.1007/s13594-016-0280-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
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Probiotic strain Lactobacillus plantarum 299v increases iron absorption from an iron-supplemented fruit drink: a double-isotope cross-over single-blind study in women of reproductive age. Br J Nutr 2016; 114:1195-202. [PMID: 26428277 PMCID: PMC4594053 DOI: 10.1017/s000711451500241x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Iron deficiency is common, especially among young women. Adding probiotics to foods could be one way to increase iron absorption. The aim of this study was to test the hypothesis that non-haem iron absorption from a fruit drink is improved by adding Lactobacillus plantarum 299v (Lp299v). Iron absorption was studied in healthy women of reproductive age using a single-blind cross-over design in two trials applying the double-isotope (55Fe and 59Fe) technique. In Trial 1, iron absorption from a fruit drink containing 109 colony-forming units (CFU) Lp299v was compared with that from a control drink without Lp299v. Trial 2 had the same design but 1010 CFU were used. The test and control drinks contained approximately 5 mg of iron as ferrous lactate and were labelled with 59Fe (B) and 55Fe (A), respectively, and consumed on 4 consecutive days in the order AABB. Retention of the isotopes was measured with whole-body counting and in blood. Mean iron absorption from the drink containing 109 CFU Lp299v (28·6(sd 12·5) %) was significantly higher than from the control drink (18·5(sd 5·8) %), n 10, P<0·028). The fruit drink with 1010 CFU Lp299v gave a mean iron absorption of 29·1(sd 17·0) %, whereas the control drink gave an absorption of (20·1(sd 6·4) %) (n 11, P<0·080). The difference in iron absorption between the 109 CFU Lp299v and the 1010 CFU Lp299v drinks was not significant (P=0·941). In conclusion, intake of probiotics can increase iron absorption by approximately 50 % from a fruit drink having an already relatively high iron bioavailability.
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Advantages and disadvantages of the animal models v. in vitro studies in iron metabolism: a review. Animal 2013; 7:1651-8. [PMID: 23790319 DOI: 10.1017/s1751731113001134] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Iron deficiency is the most common nutritional deficiency in the world. Special molecules have evolved for iron acquisition, transport and storage in soluble, nontoxic forms. Studies about the effects of iron on health are focused on iron metabolism or nutrition to prevent or treat iron deficiency and anemia. These studies are focused in two main aspects: (1) basic studies to elucidate iron metabolism and (2) nutritional studies to evaluate the efficacy of iron supplementation to prevent or treat iron deficiency and anemia. This paper reviews the advantages and disadvantages of the experimental models commonly used as well as the methods that are more used in studies related to iron. In vitro studies have used different parts of the gut. In vivo studies are done in humans and animals such as mice, rats, pigs and monkeys. Iron metabolism is a complex process that includes interactions at the systemic level. In vitro studies, despite physiological differences to humans, are useful to increase knowledge related to this essential micronutrient. Isotopic techniques are the most recommended in studies related to iron, but their high cost and required logistic, making them difficult to use. The depletion-repletion of hemoglobin is a method commonly used in animal studies. Three depletion-repletion techniques are mostly used: hemoglobin regeneration efficiency, relative biological values (RBV) and metabolic balance, which are official methods of the association of official analytical chemists. These techniques are well-validated to be used as studies related to iron and their results can be extrapolated to humans. Knowledge about the main advantages and disadvantages of the in vitro and animal models, and methods used in these studies, could increase confidence of researchers in the experimental results with less costs.
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Abstract
AbstractObjectiveDietary Fe deficiency has a high incidence in Pakistani children and may be associated with increased gastrointestinal absorption of trace metals such as Mn. Therefore, children residing in heavily polluted cities like Karachi may be prone to Mn toxicity. The present study investigated blood Mn concentrations in Karachi children of different Fe statuses.DesignA prospective observational study was conducted where children were classified into different categories of Fe status – normal Fe, borderline Fe deficiency, Fe deficiency and Fe-deficiency anaemia – using WHO criteria supported by measurements of soluble transferrin receptors. Blood Mn was determined for children in each category using graphite atomic absorption spectroscopy.SettingThree hospital outpatient departments in Karachi, Pakistan.SubjectsA total of 269 children (156 males, 113 females) aged 6–60 months from low-income families of Karachi.ResultsBlood Mn concentrations were significantly higher in children with Fe-deficiency anaemia and Fe deficiency compared with those of normal Fe status (both P < 0·01). Blood concentrations of soluble transferrin receptors were higher in children with Fe-deficiency anaemia compared with those of borderline or normal Fe status (both P < 0·05).ConclusionsThese findings report for the first time high blood Mn concentrations in Fe-deficient children of this age group. There is therefore an urgent need to identify and remove environmental exposure to Mn in combination with health strategies aimed at eradicating childhood Fe deficiency.
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18
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Claudie DM, Alexandrine D, Bertrand C, Franck T, Marie-Josephe A. Citrus flavanones enhance carotenoid uptake by intestinal Caco-2 cells. Food Funct 2013; 4:1625-31. [DOI: 10.1039/c3fo60212e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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Rahman MA, Rahman B, Ahmad MS, Blann A, Ahmed N. Blood and hair lead in children with different extents of iron deficiency in Karachi. ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH 2012; 118:94-100. [PMID: 22917764 DOI: 10.1016/j.envres.2012.07.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/07/2011] [Revised: 06/20/2012] [Accepted: 07/05/2012] [Indexed: 06/01/2023]
Abstract
Childhood iron deficiency has a high incidence in Pakistan. Some but not all studies have shown that dietary iron deficiency may cause increased absorption of lead as both compete for the same transporters in the small intestine. Therefore, children in Pakistan, residing in heavily polluted cities like Karachi may be prone to lead poisoning. This hypothesis was tested by investigating blood and hair lead concentrations in children from Karachi who were divided into four groups of iron status; normal, borderline iron deficiency, iron deficiency and iron deficiency anaemia. A prospective observational study was conducted where 269 children were categorized into four groups of iron status using the World Health Organization criteria and one based on soluble transferrin receptor measurements. Blood iron status was determined using a full blood count, serum iron, ferritin, transferrin saturation and soluble transferrin receptor measurements. Blood lead was determined by graphite atomic absorption spectroscopy, whereas hair lead was assessed using an inductively coupled plasma atomic emission spectroscopy technique. Blood lead concentrations were significantly higher in children with iron deficiency anaemia (mean [95% confidence intervals] were 24.9 [22.6-27.2] μg/dL) compared to those with normal iron status (19.1 [16.8-21.4] μg/dL) using WHO criteria. In contrast, hair lead content was not significantly different in children of different iron status. Our findings reinforce the importance of not only reducing environmental lead pollution but also the development of national health strategies to reduce childhood iron deficiency in Pakistan.
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Affiliation(s)
- Muhammad Ataur Rahman
- Karachi Institute of Biotechnology and Genetic Engineering, University of Karachi, Karachi-75270, Pakistan
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Maazi H, Shirinbak S, Bloksma N, Nawijn MC, van Oosterhout AJM. Iron administration reduces airway hyperreactivity and eosinophilia in a mouse model of allergic asthma. Clin Exp Immunol 2011; 166:80-6. [PMID: 21910724 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2249.2011.04448.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
The prevalence of allergic diseases has increased dramatically during the last four decades and is paralleled by a striking increase in iron intake by infants in affluent societies. Several studies have suggested a link between increased iron intake and the marked increase in prevalence of allergic diseases. We hypothesized that the increased iron intake by infants offers an explanation for the increased prevalence of allergic disease in industrialized societies during the past four decades. A well-established mouse model of ovalbumin (OVA)-driven allergic asthma was used to test the effects of differences in iron intake and systemic iron levels on the manifestations of allergic asthma. Surprisingly, iron supplementation resulted in a significant decrease in airway eosinophilia, while systemic iron injections lead to a significant suppression of both allergen-induced airway eosinophilia and hyperreactivity compared to placebo. In contrast, mice fed on an iron-deprived diet did not show any difference in developing experimentally induced allergic asthma when compared to those fed on an iron-sufficient control diet. In contrast to our hypothesis, airway manifestations of allergic asthma are suppressed by both increased levels of iron intake and systemic iron administrations in the mouse model.
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Affiliation(s)
- H Maazi
- Laboratory of Allergology and Pulmonary Diseases, Department of Pathology and Medical Biology, GRIAC Research Institute, University Medical Center Groningen (UMCG), University of Groningen, Groningen, the Netherlands
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Pounis GD, Makri S, Gougias L, Makris H, Papakonstantinou M, Panagiotakos DB, Kapsokefalou M. Consumer perception and use of iron fortified foods is associated with their knowledge and understanding of nutritional issues. Food Qual Prefer 2011. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodqual.2011.05.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
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Abstract
The WHO estimates that 41% of women and 27% of children suffer from anemia due to iron deficiency. The consequences of iron deficiency anemia include suboptimal mental and motor development in young children, increased risk of maternal mortality, and decreased economic productivity of adults. Recent research also provides evidence that maternal iron deficiency in pregnancy increases neonatal morbidity and mortality. This short review briefly highlights how iron interventions might be positioned within 4 global health initiatives: making pregnancy safer, saving newborn lives, infant and young child feeding, and fortification. The importance of iron nutrition is recognized in the context of child nutrition, fortification, and biofortification, and it is likely that meaningful advances will be made through these initiatives in the coming decade. However, iron nutrition is not yet well integrated into the programmatic agendas for reducing morbidity and mortality of pregnant women and neonates. Iron supplementation in pregnancy has been advocated for decades as a means of controlling anemia, but this outcome has not been sufficient to motivate strong programs and policies, and the evidence base is still sparse for high-priority clinical outcomes. To act on the current evidence for maternal and neonatal health will require stronger advocacy within circles that have not traditionally included nutritionists. Successful implementation will require greater attention to antenatal care for pregnancy women and prioritization of iron-promoting actions (including iron supplementation and deworming) within that platform.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rebecca J Stoltzfus
- Division of Nutritional Sciences, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA.
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Efficacy of a microencapsulated iron pyrophosphate-fortified fruit juice: a randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled study in Spanish iron-deficient women. Br J Nutr 2011; 105:1652-9. [PMID: 21303569 DOI: 10.1017/s0007114510005490] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Abstract
Fe-deficiency anaemia is a worldwide health problem. We studied the influence of consuming an Fe-fortified fruit juice on Fe status in menstruating women. A randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled study of 16 weeks of duration was performed. Subjects were randomised into two groups: the P group (n 58) or the F group (n 64), and consumed, as a supplement to their usual diet, 500 ml/d of a placebo fruit juice or an Fe-fortified fruit juice, respectively. The Fe-fortified fruit juice, containing microencapsulated iron pyrophosphate, provided 18 mg Fe/d (100 % of the RDA). At baseline and monthly, dietary intake, body weight and Fe parameters were determined: total erythrocytes, haematocrit, mean corpuscular volume (MCV), red blood cell distribution width (RDW), Hb, serum Fe, serum ferritin, serum transferrin, transferrin saturation, soluble transferrin receptor (sTfR) and zinc protoporphyrin (ZnPP). The fruit juice consumption involved increased intake of carbohydrates and vitamin C, and increased BMI within normal limits. Ferritin was higher in the F group after week 4 (P < 0·05) and became 80 % higher than in the P group after week 16 (P < 0·001), and transferrin decreased in the F group compared with the P group after week 4 (P < 0·001). RDW was higher at weeks 4 and 8 in the F group compared with the P group (P < 0·05). Transferrin saturation increased after week 8, and haematocrit, MCV and Hb increased after week 12, in the F group compared with the P group. Serum Fe did not change. sTfR and ZnPP decreased in the F group at week 16 (P < 0·05). Iron pyrophosphate-fortified fruit juice improves Fe status and may be used to prevent Fe-deficiency anaemia.
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Oxidative activity of some iron compounds on colon tissue homogenates from mice after administration of green tea, white tea and Pelargonium purpureum. Food Chem 2010. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2009.10.064] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
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Zheng L, Cheng Z, Ai C, Jiang X, Bei X, Zheng Y, Glahn RP, Welch RM, Miller DD, Lei XG, Shou H. Nicotianamine, a novel enhancer of rice iron bioavailability to humans. PLoS One 2010; 5:e10190. [PMID: 20419136 PMCID: PMC2855712 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0010190] [Citation(s) in RCA: 131] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/03/2010] [Accepted: 03/18/2010] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Polished rice is a staple food for over 50% of the world's population, but contains little bioavailable iron (Fe) to meet human needs. Thus, biofortifying the rice grain with novel promoters or enhancers of Fe utilization would be one of the most effective strategies to prevent the high prevalence of Fe deficiency and iron deficiency anemia in the developing world. Methodology/Principal Findings We transformed an elite rice line cultivated in Southern China with the rice nicotianamine synthase gene (OsNAS1) fused to a rice glutelin promoter. Endosperm overexpression of OsNAS1 resulted in a significant increase in nicotianamine (NA) concentrations in both unpolished and polished grain. Bioavailability of Fe from the high NA grain, as measured by ferritin synthesis in an in vitro Caco-2 cell model that simulates the human digestive system, was twice as much as that of the control line. When added at 1∶1 molar ratio to ferrous Fe in the cell system, NA was twice as effective when compared to ascorbic acid (one of the most potent known enhancers of Fe bioavailability) in promoting more ferritin synthesis. Conclusions Our data demonstrated that NA is a novel and effective promoter of iron utilization. Biofortifying polished rice with this compound has great potential in combating global human iron deficiency in people dependent on rice for their sustenance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luqing Zheng
- State Key Laboratory of Plant Physiology and Biochemistry, College of Life Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Zhiqiang Cheng
- Departments of Animal Science and Food Science, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York, United States of America
| | - Chunxiang Ai
- Departments of Animal Science and Food Science, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York, United States of America
| | - Xinhang Jiang
- State Key Laboratory of Plant Physiology and Biochemistry, College of Life Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Xiaoshu Bei
- State Key Laboratory of Plant Physiology and Biochemistry, College of Life Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China
- Departments of Animal Science and Food Science, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York, United States of America
| | - Ye Zheng
- State Key Laboratory of Plant Physiology and Biochemistry, College of Life Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Raymond P. Glahn
- United State Department of Agriculture-Agricultural Research Service, Robert W. Holley Center for Agriculture and Health, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York, United States of America
| | - Ross M. Welch
- United State Department of Agriculture-Agricultural Research Service, Robert W. Holley Center for Agriculture and Health, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York, United States of America
| | - Dennis D. Miller
- Departments of Animal Science and Food Science, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York, United States of America
| | - Xin Gen Lei
- Departments of Animal Science and Food Science, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York, United States of America
- * E-mail: (XGL); (HS)
| | - Huixia Shou
- State Key Laboratory of Plant Physiology and Biochemistry, College of Life Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China
- * E-mail: (XGL); (HS)
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Thompson B, Sharp P, Elliott R, Al-Mutairi S, Fairweather-Tait SJ. Development of a modified Caco-2 cell model system for studying iron availability in eggs. JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2010; 58:3833-3839. [PMID: 20170171 DOI: 10.1021/jf904175d] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/28/2023]
Abstract
A modified Caco-2 cell model system was developed for studying iron availability in mixtures of fresh and/or cooked foods subjected to a simulated gastrointestinal digestion. The effect of combining foods containing high levels of ascorbic acid with cooked eggs on ferritin expression in the cells was measured. There was no detectable increase in ferritin with eggs alone, indicating that none of the iron was available for uptake into the cells, but when mixed with orange juice or salad (lettuce, tomatoes, and red pepper) in ratios similar to those found in meals, there was a significant increase in ferritin concentration (p = 0.0012 and p = 9.2 x 10(-10), respectively); the enhancing effect of salad was greater than orange juice (p = 0.028). These results suggest that the iron in eggs will be more readily absorbed when consumed with foods high in ascorbic acid.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ben Thompson
- School of Medicine, University of East Anglia, Norwich, United Kingdom
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27
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Development of an in vitro Caco-2 cell model system to measure iron availability from foods and meals. Proc Nutr Soc 2010. [DOI: 10.1017/s002966510999214x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
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Trinidad TP, Mallillin AC, Sagum RS, Briones DP, Encabo RR, Juliano BO. Iron absorption from brown rice/brown rice-based meal and milled rice/milled rice-based meal. Int J Food Sci Nutr 2010; 60:688-93. [PMID: 19919516 DOI: 10.3109/09637480701830404] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Milled rice is the staple food among Filipinos and is mostly consumed three times a day. Rice as a source of iron could therefore have an important role in the existing 37% prevalence of iron-deficiency anemia in the country. Previous iron absorption studies in Filipinos from rice and rice-based meals were carried out on milled rice but no research was done on brown rice of the same variety. This leads to the hypothesis that brown rice may be better than milled rice in terms of iron content. OBJECTIVE To determine iron absorption from brown rice and brown rice-based meal, and from milled rice and milled rice-based meal of the same variety. METHODS The rice variety used in the study was F(2) seeds of PSB Rc72H. Iron absorption from brown/milled rice and brown/milled rice-based meals was determined in 12 healthy human subjects from the incorporation of radioisotopes of iron into erythrocytes 14 days after administration of the labeled rice/rice-based meals. The above samples were also analyzed for nutrient content, including dietary fiber, and iron. RESULTS The iron content of brown rice was significantly higher (1.1 +/- 0.1 mg/100 g) than that of milled rice (0.6 +/- 0.1 mg/100 g). Brown rice has significantly greater amounts of total dietary fiber (5.4 +/- 0.4%) than milled rice (1.7 +/- 0.2%; P < 0.05). Both tannic acid and phytic acid contents in brown rice (56.9 +/- 3.2 mg/100 g and 290.1 +/- 18.0 mg/100 g, respectively) were significantly higher than those of milled rice (21.3 +/- 2.3 mg/100 g and 84.0 +/- 12.4 mg/100 g, respectively; P<0.05). The amount of iron absorbed from brown rice (0.13 +/- 0.02 mg) did not differ significantly from that from milled rice (0.14 +/- 0.02 mg). However, the amount from brown rice-based meal (0.36 +/- 0.04 mg) differed significantly from that from brown rice (P<0.05) as well as that from milled rice-based meal (0.35 +/- 0.03 mg) from that from milled rice (P<0.05). Moreover, brown rice-based meal did not differ significantly from milled rice-based meal (P<0.05). CONCLUSION Iron absorbed from milled rice and brown rice did not differ significantly, as well as that from brown rice-based meal and milled rice-based meal. Differences in iron absorbed from brown/milled rice and brown/milled rice-based meals may be due to the iron content of the test foods and the presence of iron enhancers in the meal (e.g. fish, vegetables and citrus fruit).
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Affiliation(s)
- Trinidad P Trinidad
- Food and Nutrition Research Institute, Department of Science and Technology, Bicutan, Taguig, Metro Manila, Philippines.
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Kapsokefalou M, Alexandropoulou I, Komaitis M, Politis I. In vitroevaluation of iron solubility and dialyzability of various iron fortificants and of iron-fortified milk products targeted for infants and toddlers. Int J Food Sci Nutr 2009; 56:293-302. [PMID: 16096139 DOI: 10.1080/09637480500146515] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
The objectives of the present study were: to compare the solubility and dialyzability of various iron fortificants (iron pyrophosphate, ferrous bis-glycinate, ferrous gluconate, ferrous lactate, ferrous sulfate) added, in the presence of ascorbic acid, to pasteurized milk samples produced under laboratory conditions; and to compare the solubility and dialyzability of iron in commercial pasteurized, UHT and condensed milk products available in the Greek market fortified with various vitamins and minerals including iron and targeted towards infants (6-12 months old) and toddlers. Iron solubility and dialyzability were determined using a simulated gastrointestinal digestive system. Ferrous dialyzable iron (molecular weight lower than 8000) was used as an index for prediction of iron bioavailability. Ferrous dialyzable iron in pasteurized milk samples fortified with iron pyrophosphate, ferrous lactate and ferrous bis-glycinate was higher (P < 0.05) than that in milk samples fortified with ferrous sulfate and ferrous gluconate. In commercial liquid pasteurized or UHT milk products, formation of ferrous dialyzable iron in products fortified with ferrous lactate was not different (P > 0.05) from those fortified with ferrous sulfate. Ferrous dialyzable iron in four condensed commercial milk products was higher (P < 0.05) than the corresponding values of the liquid UHT milk samples fortified with the same fortificant (ferrous sulfate). Ferrous dialyzable iron was higher (P < 0.05) in products targeted for infants compared with those targeted for toddlers. In conclusion, the type of iron source, milk processing and the overall product composition affect formation of ferrous dialyzable iron and may determine the success and effectiveness of iron fortification of milk.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria Kapsokefalou
- Department of Food Science and Technology, Agricultural University of Athens, Iera Odos, Athens, Greece.
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Davidsson L, Sarker SA, Jamil KA, Sultana S, Hurrell R. Regular consumption of a complementary food fortified with ascorbic acid and ferrous fumarate or ferric pyrophosphate is as useful as ferrous sulfate in maintaining hemoglobin concentrations >105 g/L in young Bangladeshi children. Am J Clin Nutr 2009; 89:1815-20. [PMID: 19403640 DOI: 10.3945/ajcn.2008.27353] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Non-water-soluble iron compounds have been reported to be less well absorbed than ferrous sulfate in young children, and concern has been raised about their usefulness as food fortificants. OBJECTIVE The objective was to evaluate the usefulness of ferrous fumarate and ferric pyrophosphate, compared with ferrous sulfate, in maintaining hemoglobin concentrations >105 g/L in Bangladeshi children. DESIGN Two hundred thirty-five children aged 7-24 mo (hemoglobin >105 g/L) were randomly assigned in a double-blind study to receive an infant cereal fortified with ferrous fumarate, ferric pyrophosphate, or ferrous sulfate. One serving of cereal (9.3 mg Fe; molar ratio of ascorbic acid to iron of 3:1) was consumed per day, 6 d/wk, for 9 mo. Blood samples were drawn at 4.5 and 9 mo. RESULTS Raw data were reformatted, and a "time to event" was calculated that corresponded to reaching the following thresholds: hemoglobin <105 g/L, plasma ferritin <12 microg/L, or plasma C-reactive protein >10 mg/L at baseline, 4.5 mo, or 9 mo. Data were censored when children did not reach the threshold or were lost to follow-up. A Kaplan-Meier approach was used to compare the 3 groups. No statistically significant differences were observed for hemoglobin <105 g/L (P = 0.943), plasma ferritin <12 microg/L (P = 0.601), or plasma C-reactive protein >10 mg/L (P = 0.508). CONCLUSIONS Contrary to earlier concerns, these results do not indicate differences in usefulness between water-soluble and non-water-soluble iron compounds in maintaining hemoglobin concentrations and preventing iron deficiency. These data will be important in the development of food-fortification strategies to combat anemia and iron deficiency in highly vulnerable population groups.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lena Davidsson
- Laboratory for Human Nutrition, Swiss Federal Institute of Technology, ETH Zentrum, Zurich, Switzerland.
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Muthayya S, Eilander A, Transler C, Thomas T, van der Knaap HCM, Srinivasan K, van Klinken BJW, Osendarp SJM, Kurpad AV. Effect of fortification with multiple micronutrients and n-3 fatty acids on growth and cognitive performance in Indian schoolchildren: the CHAMPION (Children's Health and Mental Performance Influenced by Optimal Nutrition) Study. Am J Clin Nutr 2009; 89:1766-75. [PMID: 19369376 DOI: 10.3945/ajcn.2008.26993] [Citation(s) in RCA: 69] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Fortification with multiple micronutrients has been shown to improve growth and cognitive performance among children in developing countries, but it is unknown whether higher concentrations are more effective than lower concentrations. OBJECTIVE We compared the effect of 2 different concentrations of a combination of micronutrients and n-3 (omega-3) fatty acids on indicators of growth and cognitive performance in low-income, marginally nourished schoolchildren in Bangalore, India. DESIGN In a 2-by-2 factorial, double-blind, randomized controlled trial, 598 children aged 6-10 y were individually allocated to 1 of 4 intervention groups to receive foods fortified with either 100% or 15% of the Recommended Dietary Allowance of micronutrients in combination with either 900 mg alpha-linolenic acid plus 100 mg docosahexaenoic acid or 140 mg alpha-linolenic acid for 12 mo. Anthropometric and biochemical assessments were performed at baseline and 12 mo. Cognitive performance was measured at baseline and at 6 and 12 mo. RESULTS The high micronutrient treatment significantly improved linear growth at 12 mo (0.19 cm; 0.01, 0.36) and short-term memory at 6 mo (0.11 SD; 0.01, 0.20) and was less beneficial on fluid reasoning at 6 (-0.10 SD; -0.17, -0.03) and 12 (-0.12 SD; -0.20, -0.04) mo than was the low micronutrient treatment, whereas no differences were observed on weight, retrieval ability, cognitive speediness, and overall cognitive performance. No significant differences were found between the n-3 treatments. CONCLUSIONS The high micronutrient treatment was more beneficial for linear growth than was the low micronutrient treatment. However, with some small differential effects, higher micronutrient concentrations were as effective as lower concentrations on cognitive performance. This trial was registered at clinicaltrials.gov as NCT00467909.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sumithra Muthayya
- Division of Nutrition, St John's Research Institute, St John's National Academy of Health Sciences, Bangalore, India.
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Pachón H, Stoltzfus RJ, Glahn RP. Chicken thigh, chicken liver, and iron-fortified wheat flour increase iron uptake in an in vitro digestion/Caco-2 cell model. Nutr Res 2008; 28:851-8. [DOI: 10.1016/j.nutres.2008.09.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/28/2008] [Revised: 09/08/2008] [Accepted: 09/11/2008] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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Does ascorbic acid supplementation affect iron bioavailability in rats fed micronized dispersible ferric pyrophosphate fortified fruit juice? Eur J Nutr 2008; 47:470-8. [DOI: 10.1007/s00394-008-0750-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2008] [Accepted: 10/07/2008] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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Paul KH, Dickin KL, Ali NS, Monterrosa EC, Stoltzfus RJ. Soy- and rice-based processed complementary food increases nutrient intakes in infants and is equally acceptable with or without added milk powder. J Nutr 2008; 138:1963-8. [PMID: 18806108 DOI: 10.1093/jn/138.10.1963] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Processed complementary foods (PCF) might mitigate several complementary feeding barriers in developing countries. Efficacy trials, however, have not shown substantial improvements in child growth, possibly due to inadequate formative research to assess acceptability and identify pitfalls. Milk powder might improve palatability of PCF but incurs a higher cost. We compared the acceptability of an instant soy-rice PCF without (SR) and with (SRM) milk powder. Best practices for formative evaluation of PCF are not established. We therefore compared findings from randomized trials of SR vs. SRM in 1-d sensory tests (n = 71 mother-infant dyads) vs. Trials of Improved Practices (TIPs), a 2-wk in-home mixed methods evaluation (n = 54 dyads). TIPs included interviews, disappearance rates, observations, and 24-h dietary recalls to assess acceptance, consumption of the 50 g/d ration, and impact on diet. Although mothers preferred SRM to SR in the sensory tests, children in the TIPs consumed >50 g/d of SR (87 +/- 9 g/d) and SRM (89 +/- 8 g/d) with no difference between the foods (P = 0.55). Despite some replacement of family food, energy (574 kJ/d; P < 0.001) and protein (19 g protein/d; P < 0.001) increased in both groups. Mothers' preferences for milk, more sugar in SR, and preparation with hot water were concerns raised in the sensory tests that proved insignificant in TIPs. However, TIPs uncovered new concerns of overconsumption and food safety. We found milk did not improve the acceptability of the soy-rice PCF and recommend TIPs as a useful tool for formative research of PCF interventions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Keriann H Paul
- Division of Nutritional Sciences, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA.
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Growth and activity of Bulgarian yogurt starter culture in iron-fortified milk. J Ind Microbiol Biotechnol 2008; 35:1109-15. [DOI: 10.1007/s10295-008-0389-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/04/2007] [Accepted: 06/13/2008] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
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Lynch S, Stoltzfus R, Rawat R. Critical review of strategies to prevent and control iron deficiency in children. Food Nutr Bull 2008; 28:S610-20. [PMID: 18297898 DOI: 10.1177/15648265070284s413] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/31/2023]
Abstract
Iron deficiency is prevalent in infants and young children in developing countries and is associated with adverse developmental outcomes. The routine provision of additional iron by food fortification or the use of iron supplements is generally recommended. The wisdom of this approach in regions where the transmission of Plasmodium falciparum malaria is perennial and intense is now being questioned, because a large trial in Pemba, Tanzania, demonstrated an increased risk of serious morbidity among children under the age of 3 years who were given routine daily iron and folic acid supplements. However, the results of a concurrent substudy suggest that the untoward effects occurred in children who were not iron deficient, and that iron deficiency itself is associated with an increased risk of severe morbidity that can be reduced by iron and folic acid supplementation. There is an urgent need for additional research to confirm these observations, to establish the role, if any, of the concurrent folic acid supplementation, to evaluate the risk of alternative methods for delivering iron that, on theoretical grounds, could be safer, and to establish the programmatic feasibility of targeting iron fortificants or supplements to iron-deficient children. It is evident that a single strategy for ensuring adequate iron nutrition in young children in different parts of the world is no longer likely to be satisfactory. Moreover, integration with other health-related strategies, particularly malaria control programs, will be essential.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sean Lynch
- Eastern Virginia Medical School, Norfolk, Virginia, USA.
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Hall RD, Brouwer ID, Fitzgerald MA. Plant metabolomics and its potential application for human nutrition. PHYSIOLOGIA PLANTARUM 2008; 132:162-75. [PMID: 18251858 DOI: 10.1111/j.1399-3054.2007.00989.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/07/2023]
Abstract
With the growing interest in the use of metabolomic technologies for a wide range of biological targets, food applications related to nutrition and quality are rapidly emerging. Metabolomics offers us the opportunity to gain deeper insights into, and have better control of, the fundamental biochemical basis of the things we eat. So doing will help us to design modified breeding programmes aimed at better quality produce; optimised food processing strategies and ultimately, improved (micro)nutrient bioavailability and bioefficacy. A better understanding of the pathways responsible for the biosynthesis of nutritionally relevant metabolites is key to gaining more effective control of the absence/level of presence of such components in our food. Applications of metabolomic technologies in both applied and fundamental science strategies are therefore growing rapidly in popularity. Currently, the world has two highly contrasting nutrition-related problems--over-consumption and under-nourishment. Dramatic increases in the occurrence of overweight individuals and obesity in developed countries are in staggering contrast to the still-familiar images of extreme malnutrition in many parts of the developing world. Both problems require a modified food supply, achieved through highly contrasting routes. For each, metabolomics has a future role to play and this review shall deal with this key dichotomy and illustrate where metabolomics may have a future part to play. In this short overview, attention is given to how the various technologies have already been exploited in a plant-based food context related to key issues such as biofortification, bioprotectants and the general link between food composition and human health. Research on key crops such as rice and tomato are used as illustration of potentially broader application across crop species. Although the focus is clearly on food supply, some attention is given to the complementary field of research, nutrigenomics, where similar technologies are being applied to understand nutrition better from the human side.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert D Hall
- Plant Research International, Business Unit Bioscience, PO Box 16, 6700 AA Wageningen, The Netherlands.
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Pachón H, Domínguez MRL, Creed-Kanashiro H, Stoltzfus RJ. Acceptability and safety of novel infant porridges containing lyophilized meat powder and iron-fortified wheat flour. Food Nutr Bull 2007; 28:35-46. [PMID: 17718010 DOI: 10.1177/156482650702800104] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Lyophilized meat powder with iron-fortified wheat flour can be used to produce an infant porridge with bioavailable iron, but its acceptability and safety are unknown. OBJECTIVE To evaluate the acceptability and safety of porridges containing lyophilized meat powder and iron-fortified wheat flour. METHODS Peruvian mothers' input was used to develop porridges without (no meat) and with meat powder (low or high chicken liver, low or high chicken thigh). Acceptability was determined by maternal hedonic scoring, 9-day infant intake, and videotape analysis of how well infants liked each porridge. Dry and cooked porridges and meat ingredients were tested for microorganisms; meats were tested for pesticides. RESULTS Mothers gave higher acceptability scores to the no-meat porridge, followed in order by low and high quantities of meat powder (e.g., mean +/- SD "taste"scores were 4.5 +/- 0.9 for the no-meat, 3.7 +/- 1.1 for the low-liver, and 3.3 +/- 1.1 for the high-liver porridges, p = .0001). Infants' porridge intake did not differ: 61.4 +/- 47.1 g of no-meat, 62.1 +/- 44.9 g of low-thigh, and 67.5 +/- 42.0 g of low-liver (p = .7), as supported by the video analysis. Microbiologic safety was acceptable except for marginally acceptable molds and yeasts in dry ingredients. No pesticide residues were detected. CONCLUSIONS Despite mothers' clear preference for no-meat porridges, infants consumed equal amounts of porridges with and without meat. Thus, if mothers can be convinced to feed the meat-containing porridges to the infants despite their own preferences, the infants will consume these porridges. The mold and yeast content of the porridge ingredients must be reduced.
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Affiliation(s)
- Helena Pachón
- Division of Nutritional Sciences, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York, USA.
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Kiskini A, Argiri K, Kalogeropoulos M, Komaitis M, Kostaropoulos A, Mandala I, Kapsokefalou M. Sensory characteristics and iron dialyzability of gluten-free bread fortified with iron. Food Chem 2007. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2006.05.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
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Kapsokefalou M, Kakouris V, Makris K, Galiotou-Panayotou M, Komaitis M. Oxidative activity and dialyzability of some iron compounds under conditions of a simulated gastrointestinal digestion in the presence of phytate. Food Chem 2007. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2005.12.037] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
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Faber M, Kvalsvig JD, Lombard CJ, Benadé AJS. Effect of a fortified maize-meal porridge on anemia, micronutrient status, and motor development of infants. Am J Clin Nutr 2005; 82:1032-9. [PMID: 16280435 DOI: 10.1093/ajcn/82.5.1032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 104] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Maize-meal porridge is used for infant feeding in many African countries, including South Africa. A low-cost, finely milled, maize-meal porridge was fortified with beta-carotene, iron, and zinc (100% of recommended dietary allowance), as well as ascorbic acid, copper, selenium, riboflavin, vitamin B-6, vitamin B-12, and vitamin E. OBJECTIVE We assessed whether the fortified porridge could reduce anemia and improve the micronutrient status and motor development of infants. DESIGN Infants aged 6-12 mo (n = 361) were randomly assigned to receive either the fortified or unfortified porridge for 6 mo. Primary outcomes were hemoglobin and serum retinol, zinc, and ferritin concentrations and motor development. Growth was assessed as a secondary outcome. Primary and secondary outcomes were assessed at baseline and 6 mo. RESULTS Two hundred ninety-two infants completed the study. The fortified-porridge group had an intervention effect of 9.4 microg/L (95% CI: 3.6, 15.1 microg/L) for serum ferritin and 9 g/L (95% CI: 6, 12 g/L) for hemoglobin concentrations. The proportion of infants with anemia decreased from 45% to 17% in the fortified-porridge group, whereas it remained >40% in the control group. The fortified-porridge group achieved on average 15.5 of the 25 motor development score items, whereas the control group achieved 14.4 items (P = 0.007). Serum retinol concentration showed an inconsistent effect, and no intervention effect was observed for serum zinc concentrations. CONCLUSIONS This low-cost fortified porridge can potentially have a significant effect in reducing anemia and improving iron status and motor development of infants in poor settings. The formulation needs some adjustment in terms of zinc fortification.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mieke Faber
- Nutritional Intervention Research Unit, Medical Research Council, Tygerberg, South Africa.
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Jaime-Perez JC, Herrera-Garza JL, Gomez-Almaguer D. Sub-optimal fetal iron acquisition under a maternal environment. Arch Med Res 2005; 36:598-602. [PMID: 16099345 DOI: 10.1016/j.arcmed.2005.03.023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/23/2004] [Accepted: 02/07/2005] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Iron deficiency acquired at an early age can lead to significant developmental alterations. To evaluate the need for an interventional trial, we determined the iron reserves of neonates born to a group of women from an urban disadvantaged group. The influence of maternal iron on newborn hemoglobin, birth weight, and height was also analyzed. Hemoglobin and serum ferritin (SF) concentrations were measured at delivery on 201 neonates and their mothers. Neonatal iron stores were considered deficient when the cord SF concentration was <12.0 microg/L, reduced if > or =12.0 but <30 microg/L, and replenished when > or =30 microg/L. The same cut-offs applied to maternal SF values. Cord SF in the study group was 81.2 +/- 63 microg/L. Following the criteria adopted for this study, three groups of neonates were identified. I: 13 (6.5%) were born with deficient iron stores, II: 15 (7.5%) had reduced iron stores, and III: 173 (86%) had normal levels of storage iron. Cord SF concentrations were 7.1 +/- 3.5, 19.9 +/- 4.4 and 92 +/- 60 microg/L, respectively. Cord hemoglobin did not differ among groups. Iron stores at birth were reduced when maternal stores were deficient, reflecting a limited fetal iron-acquisition capacity and the restrictive effect of gestational iron deficiency on the constitution of adequate fetal iron reserves. These findings support the need for an interventional trial on the study population. Hemoglobin, birth weight, and height did not correlate with fetal or maternal iron stores.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jose C Jaime-Perez
- Department of Hematology, School of Medicine and University Hospital Dr. Jose E. Gonzalez, Autonomous University of Nuevo Leon, Monterrey, Mexico.
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Interactive effects of iron and zinc on biochemical and functional outcomes in supplementation trials. Am J Clin Nutr 2005. [DOI: 10.1093/ajcn/82.1.5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 103] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
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Hoppe M, Hulthén L, Hallberg L. The relative bioavailability in humans of elemental iron powders for use in food fortification. Eur J Nutr 2005; 45:37-44. [PMID: 15864409 DOI: 10.1007/s00394-005-0560-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/27/2004] [Accepted: 02/18/2005] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Bioavailability data in humans of elemental iron powders is limited although elemental iron is a common form of iron when used as a fortificant. AIM OF THE STUDY The relative bioavailability (RBV) of seven elemental iron powders, five commercially available and two developmental are evaluated. In addition, one commercial electrolytic iron powder given with ascorbic acid (AA) was examined. METHODS Based on a validated method this double-blinded randomized crossover study included three groups of male blood donors (n = 3*16) who were served rolls fortified with different elemental iron powders or ferrous sulfate (FeSO(4)) nine weeks apart. Blood samples were drawn every hour for six hours. RBV was obtained by comparing the increase in serum iron concentration induced by the elemental iron with the increase induced by FeSO(4). RESULTS All elemental iron powders studied were significantly less well absorbed compared to FeSO(4). The electrolytic iron given with 50-mg AA was as well absorbed as FeSO(4) (molar ratio = 1:6, AA:Fe). The mean RBVs of the iron powders were: electrolytic (A-131, RBV = 0.65); electrolytic (Electrolytic, RBV = 0.59); carbonyl (Ferronyl, RBV = 0.58); H-reduced (AC- 325, RBV = 0.56); H-reduced (Hi-Sol, RBV = 0.50); carbonyl (CF, RBV = 0.37); reduced (Atomet 95SP, RBV = 0.36). The reduced iron was distinguished by having significantly lower RBV (0.36) although no significant overall ranking was possible. CONCLUSION Based on a validated method this doubleblinded cross-over study in humans showed that the evaluated elemental iron powders currently available for commercial use are significantly less well absorbed compared to FeSO(4). The results indicate that the reduced iron powder was absorbed to a lower extent compared to the other iron powders and only 36% compared to FeSO(4). Ascorbic acid seems to improve the bioavailability of elemental iron even though a rather low molar ratio is used. Thus, if confirmed, this enhancing effect of ascorbic acid on elemental iron when used as a fortificant could be used by co-fortifying them.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael Hoppe
- Department of Clinical Nutrition, Institute of Internal Medicine, Sahlgrenska Academy at Göteborg University, 40530, Göteborg, Sweden
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Gliguem H, Birlouez-Aragon I. Effects of Sterilization, Packaging, and Storage on Vitamin C Degradation, Protein Denaturation, and Glycation in Fortified Milks. J Dairy Sci 2005; 88:891-9. [PMID: 15738222 DOI: 10.3168/jds.s0022-0302(05)72755-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Monitoring the nutritional quality of dietetic milk throughout its shelf life is particularly important due to the high susceptibility of some vitamins to oxidation, and the continuous development of the Maillard reaction during storage. The objective of this paper was to evaluate the vitamin C content and protein modification by denaturation and glycation on fortified milk samples (growth milks) destined for 1- to 3-yr-old children. The influences of the sterilization process, formulation, packaging, and storage duration at ambient temperature in the dark were studied. Vitamin C degradation was particularly influenced by type of packaging. The use of a 3-layered opaque bottle was associated with complete oxidation of vitamin C after 1 mo of storage, whereas in the 6-layered opaque bottle, which has an oxygen barrier, the vitamin C content slowly decreased to reach 25% of the initial concentration after 4 mo of storage. However, no significant effect of vitamin C degradation during storage could be observed in terms of Maillard reaction, despite the fact that a probable impact occurred during sterilization. Furosine content and the FAST (fluorescence of advanced Maillard products and soluble tryptophan) index-indicators of the early and advanced Maillard reaction, respectively-were significantly higher in the in-bottle sterilized milk samples compared with UHT samples, and in fortified milk samples compared with cow milk. However, after 1 mo, the impact of storage was predominant, increasing the furosine level and the FAST index at similar levels for the differently processed samples. The early Maillard reaction developed continuously throughout the storage period.In conclusion, only packaging comprising an oxygen and light barrier is compatible with vitamin C fortification of milk. Furthermore, short storage time or low storage temperature is needed to retard vitamin C degradation, protein denaturation, and development of the Maillard reaction.
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Affiliation(s)
- H Gliguem
- Institut National Agronomique Paris-Grignon, Laboratoire de Chimie Analytique, 16 rue Claude Bernard, 75231 Paris, France
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Abstract
A proposed nutrient composition for fortified processed complementary foods (FPCF) is developed based on the other papers in this publication, which consider a number of factors such as age range, daily ration size, recommended nutrient requirements, contribution of human milk to these requirements, macronutrient interactions, compound bioavailability, methods of production and overage. The proposed fortification levels are based on a daily ration size of 40 g for infants aged 6-12 mo and 60 g for children aged 12-23 mo. A desired protein-energy ratio of 6-10% is used to estimate energy from protein. The desired percentage of energy from lipid is estimated at 24% for infants aged 6-11 mo and 28% for children aged 12-23 mo, with the remaining energy to be supplied from carbohydrate. An FPCF should provide a quantity of iron sufficient to meet the Recommended Dietary Allowance in the form of dried ferrous sulfate of small particle size. Ascorbic acid, 70-140 mg for infants aged 6-11 mo and 50-100 mg for children aged 12-23 mo, will enhance iron absorption. Because of the lower bioavailability of zinc in cereal-based diets in developing countries, 4-5 mg of zinc in the form of zinc oxide is recommended. Proposed fortification levels are also provided for copper, calcium, vitamin D, magnesium, phosphorus, vitamin A, the B vitamins and iodine. To prevent micronutrient losses, it is recommended that the FPCF be precooked. The knowledge base to develop an FPCF is quite limited, and much additional research is needed before an optimal formulation can be recommended.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chessa K Lutter
- Nutrition Unit, Pan American Health Organization, Washington DC 20037, USA.
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