Transition from East to West: Vietnamese adolescents and their parents

Cultural variation in temporal associations among somatic complaints, anxiety, and depressive symptoms in adolescence

OBJECTIVE

Different domains of internalizing symptoms (somatic, anxiety, depressive) often occur concurrently, suggesting that they may share common etiology. In longitudinal analyses of internalizing among youth, anxiety is often found to precede depression. However, relatively few studies have also assessed how somatic problems, the third symptom domain, are involved in longitudinal patterns of internalizing. In addition, temporal relations among internalizing symptom domains may vary by cultural group as somatic symptoms are posited to be a more culturally-normative way of communicating or experiencing distress in non-Western, interdependent cultures. Thus, the present study examined longitudinal relations among these three internalizing symptom domains in three ethnocultural adolescent samples.

METHODS

304 European American, 420 Vietnamese American, and 717 Vietnamese adolescents' self-reported internalizing symptoms (somatic, anxiety, depressive) were assessed at three time points, spaced three months apart, using multigroup cross-lagged path analysis.

RESULTS

Anxiety symptoms consistently predicted increases in depressive symptoms in European American adolescents. In contrast, for Vietnamese and Vietnamese American adolescents, the most consistent relation was with somatic complaints predicting increases in anxiety. Anxiety and depressive symptoms bidirectionally predicted each other among the Vietnamese and Vietnamese American adolescents.

CONCLUSIONS

Cultural group differences were evident in the temporal course of internalizing symptoms. The pattern of results have implications for culturally relevant intervention targets, during a developmental period of risk for internalizing disorders.

Intergenerational gaps in Mexican American values trajectories: Associations with parent-adolescent conflict and adolescent psychopathology

Growth mixture modeling with a sample of 749 Mexican heritage families identified parallel trajectories of adolescents' and their mothers' heritage cultural values and parallel trajectories of adolescents' and their fathers' heritage cultural values from Grades 5 to 10. Parallel trajectory profiles were then used to test cultural gap-distress theory that predicts increased parent-adolescent conflict and adolescent psychopathology over time when adolescents become less aligned with Mexican heritage values compared to their parents. Six similar parallel profiles were identified for the mother-youth and father-youth dyads, but only one of the six was consistent with the hypothesized problem gap pattern in which adolescents' values were declining over time to become more discrepant from their parents. When compared to families in the other trajectory groups as a whole, mothers in the mother-adolescent problem gap trajectory group reported higher levels of mother-adolescent conflict in the 10th grade that accounted for subsequent increases in internalizing and externalizing symptoms assessed in 12th grade. Although the findings provided some support for cultural gap-distress predictions, they were not replicated with adolescent report of conflict nor with the father-adolescent trajectory group analyses. Exploratory pairwise comparisons between all six mother-adolescent trajectory groups revealed additional differences that qualified and extended these findings.

A Three-Generation Study of Acculturation and Identity of the Russian Minority in the Republic of North Ossetia–Alania

This article examines relationships between social identities and acculturation strategies of Russians (the ethnic minority) in the Republic of North Ossetia–Alania (RNO-A). The sample included 109 grandparent–parent–adolescent triads from ethnically Russian families ( N = 327). We assessed acculturation strategies, ethnic and national identities (identification with the Russian Federation), republican identity (with the RNO-A), regional identity (with North Caucasus), and religious identity. EFA combined five identities in two factors, labeled Russian ethnocultural identity (comprising ethnic, national, and religious identities) and North-Caucasian regional identity (comprising identities involving the republic and region). The means of the identity factors remained remarkably stable across generations, with a somewhat stronger Russian ethnocultural identity. A structural equation model revealed that Russian ethnocultural identity was a negative predictor of assimilation (the least preferred acculturation strategy), whereas North-Caucasian regional identity was a positive predictor of integration (the most preferred strategy) in all generations. We concluded that Russian ethnocultural identity is important for maintaining the heritage culture whereas North-Caucasian regional identity promotes participation of ethnic Russians in the multicultural North-Ossetian society.

Cultural Differences in the Reciprocal Relations between Emotion Suppression Coping, Depressive Symptoms and Interpersonal Functioning among Adolescents

The current study examined the prospective relations between emotion suppression and maladjustment (i.e., depressive symptoms, family stress events, peer stress events, and family and peer support) among Vietnamese American (n = 372) and European American adolescents (n = 304). We found that at baseline Vietnamese Americans adolescents reported greater use of emotion suppression coping than European American adolescents. Multi-group structural equation modeling indicated that for European American teens emotion suppression was significantly related to increased depression symptoms and decreased quality of peer relationships. In contrast, for the Vietnamese Americans teens emotion suppression relations to later maladjustment was either nonsignificant or attenuated relative to the European American. These findings suggest ethnic group differences in both the utilization, and consequences and function of emotion suppression among Vietnamese American and European American adolescents.

Adolescents' stigma attitudes toward internalizing and externalizing disorders: Cultural influences and implications for distress manifestations

OBJECTIVE

This study examined predictors of stigma attitudes toward common youth emotional behavioral problems to test the hypothesis that interdependent cultural values would be associated with differential stigma towards externalizing versus internalizing disorders. Furthermore, we examined whether problem-specific stigma attitudes would predict adolescent's own self-reported manifestations of distress.

METHOD

1224 Vietnamese American and European American adolescents completed measures of social distance stigma attitudes in response to vignettes depicting youth with internalizing (depression, social anxiety, somatization) and externalizing (alcohol use, aggressive behaviors, delinquency) disorders. A subset of 676 youth also provided self-reports on their own adjustment prospectively over six months.

RESULTS

Measurement models revealed clear separation of negatively correlated factors assessing stigma toward externalizing versus internalizing problems. Values related to family interdependence were significantly associated with greater tolerance of internalizing disorders and lower tolerance of externalizing disorders. Stigma towards internalizing disorders was associated with lower concurrent self-reported internalizing symptoms, whereas stigma towards externalizing symptoms was associated with lower concurrent externalizing symptoms and greater decreases in externalizing symptoms over time.

CONCLUSIONS

The results of the study suggest that stigma attitudes are differentiated by problem type and may represent one cultural factor shaping distress manifestations.

The Acculturation Scale for Vietnamese Adolescents (ASVA): A bidimensional perspective

The purpose of this study was to develop an acculturation scale that: (1) empirically demonstrated the bidimensional model; and (2) that pertained to the concerns of Vietnamese adolescents. Altogether, 191 Vietnamese students (ages 10–23) were recruited from eight middle schools and high schools in Lansing, Michigan (USA). Based on responses from their questionnaires, results indicated that The Acculturation Scale for Vietnamese Adolescents (ASVA) demonstrated good reliability and validity overall. Confirmatory factor analyses also demonstrated support for the ASVA's two dimensions (Involvement in the Vietnamese Culture and Involvement in the US Culture) and four life-domains within each dimension (i.e., Group Interactions, Everyday Lifestyles, Family Orientation, and Global Involvements). The CFAs indicated that the ASVA's two-factor and four-factor structures achieved an excellent fit to the data and furthermore, that a bidimensional, two-factor model was superior to a unidimensional, bipolar one predominantly used in acculturation scales today. As such, this study demonstrated the utility of viewing acculturation from a two-dimensional framework; it also provided researchers a practical, 2D scale to use.

Refugee Trauma

Epidemiological studies and theoretical models of refugee trauma based on ethnographic, biomedical and sociopolitical perspectives have focused on a variety of cultural and ethnic groups since World War II. Subjective distress and problems in psychosocial functioning are influenced by individual, fam ily, cultural and social variables. Refugees are at risk for developing psychiatric illness resulting from pre-migration, migration and post-migration experiences. This paper reviews biological, psychological and sociocultural models for recog nizing, conceptualizing and treating the psychiatric problems of traumatized refugees. The treatment approach of the Oregon Indochinese Psychiatric Program is summarized.

Toward a more Complex Understanding of Acculturation and Adjustment

This study examined possible links between acculturation and adjustment in 182 Vietnamese youths living in a primarily Anglo-American community. Extending past work, the present research employed a more complex perspective on both acculturation—cast as separate levels of involvement in the native and host cultures—and adjustment—measured across personal (distress, depression, self-esteem), interpersonal (family relationships), and achievement (school grade point average) domains. Results indicated that, as expected, involvement in the U.S. culture predicted positive functioning across all three adjustment domains, and involvement in the Vietnamese culture predicted positive family relationships. Contrary to hypotheses, involvement in the Vietnamese culture related negatively to personal adjustment (i.e., distress). These findings are discussed in terms of the apparent complexities of the acculturation-adjustment link, particularly with regard to the utility of viewing acculturation from a two-dimensional framework and the need to consider the type of adjustment indices examined and the social contexts in which ethnic groups reside.

Acculturation and Stress

In this study, a model of migration contingencies and acculturative stress was developed on the basis of the acculturation model of Berry et al. and a similar model by Beiser. The study aimed at determining to what extent sociodemographic characteristics, the social context, premigration traumatic experiences, post migration acculturative experiences, acculturation attitudes, and degree of acculturation predict acculturative stress in the refugee family. The two-generation sample consisted of 159 young refugees born between 1969 and 1976 and 121 of their parents or caregivers. The results suggest that acculturation attitudes and degree of acculturation exert different and distinct influences on acculturative stress depending on gender and generation. Acculturation attitudes predicted the stress symptoms of adult females only; for the others in the sample, degree of acculturation was more important.

Similarities and Differences in Acculturation Among Mothers, Fathers, and Children in Immigrant Chinese Families

Similarities and differences in acculturation in multiple domains were evaluated among mothers, fathers, and children in 88 immigrant Chinese families in Canada. Parents and children differed most in host culture domains (public Canadian behaviors and private Canadian values) and were most similar in ethnic private domains (Chinese identity and values). Differences in the ethnic public domain (Chinese behaviors) were moderate. Unexpectedly, considerable mother-father differences were also evident across domains. The predictors of parent-child differences varied by domain. Differences in public domains were larger in mother-child dyads and in families with longer residence in Canada. Differences in ethnic private domains were larger in father-child dyads and in families characterized by less warmth. Findings are discussed in terms of the domain specificity of cultural transmission and the influence of immigrant parents in host versus ethnic dimensions.

Acculturation Gap And Family Adjustment

This study examined the impact of “acculturation gaps” on family adjustment of 115 adolescent refugees from the former Soviet Union and their parents. Acculturation and acculturation gaps were assessed with respect to the American and Russian culture and separately for identity, behavioral, and language competence dimensions of acculturation. Acculturation gaps were operationalized in two different ways in analyses: Difference scores were computed between parent and adolescent acculturation levels and used to predict family conflict and disagreement, and moderated regression analyses examined the main effects and interactions of parent and adolescent acculturation variables in predicting family conflict and disagreement. Results suggest the importance of some gaps for family discord, not others. In particular, gaps in American identity, American behavior, and Russian language were associated with greater family discord. Results also suggest the relative advantages of using the moderated regression approach to assess the impact of the acculturation gap and using bidirectional and multidimensional acculturation measures in acculturation gap research.

The Relationship between Self-Esteem and Parenting Style

Within Western cultures, self-esteem consistently has been demonstrated to be inversely related with parenting styles characterized by low levels of acceptance and high levels of overprotection (i.e., affectionless control). Although in traditional collectivist cultures there may be a preference for this parenting style, within a strong collectivist framework it is not thought to have a negative impact on self-esteem. However, for immigrant adolescents, the cultural context of collectivism may no longer support such a parenting style as adaptive, particularly because they tend to acculturate more quickly than their parents. To investigate this proposal, 118 Vietnamese Australian and 120 Anglo-Australian adolescents, aged 11 to 18 years, were recruited. They were administered the Coopersmith Self-Esteem Inventory; the Parental Bonding Instrument, an acculturation measure; and two subscales of Eysenck’s Personality Questionnaire. As expected, parenting characterized by high levels of overprotection and low levels of acceptance related negatively with self-esteem for both samples of adolescents.

Acculturation and Psychological Well-Being among Immigrant Adolescents in Finland

This study investigated the effects of acculturation on the psychological well-being of immigrant adolescents. The respondents were 11 to 20 years old, originally from the former Soviet Union, Turkey, Somalia, and Vietnam, and now living in Finland (N = 588). To gain an understanding of the complexity and specificity of the relationship between acculturation and psychological well-being, a large range of existing psychological well-being scales measuring acculturative stress, behavioral problems, self-esteem, life satisfaction, and sense of mastery were used as dependent variables. Most indices of psychological well-being were clearly and negatively related to perceived discrimination, and some of them were also positively related to second-language proficiency. In addition, the adolescents’ experiences of parental support and adherence to traditional family-related values promoted their psychological well-being. However, the impact of this adherence was found to depend on both the specific aspect of well-being measured and the specific family-related values in question.

Orthogonal versus linear models of acculturation among immigrant Chinese Canadians: A comparison of mothers, fathers, and children

A multidimensional model of acculturation was examined among 96 immigrant Chinese families living in Canada. All parents were foreign-born, as were 75% of children (average age 12). Each family member completed measures of cultural orientation (behavioural practices), identity, and cultural values. An orthogonal model of acculturation (e.g., host and ethnic culture affiliations are independent rather than linear) was clearly supported for fathers and children. For fathers and foreign-born children, greater involvement in Canadian culture was not associated with a diminishment of ethnic identity or values. For Canadian-born children, this involvement seemed to foster, rather than reduce, the endorsement of ethnic identity and traditional values. For mothers, ethnic and host cultural domains were modestly negatively correlated, providing less support for the orthogonal model. Results are discussed in relation to the conditions that may foster orthogonal versus linear models of acculturation.

Acculturation and social support in relation to psychosocial adjustment of adolescent refugees resettled in Australia

This study examined how different modes of acculturation and perceived social support are related to adolescent refugee psychosocial adjustment, as measured by global self-worth and peer social acceptance. The 83 participants, aged between 12 and 19 and now resident in Australia, were from the former Republic of Yugoslavia. Those who had the most positive attitudes toward both cultures obtained the highest ratings of self-worth and peer social acceptance. In contrast, those who had negative attitudes toward both cultures had the lowest scores on these measures of psychosocial adjustment. Results were consistent with the proposition that the effects of acculturation on adjustment are mediated by peer social support.

Adolescent-parent disagreements and life satisfaction in families from Vietnamese- and European-American backgrounds

The authors investigated the relationship between adolescent-parent differences in the endorsement of family obligations and adolescent life satisfaction, in families from two differing cultural backgrounds. Surveys were completed by 238 adolescents and their parents, including 135 European-American families and 103 Vietnamese-American families. We examined the relationship between discrepancies and life satisfaction and the moderating effect of cultural background on this relationship. Results showed that adolescent-parent discrepancies were a strong negative predictor of life satisfaction, across two groups that differ both culturally and demographically. The effect was not moderated by cultural background.

Acculturation and its implications on parenting for Chinese immigrants: a systematic review

PURPOSE

To systematically review and synthesize existing findings on acculturation and its implications on parenting for Chinese immigrants.

METHOD

Three electronic databases were searched for original research articles that examined acculturation and its influence on parenting in Chinese immigrants.

RESULTS

Twenty-two studies were included. Findings suggest that acculturation influences parenting beliefs, attitudes, and practices, as well as parent-child relationships among Chinese immigrants. Acculturation discrepancies between parents and children are associated with negative child outcomes.

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS

Further research is needed to better understand the relationships among acculturation and parenting perceptions, parent-child relationships, and parent-child acculturation discrepancies and associated child outcomes. In particular, longitudinal studies with larger samples and multiple methods are needed to suggest causal inferences and validate these relationships.

IMPLICATIONS FOR PRACTICE

Nurses are at the unique junction to identify these problems through interacting with individuals and families at the clinical and mental/community health levels.

Seeking balance between the past and the present: Vietnamese refugee parenting practices and adolescent well-being

This qualitative study examines the resources that Vietnamese refugee parents use in raising their adolescent youth in exile and how they, and their adolescents, regard their experiences of different parenting styles. The study is based on 55 semi-structured interviews and several focus groups performed with a small sample of Vietnamese refugee parents and their adolescent children. Three main themes from the interviews were identified: the role of the extended family and siblings in bringing up children; language acquisition and cultural continuity and, finally, religion and social support. Our findings suggest extended kin are involved in the raising of adolescent children, providing additional family ties and support. Parents regarded Vietnamese language acquisition by their youth as facilitating both communication with extended kin and cultural transmission. Several parents stressed the importance of religious community to socialising and creating a sense of belonging for their youth. Vietnamese refugee parents seek a balance between Vietnamese values and their close extended family social networks, and the opportunities in Norway to develop autonomy in pursuit of educational and economic goals. Together these parenting practices constituted a mobilization of resources in support of their youth. These findings may have important implications for future research on resiliency and the role of these strategies as protective factors mediating mental health outcomes. They may also have implications for treatment, in terms of the types of resources treatment can access and for prevention strategies that maximize key cultural resources for Vietnamese refugee youth.

Remote acculturation: The “Americanization” of Jamaican Islanders

Twenty-first century globalization forces of technology and trade transport cultures across territorial borders. Cultural exchange now occurs in the absence of first-hand continuous contact that accompanies population migration. We propose and test a modern type of acculturation— remote acculturation—associated with indirect and/or intermittent contact between geographically separate groups. Our findings uncover indicators of remote acculturation in behavior, identity, family values, intergenerational discrepancies, and parent–adolescent conflict among families from one culture (Jamaican Islanders) to a geographically separate culture (European American) that emulate traditional acculturation of emigrants from the same ethnic group (Jamaican Immigrants) now settled in that foreign nation (United States of America).

Parents and Children Only? Acculturation and the Influence of Extended Family Members among Vietnamese Refugees

The nuclear family is often the point of departure in much of the existing acculturation research on refugee youth and children of refugees. The influence of other extended family members appears to receive less attention in understanding acculturation processes and intergenerational perspectives. This qualitative study explores the influence of extended family members upon a small sample of Vietnamese refugee parents and their adolescents while they undergo acculturation through their long-term resettlement process in Norway. With repeated interviews over a time span of 3 years, we identified situations and processes in family life in which extended kin become particularly activated and influential. Vietnamese refugee families in Norway keep close contact with extended kin even in the face of geographical distance to kin remaining in Vietnam, or globally dispersed. Aunts, uncles, and cousins are experienced as significant persons in the lives of many adolescents. Additionally, birth order of parents can often influence relationship dynamics among siblings and siblings children. Extended kin surfaced as especially important and influential at critical stages and crisis situations in family life. Extended family, and in particular, parental siblings play important roles in the acculturation experience and family functioning of Vietnamese refugee families in Norway. This has important implications for the study of Vietnamese and other refugee and immigrant families in acculturation research.

Mental health of displaced and refugee children resettled in high-income countries: risk and protective factors

We undertook a systematic search and review of individual, family, community, and societal risk and protective factors for mental health in children and adolescents who are forcibly displaced to high-income countries. Exposure to violence has been shown to be a key risk factor, whereas stable settlement and social support in the host country have a positive effect on the child's psychological functioning. Further research is needed to identify the relevant processes, contexts, and interplay between the many predictor variables hitherto identified as affecting mental health vulnerability and resilience. Research designs are needed that enable longitudinal investigation of individual, community, and societal contexts, rather than designs restricted to investigation of the associations between adverse exposures and psychological symptoms. We emphasise the need to develop comprehensive policies to ensure a rapid resolution of asylum claims and the effective integration of internally displaced and refugee children.

Peer violence perpetration among urban adolescents: dispelling the myth of the violent immigrant

Researchers have found an inverse relationship between immigrant status and violence perpetration. Most studies have examined Mexican immigrants, and few have assessed immigration factors other than nativity. Additionally, the majority have focused on the most serious forms of violence despite the fact that moderate violence is more common. Using data from the 2008 Boston Youth Survey, we generated prevalence estimates of peer violence perpetration across immigration related factors, examined whether risk factors for peer violence differed by these variables, and explored the contribution of risk factors to peer violence perpetration. Recent immigrants had a significantly lower prevalence of peer violence compared to each other generations/time in U.S. group. Known risk factors for violence perpetration varied by generation/time in U.S.: compared to other groups, recent immigrants were less likely to have used substances, and were more likely earn A's and B's in school. Recent immigrants had a significantly lower risk of violence perpetration relative to U.S.-born (RR = 0.35, 95% CI: 0.19, 0.62). Adjusting for known risk factors did not attenuate differences in risk. While immigrant youth had a lower risk of peer violence, the protective effect was diminished among immigrants who had resided in the U.S. for >4 years. This pattern demonstrates that negative assimilation occurs within the first generation, not just across generations. Results suggest that perpetration of violence worsens with increased time in the U.S. Research is needed to identify factors that contribute to the acquisition of behaviors such as violence among recently arrived immigrant youth.

Paternal predictors of the mental health of children of Vietnamese refugees

BACKGROUND

Intergenerational transmission of trauma as a determinant of mental health has been studied in the offspring of Holocaust survivors and combat veterans, and in refugee families. Mainly negative effects on the children are reported, while a few studies also describe resilience and a possible positive transformation process. A longitudinal prospective cohort study of Vietnamese refugees arriving in Norway in 1982 reports a 23 years follow-up, including spouses and children born in Norway, to study the long-term effects of trauma, flight, and exile on the offspring of the refugees.

OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY

1. To study the association between the psychological distress of Vietnamese refugee parents and their children after 23 years resettlement.2. To analyse paternal predictors for their children's mental health.

METHODS

Information from one or both parents at arrival in 1982 (T1), at follow-up in 1985 (T2), and 23 years after arrival (T3) was included. The mental health was assessed by the Global Severity Index (GSI) of the self-report Symptom Check List-90-R (SCL-90-R) for parents (n = 88) and older children (age 19-23 yrs, n = 12), while children aged 4-18 (n = 94) were assessed using the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ).

RESULTS

Thirty percent of the families had one parent with a high psychological distress score ("probable caseness" for a mental disorder), while only 4% of the children aged 10 - 23 years were considered as probable cases. In spite of this, there was an association between probable caseness in children and in fathers at T3. A significant negative paternal predictor for the children's mental health at T3 was the father's PTSD at arrival in Norway, while a positive predictor was the father's participation in a Norwegian network three years after arrival.

CONCLUSIONS

Children of refugees cannot be globally considered at risk for mental health problems. However, the preceding PTSD in their fathers may constitute a specific risk for them.

Factors associated with parent-child (dis)agreement on child behavior and parenting problems in Chinese immigrant families

We examined familial and cultural factors predicting parent-child (dis)agreement on child behavior and parenting problems. Immigrant Chinese parents (89.7% mothers; M age = 44.24 years) and their children (62 boys; 57.9%) between the ages of 9 and 17 years (M = 11.9 years, SD = 2.9) completed measures of parent punitive behavior and child problems. Concordance in item profiles and discrepancies in overall problem levels were assessed. Overall, immigrant parents reported fewer child and parenting problems than did their children. Relationship closeness predicted less disagreement in ratings of child internalizing symptoms and punitive parenting. Parental acculturative stress and parent-child acculturation dissonance predicted more disagreement regarding internalizing problems. The findings highlight potential under-identification of internalizing problems among immigrant Chinese families that may be driven by acculturation processes.

Acculturation gaps in Vietnamese immigrant families: Impact on family relationships

Vietnamese immigrants in the United States face acculturation challenges involving the individual, family, and community. Experts suggest that immigrant family members acculturate at different rates resulting in an acculturation gap, which negatively influences family adjustment. In this study we examined the degree and patterns of acculturation differences between 104 first generation immigrant Vietnamese adolescents and their parents, and whether acculturation gap affected family relationships. Operationalizing the "gap" as both absolute value of differences in acculturation and interactions of parent and adolescent acculturation levels, we examined the impact of such gaps in Vietnamese and American language, identity, and behavioral acculturation on family relationships. Results revealed that family cohesion and satisfaction were predicted by gaps in Vietnamese identity acculturation, but not by gaps in other acculturation domains.

Dating and Sexual Attitudes in Asian-American Adolescents

Dating behaviors and sexual attitudes of Asian-American youth were examined in a cross-sectional, mixed-methods study in the context of adherence to Asian values, measured by the Asian Values Scale (AVS). In all, 31 Asian-American adolescents (age 14-18 years old) from a Houston community center were interviewed regarding dating behaviors and sexual attitudes. Almost three-fourth of adolescents dated without parental knowledge. Compared with adolescents with the lowestAVS scores, those with the highestAVS scores were significantly more likely to date without parental knowledge and date longer before sex. Many adolescents proceeded directly to single, steady, relationships. Parents permitted dating, as long as grades were maintained. Asian-American adolescents should be questioned about secret dating, sexual activity, and participation in other high-risk activities.

Voices of Asian American youth: important characteristics of clinicians and clinical sites

OBJECTIVE

The purpose of this work was to explore clinician and site characteristics that are important to Chinese and Vietnamese immigrant and first-generation youth.

METHODS

A 3-stage mixed qualitative-quantitative design consisting of exploratory focus groups, a survey, and explanatory focus groups was used to ensure that all of the ideas were generated, prioritized, and explained by youth. Adolescents of Chinese and/or Vietnamese descent and aged 13 to 18 years were recruited in community centers and schools. In stage 1, 55 adolescents in 8 focus groups shared their views on factors that attract or deter them from seeking care. In stage 2, youth responded to a survey including 27 teen-generated items regarding clinicians and sites. In stage 3, 87 teens in 11 groups explained the top-rated items and offered suggestions on how to meet their needs. All of the stages were conducted in English, Mandarin Chinese, and Vietnamese.

RESULTS

Most of the 245 survey respondents (77%) were born in Asia, and 70% had lived in the United States for <3 years. The 27 items were divided into 6 priority ranks by the marginal homogeneity test. Clinician cleanliness and experience shared first rank. Second rank was shared by Asian teens being treated like other teens, site cleanliness, clinician honesty, and clinician friendliness and attitude. The third rank was shared by respect, privacy, completeness, clinicians explaining their actions, and lower health care costs. Interspersed among ranks 5 and 6 were items specific to the needs of Asian youth: the clinician would offer more explanation because Asian families might not ask questions; the clinician would not assume that Asian teens are drug and sex free; the clinician would understand that Asian families may use traditional healing; the clinician would not assume that Asians do not know English; adolescents would not translate for parents; and the teen would be able to choose an Asian clinician. There was little variation in ratings by age, gender, ethnicity, or socioeconomic status. However, 11 of 27 items differed by acculturation. Examples include the greater importance ascribed by more acculturated youth to not being judged, to not having to translate, and to the clinician addressing behavioral issues. Acculturation also affected the youths' views regarding confidentiality and translation.

CONCLUSIONS

Asian American adolescents value the same concerns as all adolescents: respect, honesty, competency, cleanliness, privacy, and nonjudgmental service. However, they also have unique perspectives, and youth at varying levels of acculturation differ in some of their views.

Intergenerational Cultural Dissonance, Parent-Child Conflict and Bonding, and Youth Problem Behaviors among Vietnamese and Cambodian Immigrant Families

Intergenerational cultural dissonance (ICD)-a clash between parents and children over cultural values-is a frequent issue for Asian American youth. Using longitudinal data from the Cross Cultural Families Project, this study examines the mechanisms by which ICD contributes to problem behaviors, including whether ICD predicts parent-child conflict, whether parent-child conflict then has a direct effect on youth problem behavior, and whether positive bonding with parents mediates the effects of such conflict on youth problem behaviors among Vietnamese (n = 164) and Cambodian (n = 163) families with adolescents [average age = 15.2 years (SD = 1.05)]. The results from the path analyses show that, in both groups, ICD indirectly predicts problem behaviors by increasing parent-child conflict, which in turn weakens positive parent-child bonding. Interventions that target youths' perception of intergenerational cultural gaps, help them manage conflict, and help strengthen bonds with parents may prevent problem behaviors among Cambodian and Vietnamese families. This study contributes to inform how to effectively prevent problems and difficulties among these families.

Intergenerational discrepancies of parental control among Chinese American families: Links to family conflict and adolescent depressive symptoms

This study investigated how discrepancies between adolescents' and parents' endorsement of parental control contribute to adolescent depressive symptoms. Family conflict was hypothesized to mediate the link between parent-adolescent discrepancies and depressive symptoms. The sample consisted of 166 pairs of Chinese American adolescents and their parents. The results indicated that, as predicted, greater discrepancies between adolescents and their parents on parental control related to greater adolescent depressive symptoms. Furthermore, adolescent's perceived degree of family conflict partially mediated this relation. Both parents and adolescents are changing and adapting to their cultural contexts; some in synchrony and some not. Identifying areas where parents and adolescents diverge concerning values, behaviors, and beliefs, is an important avenue to understanding Chinese American adolescents' mental health.

Relations between parent-child acculturation differences and adjustment within immigrant Chinese families

The relations between parent and child acculturation and family and child adjustment were examined among 91 immigrant Chinese families in Canada with early adolescents (average age of 12). Acculturation was assessed in public (e.g., language use) and private (e.g., values) domains separately in Chinese and Canadian cultures. With one exception, interactions between parent and child acculturation in Canadian domains were unrelated to adjustment (conflict intensity, depressive feelings, and achievement motivation). Interactions in Chinese domains were more clearly associated with adjustment. Specifically, mother-child interactions in Chinese public domains and father-child interactions in the Chinese private domain predicted adjustment. In all interactions, when parents were strongly orientated toward Chinese culture, lower levels of Chinese orientation among children were associated with lower adjustment.

Individualism, Collectivism, and Delinquency in Asian American Adolescents

Although the study of delinquency has previously focused on identifying individual, family, peer, and social risk and protective factors, little empirical research has studied cultural factors and their relations to delinquency. In a large community sample of 329 Chinese, Cambodian, Laotian/Mien, and Vietnamese youths, individualism was positively related to, and collectivism negatively related to, self-reported delinquency, with partial mediation through peer delinquency (PD). Although the percentage of variance in delinquency attributable to individualism-collectivism was small compared to PD, it cannot be discounted as trivial. The results also supported the measurement and structural invariance of these associations across the 4 ethnic groups.

Family environment and emotional and behavioural symptoms in adolescent Cambodian Refugees: influence of time, gender, and acculturation

For young refugees, the turmoil of adolescence is exacerbated by the acculturation process that sometimes places them at odds with the traditional culture of their ethnic group. The family environment can affect how adolescents cross that pivotal period. This paper focuses on the influence of family environment, gender and acculturation on the mental health of young refugees from early to mid-adolescence. Sixty-seven Cambodian adolescents were followed up from early to mid-adolescence. The effects of the youths' acculturation level, gender, and family environment and structure on internalising and externalising symptoms were analysed through linear regression analyses. Family conflict tends to increase from early to mid-adolescence. The association between family environment and mental health changes over time and, overall, family environment is associated with externalisation whereas gender, acculturation level, and family structure influence internalisation. Cambodian girls and boys cope differently with the challenges of adolescence in the host country, adopting traditional strategies and borrowing new ones from the host culture. Family therapy may help the parents and their adolescents address this process of change, which is both a source of vulnerability and of fulfilment, and enhances the ability of the family to negotiate between the cultural worlds of the home and of the host countries.

Health-compromising behaviors among Vietnamese adolescents: the role of education and extracurricular activities

PURPOSE

To examine the prevalence of unhealthy behaviors among a cohort of Vietnamese adolescents in California; to examine the relationship between these behaviors and school-related variables (school performance, educational risk behaviors, higher-education aspirations, and participation in extracurricular activities); and to assess the differences that may exist between males and females with regard to these factors.

METHODS

We conducted telephone interviews with 783 Vietnamese adolescents, aged 12-17 years, recruited through telephone listings from four California counties where large Vietnamese populations reside: San Francisco, Santa Clara, Los Angeles, and Orange. Of the 783 completed interviews, 60.8% were conducted in English and 39.2% in Vietnamese. The main outcome measure is a health risk behavior scale that includes adolescents' reports of ever smoking a cigarette, sedentary vs. active lifestyle, consumption of fruits and vegetables, consumption of foods high in fat, ever drinking alcohol, and ever engaging in sexual behavior. Multiple regression analyses were employed to estimate the association among the demographic variables, acculturation, school performance, aspirations, extracurricular activities, and the overall health risk.

RESULTS

Females were significantly more sedentary than males. Over one-quarter (29%) of the females reported not having participated in vigorous physical activity on 3 or more days per week, compared with just 18% of the males. Most adolescents reported they had never tried cigarettes (84%), never used alcohol (77%), and never had sex (97%). Males were more likely than females to report a higher frequency of experimentation with smoking and drinking. Overall, school performance and participation in extracurricular activities were significantly related to the health risk behavior scale. Adolescents who demonstrated at least one educational risk (ever skipped school or ever sent out of the classroom) were more likely to engage in other risky behaviors. Also, older and more acculturated adolescents were at increased risk of engaging in health-compromising behaviors. Analysis by gender revealed that the variables age, educational risk, and chance of attending college were all related to health risk behavior for both males and females. Among the boys, those who reported achieving an average grade of B or better had a decreased risk of engaging in health-compromising behaviors; however, neither extracurricular activities nor acculturation was related to health-compromising behaviors in boys. Among the girls, the reverse was true: lack of participation in extracurricular activities was related to health-compromising behaviors, whereas grades were not a significant risk factor.

CONCLUSIONS

Among sampled Vietnamese adolescents in California, health risk behaviors are common and inversely related to some school performance indicators. Using these indicators to identify high-risk groups could allow targeted educational programs or interventions for the mitigation of health-compromising behaviors.

Intergenerational value discrepancies in immigrant and host-national families and their impact on psychological adaptation

This study investigated the relationship between intergenerational value discrepancies and psychological adaptation among adolescents with immigrant background (mean age=15.5 years) in Norway and Sweden. Results from two cohorts (parents and their children) of immigrant and host-national families in the two countries (n=574) indicated that immigrant adolescents on the whole neither differed from their host peers with respect to psychological adaptation nor on value discrepancies. Value discrepancies were weakly related to psychological adaptation. Results are discussed as to whether the findings may reflect a general phenomenon for all adolescents or specific to those with immigrant background.

East meets west: ethnic identity, acculturation, and conflict in Asian Indian families

This study examined the influence of the family on adolescents' acculturation, ethnic identity achievement, and psychological functioning. One hundred eighty American-born Asian Indian adolescents and one of their immigrant parents completed questionnaires assessing their acculturation, ethnic identity, and family conflict. Adolescents also completed anxiety and self-esteem measures. The results showed that parents' and adolescents' ratings of their self-identification and ethnic identity were positively associated. Parents who had a separated or marginalized style of acculturation reported higher family conflict than those who had an integrated or assimilated acculturation style. Adolescents reported higher self-esteem, less anxiety, and less family conflict when there was no acculturation gap between them and their parents. The findings suggest that how parents relate to their natal, as well as to the host, culture has direct effects on adolescents' ethnic identity achievement and their psychological functioning.

Personal goals and depression among Vietnamese American and European American young adults: a mediational analysis

The authors report preliminary findings supporting the utility of the self-concordance model (K. M. Sheldon & A. J. Elliot, 1999) as an alternative approach to studying depression among Vietnamese American (N = 121) and European American (N = 155) college students. The participants completed measures of personal goals, goal self-concordance, and depression. Compared with the European American participants, the Vietnamese American participants reported higher levels of depression and lower levels of goal self-concordance. According to mediational analyses, ethnicity no longer accounted for significant variance in depression after the authors statistically controlled for goal self-concordance.

Gender, ethnicity, and acculturation in intergenerational conflict of Asian American college students

This study examined differences in patterns of intergenerational conflict according to gender, ethnicity, and acculturation level of Asian American college students. A survey containing a measure of acculturation and intergenerational conflict was completed by 342 participants. A 2 (gender) x 5 (ethnicity) x 3 (acculturation) multivariate analysis of variance for the 3 subscales of the Intergenerational Conflict Inventory revealed significant F values for all 3 main effects, but none for the interactions. On the subscale of Dating and Marriage, male students reported less conflict than female students, and Japanese Americans reported less conflict than Chinese, Filipino, Korean, and Southeast Asian Americans. On the subscale of Family Expectations, Japanese Americans also reported less conflict than Koreans and Southeast Asians. On both of these and a 3rd subscale of Education and Career, the acculturated group reported lower conflict than both the low-acculturated and bicultural groups. The implications of these findings for research and practice are discussed.

Design and development of the European American values scale for Asian Americans

Existing instruments for measuring Asian American acculturation emphasize behavior acculturation to the exclusion of value acculturation. Most are based on the assumption that acquisition of European American behavior occurs simultaneously with the loss of Asian behavior. With the advent of the Asian Values Scale (AVS; B.S.K. Kim, D.R. Atkinson, & P.H. Yang, 1999), it is now possible to assess adherence to Asian cultural values. This article describes the development of a scale that can be used to measure Asian American adherence to European American values. The current scale, combined with the AVS, can be used to independently measure Asian American acculturation to European American values and enculturation in Asian values.