Faecal virome of healthy chickens reveals a large diversity of the eukaryote viral community, including novel circular ssDNA viruses

Detection and molecular characterization of chicken parvovirus and chicken megrivirus in layer breeders affected by intestinal dilatation syndrome

RESEARCH HIGHLIGHTS

IDS presented pathognomonic dilatation of the jejunum up to Meckel's diverticulum.IDS caused weight loss, decreased egg production, and increased culling and mortality.Chicken parvovirus (ChPV) was consistently detected through PCR assays.Chicken megrivirus (ChMV) was consistently detected through viral metagenomics.

Sequencing of historic samples provides complete coding sequences of chicken calicivirus from the United States

Here, we report the coding-complete genomic sequences of two chicken caliciviruses from US poultry flocks in 2003 and 2004. They show the same genomic organization as that of other members of the Bavovirus genus and have the highest nucleotide identity (~88%) with strains from clinically normal chickens from Germany in 2004 and Netherlands in 2019.

Interplay of poultry-microbiome interactions - influencing factors and microbes in poultry infections and metabolic disorders

1. The poultry microbiome and its stability at every point in time, either free range or reared under different farming systems, is affected by several environmental and innate factors. The interaction of the poultry birds with their microbiome, as well as several inherent and extraneous factors contribute to the microbiome dynamics. A poor understanding of this could worsen poultry heath and result in disease/metabolic disorders.2. Many diseased states associated with poultry have been linked to dysbiosis state, where the microbiome experiences some perturbation. Dysbiosis itself is too often downplayed; however, it is considered a disease which could lead to more serious conditions in poultry. The management of interconnected factors by conventional and emerging technologies (sequencing, nanotechnology, robotics, 3D mini-guts) could prove to be indispensable in ensuring poultry health and welfare.3. Findings showed that high-throughput technological advancements enhanced scientific insights into emerging trends surrounding the poultry gut microbiome and ecosystem, the dysbiotic condition, and the dynamic roles of intrinsic and exogenous factors in determining poultry health. Yet, a combination of conventional, -omics based and other techniques further enhance characterisation of key poultry microbiome actors, their mechanisms of action, and roles in maintaining gut homoeostasis and health, in a bid to avert metabolic disorders and infections.4. In conclusion, there is an important interplay of innate, environmental, abiotic and biotic factors impacting on poultry gut microbiome homoeostasis, dysbiosis, and overall health. Associated infections and metabolic disorders can result from the interconnected nature of these factors. Emerging concepts (interkingdom or network signalling and neurotransmitter), and future technologies (mini-gut models, cobots) need to include these interactions to ensure accurate control and outcomes.

2024 Smacoviridae family update: 59 new species in seven genera

Family Smacoviridae (order Cremevirales, class Arfiviricetes, phylum Cressdnaviricota) comprises viruses with small circular genomes of ~2300-3000 nt in length that encode at least two proteins, the rolling-circle replication associated protein (Rep) and the capsid protein (CP). Smacovirids have been discovered in fecal samples of various animals and display remarkable sequence diversity. Here, we provide an overview of the genomic properties of classified smacovirids and report on the latest taxonomy update in the family Smacoviridae. The family has been expanded by 59 new species in the genera Porprismacovirus (n = 25), Inpeasmacovirus (n = 1), Felismacovirus (n = 22), Drosmacovirus (n = 4), Dragsmacovirus (n = 2), Bovismacovirus (n = 4), and Bonzesmacovirus (n = 1) and currently includes 12 genera with 143 species officially recognized by the International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses (ICTV).

Gyrovirus: current status and challenge

Gyrovirus (GyV) is small, single-stranded circular DNA viruses that has recently been assigned to the family Anelloviridae. In the last decade, many GyVs that have an apparent pan-tropism at the host level were identified by high-throughput sequencing (HTS) technology. As of now, they have achieved global distribution. Several species of GyVs have been demonstrated to be pathogenic to poultry, particularly chicken anemia virus (CAV), causing significant economic losses to the global poultry industry. Although GyVs are highly prevalent in various birds worldwide, their direct involvement in the etiology of specific diseases and the reasons for their ubiquity and host diversity are not fully understood. This review summarizes current knowledge about GyVs, with a major emphasis on their morphofunctional properties, epidemiological characteristics, genetic evolution, pathogenicity, and immunopathogenesis. Additionally, the association between GyVs and various diseases, as well as its potential impact on the poultry industry, have been discussed. Future prevention and control strategies have also been explored. These insights underscore the importance of conducting research to establish a virus culture system, optimize surveillance, and develop vaccines for GyVs.

Diverse Circular DNA Viral Communities in Blood, Oral, and Fecal Samples of Captive Lemurs

Few studies have addressed viral diversity in lemurs despite their unique evolutionary history on the island of Madagascar and high risk of extinction. Further, while a large number of studies on animal viromes focus on fecal samples, understanding viral diversity across multiple sample types and seasons can reveal complex viral community structures within and across species. Groups of captive lemurs at the Duke Lemur Center (Durham, NC, USA), a conservation and research center, provide an opportunity to build foundational knowledge on lemur-associated viromes. We sampled individuals from seven lemur species, i.e., collared lemur (Eulemur collaris), crowned lemur (Eulemur coronatus), blue-eyed black lemur (Eulemur flavifrons), ring-tailed lemur (Lemur catta), Coquerel's sifaka (Propithecus coquereli), black-and-white ruffed lemur (Varecia variegata variegata), and red ruffed lemur (Varecia rubra), across two lemur families (Lemuridae, Indriidae). Fecal, blood, and saliva samples were collected from Coquerel's sifaka and black-and-white ruffed lemur individuals across two sampling seasons to diversify virome biogeography and temporal sampling. Using viral metagenomic workflows, the complete genomes of anelloviruses (n = 4), cressdnaviruses (n = 47), caudoviruses (n = 15), inoviruses (n = 34), and microviruses (n = 537) were determined from lemur blood, feces, and saliva. Many virus genomes, especially bacteriophages, identified in this study were present across multiple lemur species. Overall, the work presented here uses a viral metagenomics approach to investigate viral communities inhabiting the blood, oral cavity, and feces of healthy captive lemurs.

Metagenomic survey of viral diversity obtained from feces of piglets with diarrhea

Pigs are natural host to various zoonotic pathogens including viruses. In this study, we analyzed the viral communities in the feces of 89 piglets with diarrhea under one month old which were collected from six farms in Jiangsu Province of the Eastern China, using the unbiased virus metagenomic method. A total of 89 libraries were constructed, and 46937894 unique sequence reads were generated by Illumina sequencing. Overall, the family Picornaviridae accounted for the majority of the total reads of putative mammalian viruses. Ten novel virus genomes from different family members were discovered, including Parvoviridae (n = 2), Picobirnaviridae (n = 4) and CRESS DNA viruses (n = 4). A large number of phages were identified, which mainly belonged to the order Caudovirales and the family Microviridae. Moreover, some identified viruses were closely related to viruses found in non-porcine hosts, highlighting the potential for cross-species virus dissemination. This study increased our understanding of the fecal virus communities of diarrhea piglets and provided valuable information for virus monitoring and preventing.

Emerging and Novel Viruses in Passerine Birds

There is growing interest in emerging viruses that can cause serious or lethal disease in humans and animals. The proliferation of cloacal virome studies, mainly focused on poultry and other domestic birds, reveals a wide variety of viruses, although their pathogenic significance is currently uncertain. Analysis of viruses detected in wild birds is complex and often biased towards waterfowl because of the obvious interest in avian influenza or other zoonotic viruses. Less is known about the viruses present in the order Passeriformes, which comprises approximately 60% of extant bird species. This review aims to compile the most significant contributions on the DNA/RNA viruses affecting passerines, from traditional and metagenomic studies. It highlights that most passerine species have never been sampled. Especially the RNA viruses from Flaviviridae, Orthomyxoviridae and Togaviridae are considered emerging because of increased incidence or avian mortality/morbidity, spread to new geographical areas or hosts and their zoonotic risk. Arguably poxvirus, and perhaps other virus groups, could also be considered "emerging viruses". However, many of these viruses have only recently been described in passerines using metagenomics and their role in the ecosystem is unknown. Finally, it is noteworthy that only one third of the viruses affecting passerines have been officially recognized.

A Novel Dependoparvovirus Identified in Cloacal Swabs of Monk Parakeet (Myiopsitta monachus) from Urban Areas of Spain

The introduction of invasive birds into new ecosystems frequently has negative consequences for the resident populations. Accordingly, the increasing population of monk parakeets (Myiopsitta monachus) in Europe may pose a threat because we have little knowledge of the viruses they can transmit to native naïve species. In this study, we describe a new dependoparvovirus detected by metagenomic analysis of cloacal samples from 28 apparently healthy individuals captured in urban areas of Madrid, Spain. The genomic characterization revealed that the genome encoded the NS and VP proteins typical of parvoviruses and was flanked by inverted terminal repeats. No recombination signal was detected. The phylogenetic analysis showed that it was closely related to a parvovirus isolated in a wild psittacid in China. Both viruses share 80% Rep protein sequence identity and only 64% with other dependoparvoviruses identified in Passeriformes, Anseriformes, and Piciformes and are included in a highly supported clade, which could be considered a new species. The prevalence was very low, and none of the additional 73 individuals tested positive by PCR. These results highlight the importance of exploring the viral genome in invasive species to prevent the emergence of novel viral pathogenic species.

Establishing farm dust as a useful viral metagenomic surveillance matrix

Farm animals may harbor viral pathogens, some with zoonotic potential which can possibly cause severe clinical outcomes in animals and humans. Documenting the viral content of dust may provide information on the potential sources and movement of viruses. Here, we describe a dust sequencing strategy that provides detailed viral sequence characterization from farm dust samples and use this method to document the virus communities from chicken farm dust samples and paired feces collected from the same broiler farms in the Netherlands. From the sequencing data, Parvoviridae and Picornaviridae were the most frequently found virus families, detected in 85-100% of all fecal and dust samples with a large genomic diversity identified from the Picornaviridae. Sequences from the Caliciviridae and Astroviridae familes were also obtained. This study provides a unique characterization of virus communities in farmed chickens and paired farm dust samples and our sequencing methodology enabled the recovery of viral genome sequences from farm dust, providing important tracking details for virus movement between livestock animals and their farm environment. This study serves as a proof of concept supporting dust sampling to be used in viral metagenomic surveillance.

Virome in the cloaca of wild and breeding birds revealed a diversity of significant viruses

BACKGROUND

Wild birds may harbor and transmit viruses that are potentially pathogenic to humans, domestic animals, and other wildlife.

RESULTS

Using the viral metagenomic approach, we investigated the virome of cloacal swab specimens collected from 3182 birds (the majority of them wild species) consisting of > 87 different species in 10 different orders within the Aves classes. The virus diversity in wild birds was higher than that in breeding birds. We acquired 707 viral genomes from 18 defined families and 4 unclassified virus groups, with 265 virus genomes sharing < 60% protein sequence identities with their best matches in GenBank comprising new virus families, genera, or species. RNA viruses containing the conserved RdRp domain with no phylogenetic affinity to currently defined virus families existed in different bird species. Genomes of the astrovirus, picornavirus, coronavirus, calicivirus, parvovirus, circovirus, retrovirus, and adenovirus families which include known avian pathogens were fully characterized. Putative cross-species transmissions were observed with viruses in wild birds showing > 95% amino acid sequence identity to previously reported viruses in domestic poultry. Genomic recombination was observed for some genomes showing discordant phylogenies based on structural and non-structural regions. Mapping the next-generation sequencing (NGS) data respectively against the 707 genomes revealed that these viruses showed distribution pattern differences among birds with different habitats (breeding or wild), orders, and sampling sites but no significant differences between birds with different behavioral features (migratory and resident).

CONCLUSIONS

The existence of a highly diverse virome highlights the challenges in elucidating the evolution, etiology, and ecology of viruses in wild birds. Video Abstract.

The virome of the white-winged vampire bat Diaemus youngi is rich in circular DNA viruses

In the Neotropical region, the white-winged vampire bat (Diaemus youngi) is the rarest of the three species of vampire bats. This bat species feeds preferentially on bird blood, and there is limited information on the viruses infecting D. youngi. Hence, this study aimed to expand the knowledge about the viral diversity associated with D. youngi by sampling and pooling the lungs, liver, kidneys, heart, and intestines of all animals using high-throughput sequencing (HTS) on the Illumina MiSeq platform. A total of three complete and 10 nearly complete circular virus genomes were closely related to gemykrogvirus (Genomoviridae family), smacovirus (Smacoviridae family), and torque teno viruses (TTVs) (Anelloviridae family). In addition, three sequences of bat paramyxovirus were detected and found to be closely related to viruses reported in Pomona roundleaf bats and rodents. The present study provides a snapshot of the viral diversity associated with white-winged vampire bats and provides a baseline for comparison to viruses detected in future outbreaks.

Diverse Single-Stranded DNA Viruses Identified in Chicken Buccal Swabs

High-throughput sequencing approaches offer the possibility to better understand the complex microbial communities associated with animals. Viral metagenomics has facilitated the discovery and identification of many known and unknown viruses that inhabit mucosal surfaces of the body and has extended our knowledge related to virus diversity. We used metagenomics sequencing of chicken buccal swab samples and identified various small DNA viruses with circular genome organization. Out of 134 putative circular viral-like circular genome sequences, 70 are cressdnaviruses and 26 are microviruses, whilst the remaining 38 most probably represent sub-genomic molecules. The cressdnaviruses found in this study belong to the Circoviridae, Genomoviridae and Smacoviridae families as well as previously described CRESS1 and naryavirus groups. Among these, genomoviruses and smacoviruses were the most prevalent across the samples. Interestingly, we also identified 26 bacteriophages that belong to the Microviridae family, whose members are known to infect enterobacteria.

Poultry gut health - microbiome functions, environmental impacts, microbiome engineering and advancements in characterization technologies

The gastrointestinal tract (GIT) health impacts animal productivity. The poultry microbiome has functions which range from protection against pathogens and nutrients production, to host immune system maturation. Fluctuations in the microbiome have also been linked to prevailing environmental conditions. Healthy poultry birds possess a natural resistance to infection. However, the exploration of environmental impacts and other relevant factors on poultry growth and health have been underplayed. Since good performance and growth rate are central to animal production, the host-microbiome relationship remains integral. Prior to the emergence of metagenomic techniques, conventional methods for poultry microbiome studies were used and were low-throughput and associated with insufficient genomic data and high cost of sequencing. Fortunately, the advent of high-throughput sequencing platforms have circumvented some of these shortfalls and paved the way for increased studies on the poultry gut microbiome diversity and functions. Here, we give an up-to-date review on the impact of varied environments on microbiome profile, as well as microbiome engineering and microbiome technology advancements. It is hoped that this paper will provide invaluable information that could guide and inspire further studies on the lingering pertinent questions about the poultry microbiome.

Diverse single-stranded DNA viruses identified in New Zealand (Aotearoa) South Island robin (Petroica australis) fecal samples

The South Island robin (Petroica australis) is a small passerine bird endemic to New Zealand (Aotearoa). Although its population has declined recently and it is considered 'at risk,' little research has been done to identify viruses in this species. This study aimed to survey the diversity of single-stranded DNA viruses associated with South Island robins in a small, isolated population on Nukuwaiata Island. In total, 108 DNA viruses were identified from pooled fecal samples collected from 38 individual robins sampled. These viruses belong to the Circoviridae (n = 10), Genomoviridae (n = 12), and Microviridae (n = 73) families. A number of genomes that belong to the phylum Cressdnaviricota but are otherwise unclassified (n = 13) were also identified. These results greatly expand the known viral diversity associated with South Island robins, and we identify a novel group of viruses most closely related genomoviruses.

Metagenomic sequencing determines complete infectious bronchitis virus (avian Gammacoronavirus) vaccine strain genomes and associated viromes in chicken clinical samples

Infectious bronchitis virus (IBV, genus Gammacoronavirus) causes an economically important and highly contagious disease in chicken. Random primed RNA sequencing was applied to two IBV positive clinical samples and one in ovo-passaged virus. The virome of a cloacal swab pool was dominated by IBV (82% of viral reads) allowing de novo assembly of a GI-13 lineage complete genome with 99.95% nucleotide identity to vaccine strain 793B. In addition, substantial read counts (16% of viral reads) allowed the assembly of a near-complete chicken astrovirus genome, while lower read counts identified the presence of chicken calicivirus and avian leucosis virus. Viral reads in a respiratory/intestinal tissue pool were distributed between IBV (22.53%), Sicinivirus (Picornaviridae, 24%), and avian leucosis virus (37.04%). A complete IBV genome with 99.95% nucleotide identity to vaccine strain H120 (lineage GI-1), as well as a near-complete avian leucosis virus genome and a partial Sicinivirus genome were assembled from the tissue sample data. Lower read counts identified chicken calicivirus, Avibirnavirus (infectious bursal disease virus, assembling to 98.85% of segment A and 69.66% of segment B closely related to D3976/1 from Germany, 2017) and avian orthoreovirus, while three avian orthoavulavirus 1 reads confirmed prior real-time RT-PCR result. IBV sequence variation analysis identified both fixed and minor frequency variations in the tissue sample compared to its in ovo-passaged virus. Metagenomic methods allow the determination of complete coronavirus genomes from clinical chicken samples while providing additional insights in RNA virus sequence diversity and coinfecting viruses potentially contributing to pathogenicity.

A systematic review from basics to omics on bacteriophage applications in poultry production and processing

The growing human population is currently facing an unprecedented challenge on global food production and sustainability. Despite recognizing poultry as one of the most successful and rapidly growing food industries to address this challenge; poultry health and safety remain major issues that entail immediate attention. Bacterial diseases including colibacillosis, salmonellosis, and necrotic enteritis have become increasingly prevalent during poultry production. Likewise, outbreaks caused by consumption of undercooked poultry products contaminated with zoonotic bacterial pathogens such as Salmonella, Campylobacter and Listeria, are a serious public health concern. With antimicrobial resistance problem and restricted use of antibiotics in food producing animals, bacteriophages are increasingly recognized as an attractive natural antibacterial alternative. Bacteriophages have recently shown promising results to treat diseases in poultry, reduce contamination of carcasses, and enhance the safety of poultry products. Omics technologies have been successfully employed to accurately characterize bacteriophages and their genes/proteins important for interaction with bacterial hosts. In this review, the potential of using lytic bacteriophages to mitigate the risk of major poultry-associated bacterial pathogens are explored. This study also explores challenges associated with the adoption of this technology by industries. Furthermore, the impact of omics approaches on studying bacteriophages, their host interaction and applications is discussed.

A 2021 taxonomy update for the family Smacoviridae

The family Smacoviridae (order Cremevirales, class Arfiviricetes, phylum Cressdnaviricota) is comprised of viruses with small circular single-stranded DNA genomes of ~2.3-3 kb in length that have primarily been identified in fecal sample of various animals. Smacovirus genomes carry two genes in ambisense orientation encoding a capsid protein and a rolling-circle replication initiation protein, respectively. We have revised the taxonomy of the family by assigning 138 new genomic sequences deposited in GenBank to already established taxa as well as 41 new species and six new genera. Furthermore, we have adopted binomial species nomenclature, conforming to the "Genus + freeform epithet" format for all 84 species from 12 genera. The updated Smacoviridae taxonomy presented in this article has been ratified by the International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses (ICTV).

Ocurrence of rotavirus and picobirnavirus in wild and exotic avian from amazon forest

The present study reports the occurrence of rotavirus A (RVA), rotavirus D (RVD), rotavirus F (RVF), rotavirus G (RVG), and picobirnavirus (PBV) in fecal specimens of wild (n = 22), and exotic birds (n = 1) from different cities of Pará state. These animals were hospitalized at Veterinary Hospital of the Federal University of Pará, Brazil, in a period from January 2018 to June 2019. The animals exhibited different clinical signs, such as diarrhea, malnutrition, dehydration, and fractures. The results showed 39.1% (9/23) of positivity for RVA by RT-qPCR. Among these, one sample (1/9) for the NSP3 gene of T2 genotype was characterized. About 88.9% (8/9) for the VP7 gene belonging to G1, G3 equine like and G6 genotypes, and 55.5% (5/9) for the VP4 gene of P[2] genotype were obtained. In the current study, approximately 4.5% of the samples (1/23) revealed coinfection for the RVA, RVD and RVF groups. Furthermore, picobirnavirus (PBV) was detected in one of the 23 samples tested, and was classified in the Genogroup I. The findings represent the first report of RVA, RVD, RVF, RVG, and PBV genotypes in wild birds in Brazil, and due to wide distribution it can implies potential impacts of RVs, and PBVs on avian health, and other animals contributing to construction of new knowledge, and care perspectives.

Taxonomic updates for the genus Gyrovirus (family Anelloviridae): recognition of several new members and establishment of species demarcation criteria

The genus Gyrovirus was assigned to the family Anelloviridae in 2017 with only one recognized species, Chicken anemia virus. Over the last decade, many diverse viruses related to chicken anemia virus have been identified but not classified. Here, we provide a framework for the classification of new species in the genus Gyrovirus and communicate the establishment of nine new species. We adopted the 'Genus + freeform epithet' binomial system for the naming of these species.

Family Genomoviridae: 2021 taxonomy update

The family Genomoviridae (phylum Cressdnaviricota, class Repensiviricetes, order Geplafuvirales) includes viruses with circular single-stranded DNA genomes encoding two proteins, the capsid protein and the rolling-circle replication initiation protein. The genomes of the vast majority of members in this family have been sequenced directly from diverse environmental or animal- and plant-associated samples, but two genomoviruses have been identified infecting fungi. Since the last taxonomic update of the Genomoviridae, a number of new members of this family have been sequenced. Here, we report on the most recent taxonomic update, including the creation of one new genus, Gemytripvirus, and classification of ~420 new genomoviruses into 164 new species. We also announce the adoption of the "Genus + freeform epithet" binomial system for the naming of all 236 officially recognized species in the family Genomoviridae. The updated taxonomy presented in this article has been accepted by the International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses (ICTV).

The Gut Viral Metagenome Analysis of Domestic Dogs Captures Snapshot of Viral Diversity and Potential Risk of Coronavirus

The close relations between dogs (Canis lupus familiaris) and humans lay a foundation for cross species transmissions of viruses. The co-existence of multiplex viruses in the host accelerate viral variations. For effective prediction and prevention of potential epidemic or even pandemic, the metagenomics method was used to investigate the gut virome status of 45 domestic healthy dogs which have extensive contact with human beings. A total of 248.6 GB data (505, 203, 006 valid reads, 150 bp in length) were generated and 325, 339 contigs, which were best matched with viral genes, were assembled from 46, 832, 838 reads. In the aggregate, 9,834 contigs (3.02%) were confirmed for viruses. The top 30 contigs with the most reads abundance were mapped to DNA virus families Circoviridae, Parvoviridae and Herpesviridae; and RNA virus families Astroviridae, Coronaviridae and Picornaviridae, respectively. Numerous sequences were assigned to animal virus families of Astroviridae, Coronaviridae, Circoviridae, etc.; and phage families of Microviridae, Siphoviridae, Ackermannviridae, Podoviridae, Myoviridae and the unclassified phages. Further, several sequences were homologous with the insect and plant viruses, which reflects the diet and habitation of dogs. Significantly, canine coronavirus was uniquely identified in all the samples with high abundance, and the phylogenetic analysis therefore showed close relationship with the human coronavirus strain 229E and NL63, indicating the potential risk of canine coronavirus to infect humans by obtaining the ability of cross-species transmission. This study emphasizes the high detection frequency of virus harbored in the enteric tract of healthy contacted animal, and expands the knowledge of the viral diversity and the spectrum for further disease-association studies, which is meaningful for elucidating the epidemiological and biological role of companion animals in public health.

Feline Stool-Associated Circular DNA Virus (FeSCV) in Diarrheic Cats in China

Feline stool-associated circular DNA virus (FeSCV) is an unclassified circular replication-associated protein-encoding single-stranded (CRESS) DNA virus that was discovered in cats in Japan in 2018. Few studies on the genomic characteristics and prevalence of FeSCV have been conducted. To investigate whether FeSCV has been circulating in domestic cats in Guangdong, China, fecal samples were collected from cats with diarrhea in an animal hospital in 2018 to promote research on FeSCV. The FeSCV genome was obtained by PCR amplification and sequencing, and the detected virus was named PY4 (GenBank No. MT732515). The genome of PY4 was 2,034 nt in size, which was 12 nt smaller than the reported genome of Japanese FeSCV strains (KU7, KU8, KU9, KU14) (2,046 nt). The PY4 strain shared 95.1 ~ 95.5% homology with Japanese FeSCV strains. Notably, the Cap protein of PY4 was mutated at 15 amino acid sites, and the PY4 genome contained a unique open reading frame 3. In addition, there were two additional base insertions in the stem-loop structure of PY4, and the nucleotide homology of the spacer region was not high. A phylogenetic tree based on Rep proteins showed that PY4, Japanese FeSCVs and rodent stool-associated circular viruses (RodSCVs) clustered together, suggesting that they might share a similar origin in their phylogenetic evolution. In this study, samples collected in Guangzhou, China, in 2018 were subjected to an etiological investigation, and 20% (2/10) of the samples were positive for FeSCV. The ORFs, stem-loop structures, Cap proteins and intergenic region sequences of PY4 were significantly different from those reported in Japan. This is the first report of FeSCV in domestic cats with diarrhea in China, and further epidemiological studies are urgently needed to assess the impact of the virus on cats.

Identification and genomic characterization of emerging CRESS DNA viruses in thoroughbred horses in China

Multiple novel circular replication-associated protein (Rep)-encoding single stranded (CRESS) DNA viruses have been extensively identified in the feces of humans and animals. Here, we first detected CRESS DNA virus (named Horse-CRESS DNA-like virus, HCLV) in two fecal samples from 10 imported thoroughbred (TB) horses in the customs quarantine station in North Xinjiang province, China. Additionally, we found that this virus was not detected in local breeds (LBs) (0/41) and was found only in imported TB horses (2/73). We obtained the whole-genome sequences of four viruses (HCLV ALSK-3-4, ALSK-13-10, CJ-1-2, and CJ-13-1). Unlike Circovirus and Cyclovirus, whose genome sequences have 1700 to 2100 nucleotides (nt), these HCLVs have circular genome with 3503, 3504, 3485, 3491 nt, respectively and five major ORFs. The ORF1 gene encodes the Rep protein in HCLVs. Furthermore, the Rep protein of the four HCLVs share 23.3-84.8%, 21.6-27.4%, 23.7-27.2% amino acid identity with the corresponding reference viruses of Kirkoviruses, genus Circovirus, and genus Cyclovirus, respectively. Moreover, RCR domain, P-loop NTPase domains, and nonanucleotide motif (TAGTATTAC) of the HCLVs are similar to Circovirus and Cyclovirus. Phylogenetic analysis showed that the virus was grouped together with members in Kirkoviruses. These results suggest the HCLV probably entered Xinjiang province via the international trade of horses.

Near-Complete Genome Sequences of Five Siciniviruses from North America

Here, we report near-complete genome sequences of Sicinivirus from U.S. poultry flocks in 2003 to 2005 and Mexico in 2019. They show highest nucleotide identity (84.5 to 85.5%) with other members of the Sicinivirus genus. These sequences update knowledge on diversity and contribute to a better understanding of the molecular epidemiology of Sicinivirus.

Here, we report near-complete genome sequences of sicinivirus from U.S. poultry flocks in 2003 to 2005 and Mexico in 2019. They show highest nucleotide identity (84.5 to 85.5%) with other members of the Sicinivirus genus. These sequences update knowledge on diversity and contribute to a better understanding of the molecular epidemiology of sicinivirus.

In vitro transduction of antimicrobial resistance genes into Escherichia coli isolates from backyard poultry in Mexico

The transmission of multidrug-resistant pathogens and antimicrobial resistance genes is an emerging problem involving multiple factors (humans, domestic animals, wildlife). The aim of this study was to investigate the presence of Escherichia coli isolates with different antimicrobial resistance genes from backyard poultry and to demonstrate the in vitro transduction phenomenon of these genes between phages from migratory wild birds and poultry E. coli isolates. We collected 197 E. coli isolates from chickens, turkeys, and ducks in backyard production units (northern region of the State of Mexico). Isolates were resistant to ampicillin (80.7%), tetracycline (64.4%), carbenicillin (56.3%), and nalidixic acid and trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole (both, 26.9%). Moreover, the genes bla_TEM (56.3%), tetB (20.8%), tetA (19.2%), sulI (7.6%), sulII (10.1%), qnrA (9.6%), and qnrB (5.5%) were found. In vitro transduction using phages from migratory wild birds sampled in the wetland Chimaliapan (State of Mexico) was successfully achieved. It was possible to transduce qnrA, tetB, bla_TEM, and sulII genes to E. coli isolates from poultry. This is the first report that describes the transduction of antimicrobial resistance genes from phages of migratory wild birds to poultry and suggests the possible transmission in backyard production units.

A plate of viruses: Viral metagenomics of supermarket chicken, pork and beef from Brazil

A viral metagenomics study was conducted in beef, pork, and chicken sold in supermarkets from Southern Brazil. From chicken, six distinct gyroviruses (GyV) were detected, including GyV3 and GyV6, which for the first time were detected in samples from avian species, plus a novel smacovirus species and two highly divergent circular Rep-encoding ssDNA (CRESS-DNA) viruses. From pork, genomes of numerous anelloviruses, porcine parvovirus 5 (PPV5) and 6 (PPV6), two new genomoviruses and two new CRESS-DNA viruses were found. Finally, two new CRESS-DNA genomes were recovered from beef. Although none of these viruses have history of transmission to humans, the findings reported here reveal that such agents are inevitably consumed in diets that include these types of meat.

Occurrence and Role of Selected RNA-Viruses as Potential Causative Agents of Watery Droppings in Pigeons

The diseases with watery droppings (diarrhea and/or polyuria) can be considered some of the most severe health problems in domestic pigeons of various ages. Although they do not always lead to bird death, they can contribute to poor weight gains and hindered development of young pigeons and, potentially, to poor racing results in sports birds. The gastrointestinal tract disorders of pigeons may be of various etiology, but some of the causative agents are viral infections. This review article provides information collected from scientific reports on RNA-viruses belonging to the Astroviridae, Picornaviridae, and Coronaviridae families; the Avulavirinae subfamily; and the Rotavirus genus that might be implicated in such health problems. It presents a brief characterization, and possible interspecies transmission of these viruses. We believe that this review article will help clinical signs of infection, isolation methods, occurrence in pigeons and poultry, systemize and summarize knowledge on pigeon enteropathogenic viruses and raise awareness of the importance of disease control in pigeons.

Comparative Metagenomics of Palearctic and Neotropical Avian Cloacal Viromes Reveal Geographic Bias in Virus Discovery

Our understanding about viruses carried by wild animals is still scarce. The viral diversity of wildlife may be best described with discovery-driven approaches to the study of viral diversity that broaden research efforts towards non-canonical hosts and remote geographic regions. Birds have been key organisms in the transmission of viruses causing important diseases, and wild birds are threatened by viral spillovers associated with human activities. However, our knowledge of the avian virome may be biased towards poultry and highly pathogenic diseases. We describe and compare the fecal virome of two passerine-dominated bird assemblages sampled in a remote Neotropical rainforest in French Guiana (Nouragues Natural Reserve) and a Mediterranean forest in central Spain (La Herrería). We used metagenomic data to quantify the degree of functional and genetic novelty of viruses recovered by examining if the similarity of the contigs we obtained to reference sequences differed between both locations. In general, contigs from Nouragues were significantly less similar to viruses in databases than contigs from La Herrería using Blastn but not for Blastx, suggesting that pristine regions harbor a yet unknown viral diversity with genetically more singular viruses than more studied areas. Additionally, we describe putative novel viruses of the families Picornaviridae, Reoviridae and Hepeviridae. These results highlight the importance of wild animals and remote regions as sources of novel viruses that substantially broaden the current knowledge of the global diversity of viruses.

Novel Gyrovirus genomes recovered from free-living pigeons in Southern Brazil

Wild birds carry a number of infectious agents, some of which may have pathogenic potential for the host and others species, including humans. Domestic pigeons (Columba livia) are important targets of study since these increasingly cohabit urban spaces, being possible spillover sources of pathogens to humans. In the present study, two genomes (PiGyV_Tq/RS/Br and PiGyV_RG/RS/Br), representative of Gyrovirus genus, family Anelloviridae, were detected in sera of free-living pigeons collected in Southern Brazil. The genomes exhibit less than 50% identity to previously described members of Gyrovirus genus, suggesting that they constitute a new viral species circulating in pigeons, to which the name "pigeon gyrovirus (PiGyV)" is proposed. The current study characterizes these two PiGyV genomes which, to date, are the first gyrovirus species identified in domestic pigeons.

Viral metagenomics in Brazilian Pekin ducks identifies two gyrovirus, including a new species, and the potentially pathogenic duck circovirus

Viral metagenomics coupled to high-throughput sequencing has provided a powerful tool for large-scale detection of known and unknown viruses associated to distinct hosts and environments. Using this approach, known and novel viruses have been characterized from sylvatic and commercial avian hosts, increasing our understanding of the viral diversity in these species. In the present work we applied an exploratory viral metagenomics on organs (spleen, liver and bursa of Fabricious) of Pekin ducks from Southern Brazil. The virome contained sequences related to a known duck pathogen (duck circovirus) and a number of other circular ssDNA viruses. Additionally, we detected avian gyrovirus 9 (to date detected only in human feces) and one new avian gyrovirus species, to which is proposed the name avian gyrovirus 13 (GyV13). This study is expected to contribute to the knowledge of the viral diversity in Pekin ducks.

Fur Seal Feces-Associated Circular DNA Virus Identified in Pigs in Anhui, China

Fur seal feces-associated circular DNA virus (FSfaCV) is an unclassified circular replication-associated protein (Rep)-encoding single-stranded (CRESS) DNA virus that has been detected in mammals (fur seals and pigs). The biology and epidemiology of the virus remain largely unknown. To investigate the virus diversity among pigs in Anhui Province, China, we pooled 600 nasal samples in 2017 and detected viruses using viral metagenomic methods. From the assembled contigs, 12 showed notably high nucleotide acid sequence similarities to the genome sequences of FSfaCVs. Based on these sequences, a full-length genome sequence of the virus was then obtained using overlapping PCR and sequencing, and the virus was designated as FSfaCV-CHN (GenBank No. MK462122). This virus shared 91.3% and 90.9% genome-wide nucleotide sequence similarities with the New Zealand fur seal strain FSfaCV-as50 and the Japanese pig strain FSfaCV-JPN1, respectively. It also clustered with the two previously identified FSfaCVs in a unique branch in the phylogenetic tree based on the open reading frame 2 (ORF2), Rep-coding gene, and the genome of the reference CRESS DNA viruses. Further epidemiological investigation using samples collected in 2018 showed that the overall positive rate for the virus was 56.4% (111/197) in Anhui Province. This is the first report of FSfaCVs identified in pigs in China, and further epidemiological studies are warranted to evaluate the influence of the virus on pigs.

Viral metagenomic analysis of chickens with runting-stunting syndrome in the Republic of Korea

BACKGROUND AND AIMS

Runting-stunting syndrome (RSS) in chickens, also known as malabsorption syndrome, which is characterized by mild to severe enteritis and diagnosed through typical histopathologic examination as well as clinical signs, results in considerable economic losses. Despite the many studies carried out over decades to determine the etiologic agents of RSS involved in the disease, several outbreaks remained without the elucidation of, potentially multiple, etiologies involved.

METHODS

We performed comparative analysis of viral metagenomes from four chicken flocks affected with RSS using next-generation sequencing. Primers for the detection of chicken enteric viruses were designed from the sequencing data obtained with metagenomics. Multiplex reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and PCR were performed to detect a variety of etiological agents previously described in natural cases of RSS.

RESULTS

The most abundant viral families identified in this study were Astroviridae, Picornaviridae, Parvoviridae, Caliciviridae, Reoviridae and Picobirnaviridae. Chicken astrovirus sequences were present in all four samples, suggesting an association between chicken astrovirus and RSS and chicken astrovirus as a candidate pathogen responsible for RSS. Picobirnavirus and the newly identified chapparvovirus were found in chickens in the Republic of Korea for the first time, and the genetic diversity of enteric viruses and viral communities was showed.

CONCLUSIONS

Chicken astrovirus was consistently detected in broilers affected with RSS and the result of this study may contribute to knowledge of enteric diseases and viruses in chickens.

Viral DNA genomes in sera of farrowing sows with or without stillbirths

A study was conducted to investigate the serum virome of sows with and without stillbirths after farrowing. Sera from sows with at least one stillbirth or with normal litters were collected immediately after farrowing. Viral DNA was extracted from serum pools and submitted to high throughput sequencing. No differences in the proportion of virus-related reads were found in both groups (p > 0.05). A variety of viral DNA genomes were identified, mostly representative of three viral families: Anelloviridae, Circoviridae and Smacoviridae. Besides, a number of novel unclassified circular Rep-encoding single stranded DNA (CRESS DNA) viruses were also identified. These findings suggest that the presence of such viral genomes in sows’ sera bears no correlation with stillbirths’ occurrence; it seems likely that these constitute part of the normal serum microbiome of sows at farrowing.

Virus Metagenomics in Farm Animals: A Systematic Review

A majority of emerging infectious diseases are of zoonotic origin. Metagenomic Next-Generation Sequencing (mNGS) has been employed to identify uncommon and novel infectious etiologies and characterize virus diversity in human, animal, and environmental samples. Here, we systematically reviewed studies that performed viral mNGS in common livestock (cattle, small ruminants, poultry, and pigs). We identified 2481 records and 120 records were ultimately included after a first and second screening. Pigs were the most frequently studied livestock and the virus diversity found in samples from poultry was the highest. Known animal viruses, zoonotic viruses, and novel viruses were reported in available literature, demonstrating the capacity of mNGS to identify both known and novel viruses. However, the coverage of metagenomic studies was patchy, with few data on the virome of small ruminants and respiratory virome of studied livestock. Essential metadata such as age of livestock and farm types were rarely mentioned in available literature, and only 10.8% of the datasets were publicly available. Developing a deeper understanding of livestock virome is crucial for detection of potential zoonotic and animal pathogens and One Health preparedness. Metagenomic studies can provide this background but only when combined with essential metadata and following the “FAIR” (Findable, Accessible, Interoperable, and Reusable) data principles.

Microbiota in viral infection and disease in humans and farm animals

The influence of the microbiota on viral infection susceptibility and disease outcome is undisputable although varies among viruses. The purpose of understanding the interactions between microbiota, virus, and host is to identify practical, effective, and safe approaches that target microbiota for the prevention and treatment of viral diseases in humans and animals, as currently there are few effective and reliable antiviral therapies available. The initial step for achieving this goal is to gather clinical evidences, focusing on the viral pathogens-from human and animal studies-that have already been shown to interact with microbiota. The subsequent step is to identify mechanisms, through experimental evidences, to support the development of translational applications that target microbiota. In this chapter, we review evidences of virus infections altering microbiota and of microbiota enhancing or suppressing infectivity, altering host susceptibility to certain viral diseases, and influencing vaccine immunogenicity in humans and farm animals.

Viral Metagenomics Revealed Sendai Virus and Coronavirus Infection of Malayan Pangolins (Manis javanica)

Pangolins are endangered animals in urgent need of protection. Identifying and cataloguing the viruses carried by pangolins is a logical approach to evaluate the range of potential pathogens and help with conservation. This study provides insight into viral communities of Malayan Pangolins (Manis javanica) as well as the molecular epidemiology of dominant pathogenic viruses between Malayan Pangolin and other hosts. A total of 62,508 de novo assembled contigs were constructed, and a BLAST search revealed 3600 ones (≥300 nt) were related to viral sequences, of which 68 contigs had a high level of sequence similarity to known viruses, while dominant viruses were the Sendai virus and Coronavirus. This is the first report on the viral diversity of pangolins, expanding our understanding of the virome in endangered species, and providing insight into the overall diversity of viruses that may be capable of directly or indirectly crossing over into other mammals.

Discovery and genetic characterization of diverse smacoviruses in Zambian non-human primates

The Smacoviridae has recently been classified as a family of small circular single-stranded DNA viruses. An increasing number of smacovirus genomes have been identified exclusively in faecal matter of various vertebrate species and from insect body parts. However, the genetic diversity and host range of smacoviruses remains to be fully elucidated. Herein, we report the genetic characterization of eleven circular replication-associated protein (Rep) encoding single-stranded (CRESS) DNA viruses detected in the faeces of Zambian non-human primates. Based on pairwise genome-wide and amino acid identities with reference smacovirus species, ten of the identified CRESS DNA viruses are assigned to the genera Porprismacovirus and Huchismacovirus of the family Smacoviridae, which bidirectionally encode two major open reading frames (ORFs): Rep and capsid protein (CP) characteristic of a type IV genome organization. The remaining unclassified CRESS DNA virus was related to smacoviruses but possessed a genome harbouring a unidirectionally oriented CP and Rep, assigned as a type V genome organization. Moreover, phylogenetic and recombination analyses provided evidence for recombination events encompassing the 3′-end of the Rep ORF in the unclassified CRESS DNA virus. Our findings increase the knowledge of the known genetic diversity of smacoviruses and highlight African non-human primates as carrier animals.

Discovery of novel astrovirus and calicivirus identified in ruddy turnstones in Brazil

Birds are the natural reservoir of viruses with zoonotic potential, as well as contributing to the evolution, emergence, and dissemination of novel viruses. In this study, we applied a high-throughput screening approach to identify the diversity of viruses in 118 samples of birds captured between October 2006 to October 2010 in the North and Northeast regions of Brazil. We found nearly complete genomes of novel species of astrovirus and calicivirus in cloacal swabs of ruddy turnstones (Arenaria interpres) collected in Coroa do Avião islet, Pernambuco State. These viruses are positive-sense single-stranded RNA with a genome of ~7 to 8 kb, and were designated as Ruddy turnstone astrovirus (RtAstV) and Ruddy turnstone calicivirus (RTCV), respectively. Phylogenetic analysis showed that RtAstV and RTCV grouped in a monophyletic clade with viruses identified from poultry samples (i.e., chicken, goose, and turkey), including viruses associated with acute nephritis in chickens. Attempts of viral propagation in monkey and chicken cell lines for both viruses were unsuccessful. Also, we found genomes related with viral families that infect invertebrates and plants, suggesting that they might be ingested in the birds' diet. In sum, these findings shed new light on the diversity of viruses in migratory birds with the notable characterization of a novel astrovirus and calicivirus.

Diverse single-stranded DNA viruses associated with honey bees (Apis mellifera)

Honey bees (Apis mellifera) research has increased in light of their progressive global decline over the last decade and the important role they play in pollination. One expanding area of honey bee research is analysis of their microbial community including viruses. Several RNA viruses have been characterized but little is known about DNA viruses associated with bees. Here, using a metagenomics based approach, we reveal the presence of a broad range of novel single-stranded DNA viruses from the hemolymph and brain of nurse and forager (worker divisions of labour) bees belonging to two honey bees subspecies, Italian (Apis mellifera linguistica) and New World Carniolan (Apis mellifera carnica). Genomes of 100 diverse viruses were identified, designated into three groupings; genomoviruses (family Genomoviridae) (n = 4), unclassified replication associated protein encoding single-stranded DNA viruses (n = 28), and microviruses (family Microviridae; subfamily Gokushovirinae) (n = 70). Amongst the viruses identified, it appears that nurses harbour a higher diversity of these viruses comparative to the foragers. Between subspecies, the most striking outcome was the extremely high number of diverse microviruses identified in the Italian bees comparative to the New World Carniolan, likely indicating an association to the diversity of the bacterial community associated with these subspecies.

Genomic Sequence of a Megrivirus Strain Identified in Laying Hens in Brazil

A new strain of chicken megrivirus was identified in fecal samples of layer chickens in a commercial flock in Minas Gerais, Brazil. It is most closely related to the family Picornaviridae, genus Megrivirus, species Melegrivirus A, and has an overall nucleotide identity of up to 85.1% with other megrivirus strains.

A new strain of chicken megrivirus was identified in fecal samples of layer chickens in a commercial flock in Minas Gerais, Brazil. It is most closely related to the family Picornaviridae, genus Megrivirus, species Melegrivirus A, and has an overall nucleotide identity of up to 85.1% with other megrivirus strains.

CRISPR analysis suggests that small circular single-stranded DNA smacoviruses infect Archaea instead of humans

Smacoviridae is a family of small (~2.5 Kb) CRESS-DNA (Circular Rep Encoding Single-Stranded (ss) DNA) viruses. These viruses have been found in faeces, were thought to infect eukaryotes and are suspected to cause gastrointestinal disease in humans. CRISPR-Cas systems are adaptive immune systems in prokaryotes, wherein snippets of genomes from invaders are stored as spacers that are interspersed between a repeated CRISPR sequence. Here we report several spacer sequences in the faecal archaeon Candidatus Methanomassiliicoccus intestinalis matching smacoviruses, implicating the archaeon as a firm candidate for a host. This finding may be relevant to understanding the potential origin of smacovirus-associated human diseases. Our results support that CRESS-DNA viruses can infect non-eukaryotes, which would mean that smacoviruses are the viruses with the smallest genomes to infect prokaryotes known to date. A probable target strand bias suggests that, in addition to double-stranded DNA, the CRISPR-Cas system can target ssDNA.

The intestinal virome of malabsorption syndrome-affected and unaffected broilers through shotgun metagenomics

Malabsorption syndrome (MAS) is an economically important disease of young, commercially reared broilers, characterized by growth retardation, defective feather development and diarrheic faeces. Several viruses have been tentatively associated to such syndrome. Here, in order to examine potential associations between enteric viruses and MAS, the faecal viromes of 70 stool samples collected from diseased (n = 35) and healthy (n = 35) chickens from seven flocks were characterized and compared. Following high-throughput sequencing, a total of 8,347,319 paired end reads, with an average of 231 nt, were generated. Through analysis of de novo assembled contigs, 144 contigs > 1000 nt were identified with hits to eukaryotic viral sequences, as determined by GenBank database. A number of known and unknown representatives of Adenoviridae, Anelloviridae, Astroviridae, Caliciviridae, Circoviridae, Parvoviridae, Picobirnaviridae, Picornaviridae and Reoviridae, as well as novel uncharacterized CRESS-DNA viruses, were identified. However, the distribution of sequence reads of viral genomes identified in diseased or healthy birds revealed no statistically significant differences. These findings indicate no association between the occurrence of MAS and enteric viruses. The viral genomes reported in the present study, including a variety of novel viruses, seem part of the normal intestinal microbiota of chickens.

Eukaryotic Circular Rep-Encoding Single-Stranded DNA (CRESS DNA) Viruses: Ubiquitous Viruses With Small Genomes and a Diverse Host Range

While single-stranded DNA (ssDNA) was once thought to be a relatively rare genomic architecture for viruses, modern metagenomics sequencing has revealed circular ssDNA viruses in most environments and in association with diverse hosts. In particular, circular ssDNA viruses encoding a homologous replication-associated protein (Rep) have been identified in the majority of eukaryotic supergroups, generating interest in the ecological effects and evolutionary history of circular Rep-encoding ssDNA viruses (CRESS DNA) viruses. This review surveys the explosion of sequence diversity and expansion of eukaryotic CRESS DNA taxonomic groups over the last decade, highlights similarities between the well-studied geminiviruses and circoviruses with newly identified groups known only through their genome sequences, discusses the ecology and evolution of eukaryotic CRESS DNA viruses, and speculates on future research horizons.

Virus-virus interactions and host ecology are associated with RNA virome structure in wild birds

Little is known about the factors that shape the ecology of RNA viruses in nature. Wild birds are an important case in point, as other than influenza A virus, avian samples are rarely tested for viruses, especially in the absence of overt disease. Using bulk RNA-sequencing ("meta-transcriptomics"), we revealed the viral diversity present in Australian wild birds through the lens of the ecological factors that may determine virome structure and abundance. A meta-transcriptomic analysis of four Anseriformes (waterfowl) and Charadriiformes (shorebird) species sampled in temperate and arid Australia revealed the presence of 27 RNA virus genomes, 18 of which represent newly described species. The viruses identified included a previously described gammacoronavirus and influenza A viruses. Additionally, we identified novel virus species from the families Astroviridae, Caliciviridae, Reoviridae, Rhabdoviridae, Picobirnaviridae and Picornaviridae. We noted differences in virome structure that reflected underlying differences in location and influenza A infection status. Red-necked Avocets (Recurvirostra novaehollandiae) from Australia's arid interior possessed the greatest viral diversity and abundance, markedly higher than individuals sampled in temperate Australia. In Ruddy Turnstones (Arenaria interpres) and dabbling ducks (Anas spp.), viral abundance and diversity were higher and more similar in hosts that were positive for influenza A infection compared to those that were negative for this virus, despite samples being collected on the same day and from the same location. This study highlights the extent and diversity of RNA viruses in wild birds and lays the foundation for understanding the factors that determine virome structure in wild populations.

Fecal virome composition of migratory wild duck species

The fecal virome comprises a complex diversity of eukaryotic viruses, phages and viruses that infect the host. However, little is known about the intestinal community of viruses that is present in wild waterfowl, and the structure of this community in wild ducks has not yet been studied. The fecal virome compositions of six species of wild dabbling ducks and one species of wild diving duck were thus analyzed. Fecal samples were collected directly from the rectums of 60 ducks donated by hunters. DNA and RNA virus particles were purified and sequenced using the MiSeq Illumina platform. The reads obtained from the sequencing were analyzed and compared with sequences in the GenBank database. Viral-related sequences from the Herpesviridae, Alloherpesviridae, Adenoviridae, Retroviridae and Myoviridae viral families showed the highest overall abundances in the samples. The virome analysis identified viruses that had not been found in wild duck feces and revealed distinct virome profiles between different species and between samples of the same species. This study increases our understanding of viruses in wild ducks as possible viral reservoirs and provides a basis for further studying and monitoring the transmission of viruses from wild animals to humans and disease outbreaks in domestic animals.

Avian parvovirus: classification, phylogeny, pathogenesis and diagnosis

Poultry parvoviruses identified during the early 1980s are found worldwide in intestines from young birds with enteric disease syndromes as well as healthy birds. The chicken parvovirus (ChPV) and turkey parvovirus (TuPV) belong to the Aveparvovirus genus within the subfamily Parvovirinae. Poultry parvoviruses are small, non-enveloped, single-stranded DNA viruses consisting of three open reading frames, the first two encoding the non-structural protein (NS) and nuclear phosphoprotein (NP) and the third encoding the viral capsid proteins 1 (VP1 and VP2). In contrast to other parvoviruses, the VP1-unique region does not contain the phospholipase A2 sequence motif. Recent experimental studies suggested the parvoviruses to be the candidate pathogens in cases of enteric disease syndrome. Current diagnostic methods for poultry parvovirus detection include PCR, real-time PCR, enzyme linked immunosorbent assay using recombinant VP2 or VP1 capsid proteins. Moreover, sequence-independent amplification techniques combined with next-generation sequencing platforms have allowed rapid and simultaneous detection of the parvovirus from affected and healthy birds. There is no commercial vaccine; hence, the development of an effective vaccine to control the spread of infection should be of primary importance. This review presents the current knowledge on poultry parvoviruses with emphasis on taxonomy, phylogenetic relationship, genomic analysis, epidemiology, pathogenesis and diagnostic methods.

New polyomavirus species identified in nutria, Myocastor coypus polyomavirus 1

A novel polyomavirus (PyVs) comprising 5,422 bp was identified by high-throughput sequencing (HTS) in pooled organs of nutria (Myocastor coypus). The new genome displays the archetypal organization of PyVs, which includes open reading frames for the regulatory proteins small T antigen (sTAg) and large T antigen (LTAg), as well as for the capsid proteins VP1, VP2 and VP3. Based on the International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses (ICTV) Polyomaviridae Study Group criteria, this genome comprises a new PyVs species for the Alphapolyomavirus genus and is putatively named "Myocastor coypus Polyomavirus 1" . The complete genome sequence of this Myocastor coypus Polyomavirus 1 (McPyV1) isolate is publically available under the GenBank accession no. MH182627.

Identification and genomic characterization of a novel CRESS DNA virus from a calf with severe hemorrhagic enteritis in China

In this study, a novel circular replication-associated protein (Rep)-encoding single stranded (CRESS) DNA virus was discovered in diarrheic sample of a calf with severe hemorrhagic enteritis. The virus, named Bo-Circo-like virus CH, has a circular genome with 3909 nucleotides (nt). Six putative open reading frames (ORFs) were identified, including Rep, capsid (Cap) and four proteins of unknown function. Both the genome size and the number as well as the organization of encoded ORFs, Bo-Circo-like virus CH is most closely related to Po-Circo-like virus 21 detected in pig faeces. A preliminary survey using specific primers for the Rep region showed that 5.3% (4/75) of diarrheic samples were positive for Bo-Circo-like virus, and all 42 healthy samples were negative. In conclusion, our results indicate that Bo-Circo-like virus CH may represent a new virus in bovine. Further investigation is needed to determine the relationship between the virus infection and diarrhea.