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Akhter S, Tasnim FM, Islam MN, Rauf A, Mitra S, Emran TB, Alhumaydhi FA, Khalil AA, Aljohani ASM, Al Abdulmonem W, Thiruvengadam M. Role of Th17 and IL-17 Cytokines on Inflammatory and Auto-immune Diseases. Curr Pharm Des 2023; 29:2078-2090. [PMID: 37670700 DOI: 10.2174/1381612829666230904150808] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/09/2023] [Revised: 06/21/2023] [Accepted: 07/24/2023] [Indexed: 09/07/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The IL-17 (interleukin 17) family consists of six structurally related pro-inflammatory cytokines, namely IL-17A to IL-17F. These cytokines have garnered significant scientific interest due to their pivotal role in the pathogenesis of various diseases. Notably, a specific subset of T-cells expresses IL-17 family members, highlighting their importance in immune responses against microbial infections. INTRODUCTION IL-17 cytokines play a critical role in host defense mechanisms by inducing cytokines and chemokines, recruiting neutrophils, modifying T-cell differentiation, and stimulating the production of antimicrobial proteins. Maintaining an appropriate balance of IL-17 is vital for overall health. However, dysregulated production of IL-17A and other members can lead to the pathogenesis of numerous inflammatory and autoimmune diseases. METHOD This review provides a comprehensive overview of the IL-17 family and its involvement in several inflammatory and autoimmune diseases. Relevant literature and research studies were analyzed to compile the data presented in this review. RESULTS IL-17 cytokines, particularly IL-17A, have been implicated in the development of various inflammatory and autoimmune disorders, including multiple sclerosis, Hashimoto's thyroiditis, systemic lupus erythematosus, pyoderma gangrenosum, autoimmune hepatic disorders, rheumatoid arthritis, psoriasis, psoriatic arthritis, ankylosing spondylitis, osteoarthritis, and graft-versus-host disease. Understanding the role of IL-17 in these diseases is crucial for developing targeted therapeutic strategies. CONCLUSION The significant involvement of IL-17 cytokines in inflammatory and autoimmune diseases underscores their potential as therapeutic targets. Current treatments utilizing antibodies against IL-17 cytokines and IL-17RA receptors have shown promise in managing these conditions. This review consolidates the understanding of IL-17 family members and their roles, providing valuable insights for the development of novel immunomodulators to effectively treat inflammatory and autoimmune diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Saima Akhter
- Department of Pharmacy, International Islamic University Chittagong, Chittagong 4318, Bangladesh
| | - Farhin Muntaha Tasnim
- Department of Pharmacy, International Islamic University Chittagong, Chittagong 4318, Bangladesh
| | - Mohammad Nazmul Islam
- Department of Pharmacy, International Islamic University Chittagong, Chittagong 4318, Bangladesh
| | - Abdur Rauf
- Department of Chemistry, University of Swabi, Swabi, Pakistan
| | - Saikat Mitra
- Department of Pharmacy, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Dhaka, Dhaka, 1000, Bangladesh
| | - Talha Bin Emran
- Department of Pharmacy, BGC Trust University Bangladesh, Chittagong 4381, Bangladesh
| | - Fahad A Alhumaydhi
- Department of Medical Laboratories, College of Applied Medical Science, Qassim University, Buraydah, Saudi Arabia
| | - Anees Ahmed Khalil
- University Institute of Diet and Nutritionals Sciences, Faculty of Allied Health Sciences, The University of Lahore, Lahore, Pakistan
| | - Abdullah S M Aljohani
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, College of Agriculture and Veterinary Medicine, Qassim University, Buraydah, Saudi Arabia
| | - Waleed Al Abdulmonem
- Department of Pathology, College of Medicine, Qassim University, Buraydah, Saudi Arabia
| | - Muthu Thiruvengadam
- Department of Crop Science, College of Sanghuh Life Science, Konkuk University, Seoul 05029, Republic of Korea
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Ni X, Li X, Hu B, Wang L. Chronic allergic asthma alters m6A epitranscriptomic tagging of mRNAs and lncRNAs in the lung. Biosci Rep 2022; 42:BSR20221395. [PMID: 36250525 DOI: 10.1042/BSR20221395] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/04/2022] [Revised: 10/14/2022] [Accepted: 10/14/2022] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
To evaluate the role of m6A methylation of mRNAs and long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs) in chronic allergic asthma. Transcriptome-wide N6-methyladenosine (m6A) changes in BALB/c mice were profiled using immunoprecipitated methylated RNAs with microarrays in lung with chronic allergic asthma. Gene ontology (GO) and KEGG analyses were conducted. Target genes were verified by methylated RNA immunoprecipitation and real-time polymerase chain reaction (PCR). Specifically, the mRNA levels of m6A writers (METTL3, METTL14, and WTAP), and readers and erasers (FTO and ALKBH5) were estimated by real-time PCR analysis, using the SYBR-green method. IL17RB mRNA was also evaluated by PCR. Hematoxylin and eosin (H&E) staining showed that the airway and lung tissues in mice in the asthma group had extensive infiltration of inflammatory cells around the bronchioles, blood vessels, and alveoli. The lungs of those allergic asthma mice showed altered m6A epitranscriptome, whereby 1369 mRNAs and 176 lncRNAs were hypermethylated, and 197 mRNAs and 30 lncRNAs were hypomethylated (>1.5-fold vs control). Also, compared with the control group, IL17RB mRNA in lung of the asthmatic group was significantly hypermethylated (P<0.01). In the asthma group, the mRNA and the protein level of METTL14 (the key methyltransferase) and ALKBH5 (the major demethyltransferase) were significantly decreased compared with the control group (P<0.01). Chronic allergic asthma alters the lung m6A epitranscriptome, suggesting functional implications in the pathophysiology of refractory asthma. Data support methylated IL17RB mRNA possibly becoming a new therapeutic target for chronic allergic asthma.
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Al-Nesf MAY, Abdesselem HB, Bensmail I, Ibrahim S, Saeed WAH, Mohammed SSI, Razok A, Alhussain H, Aly RMA, Al Maslamani M, Ouararhni K, Khatib MY, Hssain AA, Omrani AS, Al-Kaabi S, Al Khal A, Al-Thani AA, Samsam W, Farooq A, Al-Suwaidi J, Al-Maadheed M, Al-Siddiqi HH, Butler AE, Decock JV, Mohamed-Ali V, Al-Ejeh F. Prognostic tools and candidate drugs based on plasma proteomics of patients with severe COVID-19 complications. Nat Commun 2022; 13:946. [PMID: 35177642 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-022-28639-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/2020] [Accepted: 01/26/2022] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
COVID-19 complications still present a huge burden on healthcare systems and warrant predictive risk models to triage patients and inform early intervention. Here, we profile 893 plasma proteins from 50 severe and 50 mild-moderate COVID-19 patients, and 50 healthy controls, and show that 375 proteins are differentially expressed in the plasma of severe COVID-19 patients. These differentially expressed plasma proteins are implicated in the pathogenesis of COVID-19 and present targets for candidate drugs to prevent or treat severe complications. Based on the plasma proteomics and clinical lab tests, we also report a 12-plasma protein signature and a model of seven routine clinical tests that validate in an independent cohort as early risk predictors of COVID-19 severity and patient survival. The risk predictors and candidate drugs described in our study can be used and developed for personalized management of SARS-CoV-2 infected patients. Prognostic markers for patients with COVID-19 are of critical importance in determining the course of SARS-CoV-2 infection and patient handling. Here the authors determine and apply a prognostic proteomic panel for risk and drug prediction in the management of SARS-CoV-2 infected patients.
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Wu T, Ma H, He P, Zhang C, Wu Q. Interleukin-25 recognition by its unique receptor IL-17Rb via two discrete linear and cyclic epitopes. Chem Biol Drug Des 2021; 99:382-390. [PMID: 34873834 DOI: 10.1111/cbdd.13993] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/20/2021] [Revised: 11/17/2021] [Accepted: 12/01/2021] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Interleukin-17 (IL-17) is a family of pro-inflammatory cytokines and has been involved in the pathogenesis of chronic inflammatory and autoimmune diseases. The IL-17E, also known as IL-25, is a distinct member of this family that binds to its unique receptor IL-17Rb to induce the activation of nuclear factor kappa-light-chain enhancer of activated B cells. Here, we systematically examined the intermolecular recognition and association of IL-25 with IL-17Rb and demonstrated that the IL-25 primarily adopts two discrete linear and cyclic epitopes to interact with IL-17Rb. The two epitopes are separately located in the monomers 1 and 2 of IL-25 homodimer and cover sequences 125 DPRGNSELLYHN136 and 77 ELDRDLNRLPQDLY90 . They totally contribute 71.6% binding energy to the full-length IL-25. The linear epitope targets a site spanning over the extracellular fnIIID1 and fnIIID2 domains of IL-17Rb, while the cyclic epitope primarily binds at the fnIIID1 domain. In addition, we also found that the linear and cyclic epitopes are natively folded into ordered single-stranded and double-stranded conformations in IL-25 protein context, respectively, but would become largely disordered when splitting from the context to be free peptides, which, however, cannot bind effectively to IL-17Rb as them in the native state. In this respect, we extended the cyclic epitope to cover the whole IL-25 double-stranded region and added a disulfide bridge across its two strands at three selected anchor residue pairs. It is revealed that the disulfide-stapled peptides can be constrained into a native-like conformation and thus exhibit an improved binding potency to IL-17Rb as compared to their unstapled counterpart.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tao Wu
- Department of Cardiothoracic Surgery, The First Affiliated Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, China
| | - Huaijun Ma
- Department of Cardiac Surgery, Southwest Hospital, Third Army Medical University, Chongqing, China
| | - Ping He
- Department of Cardiac Surgery, Southwest Hospital, Third Army Medical University, Chongqing, China
| | - Cheng Zhang
- Department of Cardiothoracic Surgery, The First Affiliated Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, China
| | - Qingchen Wu
- Department of Cardiothoracic Surgery, The First Affiliated Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, China
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Xue T, Liu Y, Cao M, Zhang X, Fu Q, Yang N, Li C. Genome-wide identification of interleukin-17 (IL-17) / interleukin-17 receptor (IL- 17R) in turbot (Scophthalmus maximus) and expression pattern analysis after Vibrio anguillarum infection. Dev Comp Immunol 2021; 121:104070. [PMID: 33757802 DOI: 10.1016/j.dci.2021.104070] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/22/2020] [Revised: 03/09/2021] [Accepted: 03/09/2021] [Indexed: 05/22/2023]
Abstract
Interleukin-17 (IL-17) is a cytokine secreted by a variety of immune cells that plays an important role in host defense against pathogens. IL-17 usually activates downstream immune signaling pathway by binding to heterodimeric or homodimeric complex formed by IL-17 receptors (IL-17R). Describing the characteristics, tissue distribution of IL-17 and IL-17 receptor family members and their expression after pathogen infection will provide a reference for host defense against disease of turbot. In this study, six IL-17 family members and nine IL-17 receptor family members were identified by analyzing the turbot (Scophthalmus maximus) genome. Different from other vertebrates, most members of the IL-17 receptor family own two copies. Protein structure analysis showed that the six IL-17 family members contained typical "IL-17" domains, and the nine IL-17 receptor family members contained typical "SEFIR domain" or "IL17_R_N domain". Syntenic analysis revealed that all IL-17s and IL-17Rs were chromosomally conserved compared with other fish. The phylogenetic analysis further confirmed the evolutionary conservatism of different copies of IL-17C and IL-17Rs. Tissue distribution results showed that IL-17 and IL-17R genes were highly expressed in immune-related tissues. The expression of IL-17C and its receptor in the mucosal immune tissues after infection with V. anguillarum were analyzed subsequently, which were significantly increased in the skin. The results are consistent with previous studies showing that IL-17 and IL-17 receptor play an important role in promoting innate immune response.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ting Xue
- School of Marine Science and Engineering, Qingdao Agricultural University, Qingdao, 266109, China
| | - Yiping Liu
- School of Marine Science and Engineering, Qingdao Agricultural University, Qingdao, 266109, China
| | - Min Cao
- School of Marine Science and Engineering, Qingdao Agricultural University, Qingdao, 266109, China
| | - Xiaoyan Zhang
- School of Marine Science and Engineering, Qingdao Agricultural University, Qingdao, 266109, China
| | - Qiang Fu
- School of Marine Science and Engineering, Qingdao Agricultural University, Qingdao, 266109, China
| | - Ning Yang
- School of Marine Science and Engineering, Qingdao Agricultural University, Qingdao, 266109, China
| | - Chao Li
- School of Marine Science and Engineering, Qingdao Agricultural University, Qingdao, 266109, China.
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6
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Lokau J, Garbers C. Biological functions and therapeutic opportunities of soluble cytokine receptors. Cytokine Growth Factor Rev 2020; 55:94-108. [PMID: 32386776 DOI: 10.1016/j.cytogfr.2020.04.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/26/2020] [Accepted: 04/09/2020] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
Cytokines control the immune system by regulating the proliferation, differentiation and function of immune cells. They activate their target cells through binding to specific receptors, which either are transmembrane proteins or attached to the cell-surface via a GPI-anchor. Different tissues and individual cell types have unique expression profiles of cytokine receptors, and consequently this expression pattern dictates to which cytokines a given cell can respond. Furthermore, soluble variants of several cytokine receptors exist, which are generated by different molecular mechanisms, namely differential mRNA splicing, proteolytic cleavage of the membrane-tethered precursors, and release on extracellular vesicles. These soluble receptors shape the function of cytokines in different ways: they can serve as antagonistic decoy receptors which compete with their membrane-bound counterparts for the ligand, or they can form functional receptor/cytokine complexes which act as agonists and can even activate cells that would usually not respond to the ligand alone. In this review, we focus on the IL-2 and IL-6 families of cytokines and the so-called Th2 cytokines. We summarize for each cytokine which soluble receptors exist, were they originate from, how they are generated, and what their biological functions are. Furthermore, we give an outlook on how these soluble receptors can be exploited for therapeutic purposes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Juliane Lokau
- Department of Pathology, Otto-von-Guericke-University Magdeburg, Medical Faculty, Magdeburg, Germany
| | - Christoph Garbers
- Department of Pathology, Otto-von-Guericke-University Magdeburg, Medical Faculty, Magdeburg, Germany.
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Smith KA, Löser S, Varyani F, Harcus Y, McSorley HJ, McKenzie AN, Maizels RM. Concerted IL-25R and IL-4Rα signaling drive innate type 2 effector immunity for optimal helminth expulsion. eLife 2018; 7:38269. [PMID: 30238872 PMCID: PMC6173579 DOI: 10.7554/elife.38269] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/10/2018] [Accepted: 09/21/2018] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Interleukin 25 (IL-25) is a major 'alarmin' cytokine, capable of initiating and amplifying the type immune response to helminth parasites. However, its role in the later effector phase of clearing chronic infection remains unclear. The helminth Heligmosomoides polygyrus establishes long-term infections in susceptible C57BL/6 mice, but is slowly expelled in BALB/c mice from day 14 onwards. We noted that IL-25R (Il17rb)-deficient BALB/c mice were unable to expel parasites despite type 2 immune activation comparable to the wild-type. We then established that in C57BL/6 mice, IL-25 adminstered late in infection (days 14-17) drove immunity. Moreover, when IL-25 and IL-4 were delivered to Rag1-deficient mice, the combination resulted in near complete expulsion of the parasite, even following administration of an anti-CD90 antibody to deplete innate lymphoid cells (ILCs). Hence, effective anti-helminth immunity during chronic infection requires an innate effector cell population that is synergistically activated by the combination of IL-4Rα and IL-25R signaling.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katherine A Smith
- Cardiff Institute of Infection and Immunity, Cardiff University, Cardiff, United Kingdom.,Institute of Infectious Disease and Molecular Medicine, University of Cape Town, Cape Town, South Africa
| | - Stephan Löser
- Wellcome Centre for Molecular Parasitology, Institute of Infection, Immunity and Inflammation, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, United Kingdom
| | - Fumi Varyani
- MRC Centre for Inflammation Research, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
| | - Yvonne Harcus
- MRC Centre for Inflammation Research, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
| | - Henry J McSorley
- MRC Centre for Inflammation Research, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
| | | | - Rick M Maizels
- Wellcome Centre for Molecular Parasitology, Institute of Infection, Immunity and Inflammation, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, United Kingdom
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Han H, Roan F, Ziegler SF. The atopic march: current insights into skin barrier dysfunction and epithelial cell-derived cytokines. Immunol Rev 2018; 278:116-130. [PMID: 28658558 DOI: 10.1111/imr.12546] [Citation(s) in RCA: 176] [Impact Index Per Article: 29.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Atopic dermatitis often precedes the development of other atopic diseases. The atopic march describes this temporal relationship in the natural history of atopic diseases. Although the pathophysiological mechanisms that underlie this relationship are poorly understood, epidemiological and genetic data have suggested that the skin might be an important route of sensitization to allergens. Animal models have begun to elucidate how skin barrier defects can lead to systemic allergen sensitization. Emerging data now suggest that epithelial cell-derived cytokines such as thymic stromal lymphopoietin (TSLP), IL-33, and IL-25 may drive the progression from atopic dermatitis to asthma and food allergy. This review focuses on current concepts of the role of skin barrier defects and epithelial cell-derived cytokines in the initiation and maintenance of allergic inflammation and the atopic march.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hongwei Han
- Immunology Program, Benaroya Research Institute, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - Florence Roan
- Immunology Program, Benaroya Research Institute, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - Steven F Ziegler
- Immunology Program, Benaroya Research Institute, Seattle, WA, USA.,Department of Immunology, University of Washington School of Medicine, Seattle, WA, USA
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Ovsiy I, Riabov V, Manousaridis I, Michel J, Moganti K, Yin S, Liu T, Sticht C, Kremmer E, Harmsen MC, Goerdt S, Gratchev A, Kzhyshkowska J. IL-4 driven transcription factor FoxQ1 is expressed by monocytes in atopic dermatitis and stimulates monocyte migration. Sci Rep 2017; 7:16847. [PMID: 29203829 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-017-17307-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/22/2017] [Accepted: 11/22/2017] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Monocytes are actively recruited at sites of chronic inflammation. However, molecular factors involved in this process are not fully elucidated. Here, we show that cytokine IL-4 which is implicated in the development of chronic inflammatory disease atopic dermatitis (AD) induces expression of transcription factor FoxQ1 in human monocytes and macrophages. FoxQ1 mRNA levels were elevated in monocytes of AD patients compared to healthy donors. Overexpression of FoxQ1 in RAW 264.7 monocytic cells facilitated their migration towards MCP-1 and was associated with decreased expression of migration-regulating genes (claudin 11 and plexin C1). Furthermore, FoxQ1 overexpression in RAW cells accelerated TNFα secretion after LPS challenge. Overall, our results indicate that FoxQ1 stimulates monocyte motility, increases pro-inflammatory potential, and directs monocyte migration towards MCP-1 that is crucial for monocyte influx into inflammatory sites. This mechanism could contribute to the pathogenesis of chronic inflammatory disorders such as AD.
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Tworek D, Smith SG, Salter BM, Baatjes AJ, Scime T, Watson R, Obminski C, Gauvreau GM, O'Byrne PM. IL-25 Receptor Expression on Airway Dendritic Cells after Allergen Challenge in Subjects with Asthma. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2017; 193:957-64. [PMID: 26625138 DOI: 10.1164/rccm.201509-1751oc] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/19/2023] Open
Abstract
RATIONALE IL-25 is an epithelial-derived cytokine, whose effects are mediated by the IL-25 receptor (IL-17RB), and that has been implicated in the pathogenesis of allergic disease and airway viral responses. Airway myeloid dendritic cells (mDCs) and plasmacytoid dendritic cells (pDCs) are professional antigen-presenting cells. pDCs may play a protective role in asthma and are key players in the innate immune response through recognition of microbial products via Toll-like receptors (TLRs). The effects of inhaled allergens on the expression of IL-17RB by mDCs and pDCs, and the effects of IL-25 on pDCs, are unknown. OBJECTIVES To evaluate allergen-induced changes in IL-17RB expression by mDCs and pDCs and to investigate the effects of IL-25 on pDCs. METHODS Patients with mild atopic asthma (n = 13) were challenged with inhaled allergen. Blood and sputum DCs were enumerated and IL-17RB expression was determined by flow cytometry before and 7 and 24 hours after allergen challenge. The effects of IL-25 on pDCs in vitro were also assessed. MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS Inhaled allergen significantly increased mDC and pDC numbers in sputum but not in blood. The percentage of IL-17RB(+) mDCs and pDCs was significantly increased in blood and sputum 24 hours after challenge. IL-25 up-regulated TLR9 expression by pDCs and orchestrated the responses to TLR9 ligation. CONCLUSIONS IL-17RB is up-regulated on blood and sputum mDCs and pDCs after allergen inhalation. IL-25 modulates pDC function through an effect on TLR9 expression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Damian Tworek
- 1 Firestone Institute of Respiratory Health and the Department of Medicine, Michael G. DeGroote School of Medicine, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada; and.,2 Department of Internal Medicine, Asthma and Allergy, Medical University of Lodz, Lodz, Poland
| | - Steven G Smith
- 1 Firestone Institute of Respiratory Health and the Department of Medicine, Michael G. DeGroote School of Medicine, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada; and
| | - Brittany M Salter
- 1 Firestone Institute of Respiratory Health and the Department of Medicine, Michael G. DeGroote School of Medicine, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada; and
| | - Adrian J Baatjes
- 1 Firestone Institute of Respiratory Health and the Department of Medicine, Michael G. DeGroote School of Medicine, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada; and
| | - Tara Scime
- 1 Firestone Institute of Respiratory Health and the Department of Medicine, Michael G. DeGroote School of Medicine, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada; and
| | - Rick Watson
- 1 Firestone Institute of Respiratory Health and the Department of Medicine, Michael G. DeGroote School of Medicine, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada; and
| | - Caitlin Obminski
- 1 Firestone Institute of Respiratory Health and the Department of Medicine, Michael G. DeGroote School of Medicine, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada; and
| | - Gail M Gauvreau
- 1 Firestone Institute of Respiratory Health and the Department of Medicine, Michael G. DeGroote School of Medicine, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada; and
| | - Paul M O'Byrne
- 1 Firestone Institute of Respiratory Health and the Department of Medicine, Michael G. DeGroote School of Medicine, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada; and
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Senra L, Stalder R, Alvarez Martinez D, Chizzolini C, Boehncke WH, Brembilla NC. Keratinocyte-Derived IL-17E Contributes to Inflammation in Psoriasis. J Invest Dermatol 2016; 136:1970-1980. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jid.2016.06.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/03/2016] [Revised: 06/03/2016] [Accepted: 06/03/2016] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
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12
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Yin SY, Jian FY, Chen YH, Chien SC, Hsieh MC, Hsiao PW, Lee WH, Kuo YH, Yang NS. Induction of IL-25 secretion from tumour-associated fibroblasts suppresses mammary tumour metastasis. Nat Commun 2016; 7:11311. [PMID: 27089063 PMCID: PMC4837478 DOI: 10.1038/ncomms11311] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/21/2015] [Accepted: 03/10/2016] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Tumour-associated fibroblasts (TAFs), as a functionally supportive microenvironment, play an essential role in tumour progression. Here we investigate the role of IL-25, an endogenous anticancer factor secreted from TAFs, in suppression of mouse 4T1 mammary tumour metastasis. We show that a synthetic dihydrobenzofuran lignan (Q2-3), the dimerization product of plant caffeic acid methyl ester, suppresses 4T1 metastasis by increasing fibroblastic IL-25 activity. The secretion of IL-25 from treated human or mouse fibroblasts is enhanced in vitro, and this activity confers a strong suppressive effect on growth activity of test carcinoma cells. Subsequent in vivo experiments showed that the anti-metastatic effects of Q2-3 on 4T1 and human MDA-MD-231 tumour cells are additive when employed in combination with the clinically used drug, docetaxel. Altogether, our findings reveal that the release of IL-25 from TAFs may serve as a check point for control of mammary tumour metastasis and that phytochemical Q2-3 can efficiently promote such anticancer activities. Interleukin-25 has been reported to have anticancer activity with very little effect on non-malignant cells. Here, the authors show that a synthetic phytochemical can be used to induce the secretion of Interleukin-25 from tumour associated fibroblasts resulting in impaired tumour metastasis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shu-Yi Yin
- Agricultural Biotechnology Research Center, Academia Sinica, Taipei 115, Taiwan
| | - Feng-Yin Jian
- Agricultural Biotechnology Research Center, Academia Sinica, Taipei 115, Taiwan
| | - Yung-Hsiang Chen
- Agricultural Biotechnology Research Center, Academia Sinica, Taipei 115, Taiwan
| | - Shih-Chang Chien
- The Experimental Forest Management Office, National Chung Hsing University, Taichung 402, Taiwan
| | - Mao-Chih Hsieh
- Department of Surgery, Wan-Fang Hospital, Taipei 116, Taiwan
| | - Pei-Wen Hsiao
- Agricultural Biotechnology Research Center, Academia Sinica, Taipei 115, Taiwan
| | - Wen-Hwa Lee
- China Medical University, Taichung 404, Taiwan
| | - Yueh-Hsiung Kuo
- Department of Chinese Pharmaceutical Sciences and Chinese Medicine Resources, China Medical University, Taichung 404, Taiwan.,Department of Biotechnology, Asia University, Taichung 413, Taiwan
| | - Ning-Sun Yang
- Agricultural Biotechnology Research Center, Academia Sinica, Taipei 115, Taiwan
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Ivanova EA, Orekhov AN. Monocyte Activation in Immunopathology: Cellular Test for Development of Diagnostics and Therapy. J Immunol Res 2016; 2016:4789279. [PMID: 26885534 DOI: 10.1155/2016/4789279] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/02/2015] [Revised: 12/20/2015] [Accepted: 12/21/2015] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Several highly prevalent human diseases are associated with immunopathology. Alterations in the immune system are found in such life-threatening disorders as cancer and atherosclerosis. Monocyte activation followed by macrophage polarization is an important step in normal immune response to pathogens and other relevant stimuli. Depending on the nature of the activation signal, macrophages can acquire pro- or anti-inflammatory phenotypes that are characterized by the expression of distinct patterns of secreted cytokines and surface antigens. This process is disturbed in immunopathologies resulting in abnormal monocyte activation and/or bias of macrophage polarization towards one or the other phenotype. Such alterations could be used as important diagnostic markers and also as possible targets for the development of immunomodulating therapy. Recently developed cellular tests are designed to analyze the phenotype and activity of living cells circulating in patient's bloodstream. Monocyte/macrophage activation test is a successful example of cellular test relevant for atherosclerosis and oncopathology. This test demonstrated changes in macrophage activation in subclinical atherosclerosis and breast cancer and could also be used for screening a panel of natural agents with immunomodulatory activity. Further development of cellular tests will allow broadening the scope of their clinical implication. Such tests may become useful tools for drug research and therapy optimization.
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Scanlon ST, McKenzie ANJ. The messenger between worlds: the regulation of innate and adaptive type-2 immunity by innate lymphoid cells. Clin Exp Allergy 2015; 45:9-20. [PMID: 25423949 DOI: 10.1111/cea.12464] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
Although type-2 immune responses evolved primarily to defend against extracellular helminths, in part through the co-opting of tissue repair and remodeling mechanisms, they are often inappropriately directed towards relatively innocuous allergens resulting in conditions including asthma, allergic rhinitis, food allergy, and atopic dermatitis. The recent discovery of group 2 innate lymphoid cells (ILC2) has increased our understanding of the initiation of these responses and the roles played by CD4(+) T helper (Th) 2 cells in their modulation. This review focuses on the important messenger role of ILC2 in translating epithelial-derived alarmins into downstream adaptive type-2 responses via dendritic cells and T cells, with special emphasis on their roles in allergic disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- S T Scanlon
- Protein & Nucleic Acid Chemistry (PNAC) Division, MRC Laboratory of Molecular Biology, Cambridge, UK
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Orekhov AN, Sobenin IA, Gavrilin MA, Gratchev A, Kotyashova SY, Nikiforov NG, Kzhyshkowska J. Macrophages in immunopathology of atherosclerosis: a target for diagnostics and therapy. Curr Pharm Des 2015; 21:1172-9. [PMID: 25312739 PMCID: PMC4428062 DOI: 10.2174/1381612820666141013120459] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2014] [Accepted: 10/01/2014] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Abstract
Immunopathology plays important roles in the development of different life-threatening diseases, such as atherosclerosis and its consequences (acute myocardial infarction and stroke), cancer, chronic inflammatory diseases. Effective modulation of the immune system may significantly increase the efficacy of prevention and therapy efforts. Currently there are no marketed drugs capable of normalizing immune system function in an intrinsic and comprehensive way. Here, we describe a test system designed for complex analysis of monocyte activity in individuals to diagnose immunopathology and monitor treatment efficacy. This cell-based test system may also be useful for screening compounds with an immune-correcting effects. Both diagnostic and screening systems are based on primary culture of human monocytes and/or monocyte-derived macrophages. This is the first step in creating a method for assessment of macrophage activity, which is required for further development of immune-correcting drugs. The existing preliminary data provide the basis for realization of this idea.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | | | - Julia Kzhyshkowska
- Laboratory of Angiopathology, Institute of General Pathology and Pathophysiology, Russian Academy of Medical Sciences, 8 Baltiyskaya Street, 125315 Moscow, Russia.
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Nurgazieva D, Mickley A, Moganti K, Ming W, Ovsyi I, Popova A, Sachindra, Awad K, Wang N, Bieback K, Goerdt S, Kzhyshkowska J, Gratchev A. TGF-β1, but not bone morphogenetic proteins, activates Smad1/5 pathway in primary human macrophages and induces expression of proatherogenic genes. J Immunol 2014; 194:709-18. [PMID: 25505291 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.1300272] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
Macrophages are responsible for the control of inflammation and healing, and their malfunction results in cardiometabolic disorders. TGF-β is a pleiotropic growth factor with dual (protective and detrimental) roles in atherogenesis. We have previously shown that in human macrophages, TGF-β1 activates Smad2/3 signaling and induces a complex gene expression program. However, activated genes were not limited to known Smad2/3-dependent ones, which prompted us to study TGF-β1-induced signaling in macrophages in detail. Analysis of Id3 regulatory sequences revealed a novel enhancer, located between +4517 and 4662 bp, but the luciferase reporter assay demonstrated that this enhancer is not Smad2/3 dependent. Because Id3 expression is regulated by Smad1/5 in endothelial cells, we analyzed activation of Smad1/5 in macrophages. We demonstrate here for the first time, to our knowledge, that TGF-β1, but not BMPs, activates Smad1/5 in macrophages. We show that an ALK5/ALK1 heterodimer is responsible for the induction of Smad1/5 signaling by TGF-β1 in mature human macrophages. Activation of Smad1/5 by TGF-β1 induces not only Id3, but also HAMP and PLAUR, which contribute to atherosclerotic plaque vulnerability. We suggest that the balance between Smad1/5- and Smad2/3-dependent signaling defines the outcome of the effect of TGF-β on atherosclerosis where Smad1/5 is responsible for proatherogenic effects, whereas Smad2/3 regulate atheroprotective effects of TGF-β.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dinara Nurgazieva
- Department of Dermatology, Venereology and Allergology, Center of Excellence in Dermatology, Ruprecht-Karls University of Heidelberg, 68167 Mannheim, Germany; N.N. Blokhin Cancer Research Center, 115478 Moscow, Russia
| | - Amanda Mickley
- Department of Dermatology, Venereology and Allergology, Center of Excellence in Dermatology, Ruprecht-Karls University of Heidelberg, 68167 Mannheim, Germany; Institute of Transfusion Medicine and Immunology, Medical Faculty Mannheim, Ruprecht-Karls University of Heidelberg, 68167 Mannheim, Germany
| | - Kondaiah Moganti
- Department of Dermatology, Venereology and Allergology, Center of Excellence in Dermatology, Ruprecht-Karls University of Heidelberg, 68167 Mannheim, Germany; Institute of Transfusion Medicine and Immunology, Medical Faculty Mannheim, Ruprecht-Karls University of Heidelberg, 68167 Mannheim, Germany
| | - Wen Ming
- Department of Dermatology, Venereology and Allergology, Center of Excellence in Dermatology, Ruprecht-Karls University of Heidelberg, 68167 Mannheim, Germany
| | - Illya Ovsyi
- Department of Dermatology, Venereology and Allergology, Center of Excellence in Dermatology, Ruprecht-Karls University of Heidelberg, 68167 Mannheim, Germany
| | - Anna Popova
- Department of Dermatology, Venereology and Allergology, Center of Excellence in Dermatology, Ruprecht-Karls University of Heidelberg, 68167 Mannheim, Germany
| | - Sachindra
- Department of Dermatology, Venereology and Allergology, Center of Excellence in Dermatology, Ruprecht-Karls University of Heidelberg, 68167 Mannheim, Germany
| | - Kareem Awad
- Department of Dermatology, Venereology and Allergology, Center of Excellence in Dermatology, Ruprecht-Karls University of Heidelberg, 68167 Mannheim, Germany; Institute of Transfusion Medicine and Immunology, Medical Faculty Mannheim, Ruprecht-Karls University of Heidelberg, 68167 Mannheim, Germany
| | - Nan Wang
- Department of Dermatology, Venereology and Allergology, Center of Excellence in Dermatology, Ruprecht-Karls University of Heidelberg, 68167 Mannheim, Germany
| | - Karen Bieback
- Institute of Transfusion Medicine and Immunology, Medical Faculty Mannheim, Ruprecht-Karls University of Heidelberg, 68167 Mannheim, Germany
| | - Sergij Goerdt
- Department of Dermatology, Venereology and Allergology, Center of Excellence in Dermatology, Ruprecht-Karls University of Heidelberg, 68167 Mannheim, Germany
| | - Julia Kzhyshkowska
- Institute of Transfusion Medicine and Immunology, Medical Faculty Mannheim, Ruprecht-Karls University of Heidelberg, 68167 Mannheim, Germany; Institute of General Pathology and Pathophysiology, 125315 Moscow, Russia; and Laboratory for Translational Cellular and Molecular Biomedicine, Tomsk State University, 634050 Tomsk, Russia
| | - Alexei Gratchev
- Department of Dermatology, Venereology and Allergology, Center of Excellence in Dermatology, Ruprecht-Karls University of Heidelberg, 68167 Mannheim, Germany; N.N. Blokhin Cancer Research Center, 115478 Moscow, Russia;
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Abstract
In most natural environments, the large majority of mammals harbour parasitic helminths that often live as adults within the intestine for prolonged periods (1–2 years) 1. Although these organisms have been eradicated to a large extent within westernized human populations, those living within rural areas of developing countries continue to suffer from high infection rates. Indeed, recent estimates indicate that approximately 2·5 billion people worldwide, mainly children, currently suffer from infection with intestinal helminths (also known as geohelminths and soil-transmitted helminths) 2. Paradoxically, the eradication of helminths is thought to contribute to the increased incidence of autoimmune diseases and allergy observed in developed countries. In this review, we will summarize our current understanding of host–helminth interactions at the mucosal surface that result in parasite expulsion or permit the establishment of chronic infections with luminal dwelling adult worms. We will also provide insight into the adaptive immune mechanisms that provide immune protection against re-infection with helminth larvae, a process that is likely to be key to the future development of successful vaccination strategies. Lastly, the contribution of helminths to immune modulation and particularly to the treatment of allergy and inflammatory bowel disease will be discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- C Zaph
- The Biomedical Research Centre, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada; Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
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Abstract
OBJECTIVE T helper 17 (Th17) and mast cells produce IL-17A in RA and critically contribute to the pathogenesis of RA. However, the complete IL-17 cytokine profile in RA is unknown. The aim of the study was to systematically study the expression of IL-17 family cytokines in RA. METHODS The expression of all IL-17 cytokines in RA synovium and pannus as well as in the synovium of OA was determined using quantitative RT-PCR (qRT-PCR). IL-17A and IL-17B were immunostained. Peripheral blood neutrophils were analysed for IL-17B. The effect of IL-17B alone or in combination with TNF-α was tested in vitro on fibroblasts and endothelial cells. RESULTS In all tissues IL-17B was the most expressed IL-17 family cytokine, found in lining but most strongly expressed in human neutrophil elastase containing polymorphonuclear cells. This pattern was distinct from that of IL-17A, which was found in mast cell tryptase immunoreactive cells. Circulating neutrophils contained IL-17B, verifying the in vivo results. Fibroblasts up-regulated the expression of IL-17RB, a putative receptor of IL-17B, after TNF-α stimulation. IL-17B significantly enhanced TNF-α-induced production of G-CSF and IL-6 in fibroblasts. CONCLUSION IL-17B, which is present in synovium, may contribute to the pathogenesis of RA. IL-17B can enhance the effects of TNF-α on the production of cytokines and chemokines that control immune cell trafficking and neutrophil homeostasis in the inflamed tissues.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vesa-Petteri Kouri
- Biomedicum Helsinki 1, PO Box 63, University of Helsinki, FI-00014 Helsinki, Finland.
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Zaiss MM, Maslowski KM, Mosconi I, Guenat N, Marsland BJ, Harris NL. IL-1β suppresses innate IL-25 and IL-33 production and maintains helminth chronicity. PLoS Pathog 2013; 9:e1003531. [PMID: 23935505 PMCID: PMC3731249 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1003531] [Citation(s) in RCA: 93] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/11/2012] [Accepted: 06/17/2013] [Indexed: 02/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Approximately 2 billion people currently suffer from intestinal helminth infections, which are typically chronic in nature and result in growth retardation, vitamin A deficiency, anemia and poor cognitive function. Such chronicity results from co-evolution between helminths and their mammalian hosts; however, the molecular mechanisms by which these organisms avert immune rejection are not clear. We have found that the natural murine helminth, Heligmosomoides polygyrus bakeri (Hp) elicits the secretion of IL-1β in vivo and in vitro and that this cytokine is critical for shaping a mucosal environment suited to helminth chronicity. Indeed in mice deficient for IL-1β (IL-1β(-/-)), or treated with the soluble IL-1βR antagonist, Anakinra, helminth infection results in enhanced type 2 immunity and accelerated parasite expulsion. IL-1β acts to decrease production of IL-25 and IL-33 at early time points following infection and parasite rejection was determined to require IL-25. Taken together, these data indicate that Hp promotes the release of host-derived IL-1β that suppresses the release of innate cytokines, resulting in suboptimal type 2 immunity and allowing pathogen chronicity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mario M. Zaiss
- Global Health Institute, École Polytechnique Fédèrale de Lausanne (EPFL), Lausanne, Switzerland
| | | | - Ilaria Mosconi
- Global Health Institute, École Polytechnique Fédèrale de Lausanne (EPFL), Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Nadine Guenat
- Global Health Institute, École Polytechnique Fédèrale de Lausanne (EPFL), Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Benjamin J. Marsland
- Department of Pneumology, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire Vaudois (CHUV), Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Nicola L. Harris
- Global Health Institute, École Polytechnique Fédèrale de Lausanne (EPFL), Lausanne, Switzerland
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Wang W, Fan YQ, Lv Z, Yao XJ, Wang W, Huang KW, Meng Q, Fang CL, Lee TH, Corrigan CJ, An YQ, Ying S. Interleukin-25 promotes basic fibroblast growth factor expression by human endothelial cells through interaction with IL-17RB, but not IL-17RA. Clin Exp Allergy 2012; 42:1604-14. [PMID: 23106660 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2222.2012.04062.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Unlike other IL-17 family members, the Th2-derived cytokine IL-25 (IL-17E) induces (promotes) Th2 responses. One or both of the two receptors for IL-25 (IL-17RA, IL-17RB) is expressed on inflammatory cells and tissue structural cells, suggesting that in addition to promoting Th2-type inflammation IL-25 may also act on structural cells at sites of Th2-type inflammation such as in the asthmatic bronchial mucosa to promote remodelling changes. OBJECTIVE Our previous studies showed elevated expression of IL-25 and IL-17RB immunoreactivity in asthmatic airways with co-localization of the latter to endothelial cells. We therefore hypothesized that IL-25 acts on endothelial cells through this receptor to induce production of the key angiogenic and remodelling cytokine basic fibroblast growth factor (bFGF). METHODS Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) immunocytochemistry/immunohistochemistry and ELISA were employed to detect expression of IL-17RB, IL-17RA and bFGF by human vascular endothelial cells (HUVEC) and immunoreactivity for IL-25 and bFGF in asthmatic bronchial biopsies. Receptor-blocking antibodies, PCR and an in vitro angiogenesis assay were used to investigate whether IL-25 acts on IL-17RB or IL-17RA to induce bFGF expression and angiogenesis. PCR was also employed to investigate the signalling pathways involved in IL-25-mediated bFGF expression. RESULTS HUVEC constitutively expressed IL-17RB, IL-17RA and bFGF. Production of the latter was further increased by IL-25, but attenuated after blockade of the IL-17RB, but not the IL-17RA receptor. Neutralization of endogenous VEGF and bFGF completely abrogated IL-25-induced angiogenesis which was also inhibited by blocking IL-17RB, but not IL-17RA. The PI3K-specific inhibitor LY294002 also completely attenuated IL-25-induced bFGF expression. Immunoreactivity for IL-25 and bFGF was elevated in the asthmatic bronchial mucosa and the expression of each correlated with the other. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE Our data support the hypothesis that IL-25 contributes to elevated bFGF in asthmatic airways by acting on the endothelial cell IL-17RB receptor through PI3K-signalling pathways. Targeting the pathways might benefit therapy of airways remodelling.
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Affiliation(s)
- W Wang
- Department of Immunology, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
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21
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Chu DK, Llop-Guevara A, Walker TD, Flader K, Goncharova S, Boudreau JE, Moore CL, Seunghyun In T, Waserman S, Coyle AJ, Kolbeck R, Humbles AA, Jordana M. IL-33, but not thymic stromal lymphopoietin or IL-25, is central to mite and peanut allergic sensitization. J Allergy Clin Immunol 2013; 131:187-200.e1-8. [PMID: 23006545 DOI: 10.1016/j.jaci.2012.08.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 253] [Impact Index Per Article: 21.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/13/2012] [Revised: 07/17/2012] [Accepted: 08/02/2012] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Allergen exposure at lung and gut mucosae can lead to aberrant T(H)2 immunity and allergic disease. The epithelium-associated cytokines thymic stromal lymphopoietin (TSLP), IL-25, and IL-33 are suggested to be important for the initiation of these responses. OBJECTIVE We sought to investigate the contributions of TSLP, IL-25, and IL-33 in the development of allergic disease to the common allergens house dust mite (HDM) or peanut. METHODS Neutralizing antibodies or mice deficient in TSLP, IL-25, or IL-33 signaling were exposed to HDM intranasally or peanut intragastrically, and immune inflammatory and physiologic responses were evaluated. In vitro assays were performed to examine specific dendritic cell (DC) functions. RESULTS We showed that experimental HDM-induced allergic asthma and food allergy and anaphylaxis to peanut were associated with TSLP production but developed independently of TSLP, likely because these allergens functionally mimicked TSLP inhibition of IL-12 production and induction of OX40 ligand (OX40L) on DCs. Blockade of OX40L significantly lessened allergic responses to HDM or peanut. Although IL-25 and IL-33 induced OX40L on DCs in vitro, only IL-33 signaling was necessary for intact allergic immunity, likely because of its superior ability to induce DC OX40L and expand innate lymphoid cells in vivo. CONCLUSION These data identify a nonredundant, IL-33-driven mechanism initiating T(H)2 responses to the clinically relevant allergens HDM and peanut. Our findings, along with those in infectious and transgenic/surrogate allergen systems, favor a paradigm whereby multiple molecular pathways can initiate T(H)2 immunity, which has implications for the conceptualization and manipulation of these responses in health and disease.
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22
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Lechner CJ, Grüner B, Huang X, Hoffmann WH, Kern P, Soboslay PT. Parasite-specific IL-17-type cytokine responses and soluble IL-17 receptor levels in Alveolar Echinococcosis patients. Clin Dev Immunol 2012; 2012:735342. [PMID: 22969818 DOI: 10.1155/2012/735342] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/21/2012] [Accepted: 07/23/2012] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
Alveolar Echinococcosis (AE) caused by the cestode Echinococcus multilocularis, is a severe helminth infection of man, where unrestricted parasite growth will ultimately result in organ failure and fatality. The tissue-infiltrative growth of the larval metacestode and the limited efficacy of available drugs complicate successful intervention in AE; patients often need life-long medication, and if possible, surgical resection of affected tissues and organs. Resistance to AE has been reported, but the determinants which confer protection are not known. ln this study, we analyzed in patients at distinct stages of Alveolar Echirococcosis, that is cured, stable and progressive AE, as well as in infection-free controls, the cellular production and plasma levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines lL-17A, lL-17B, lL-17F and their soluble receptors lL-17RA (slL-17RA) and IL-17RB (sIL-17RB). Significantly elevated levels of IL-17B and slL-17RB were observed, whilst lL-17F and slL-17RA were reduced in patients with AE. Similarly, the cellular production of lL-17F and slL-L7RA in response to E. multilocularis antigens was low in AE patients, while levels of slL-17RB were highly enhanced. These observations suggest immune-modulating properties of E. multitocularis on lL-17 cytokine-mediated pro-inflammatory immune responses; this may facilitate the tissue infiltrative growth of the parasite and its persistence in the human host.
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Popova A, Kzhyshkowska J, Nurgazieva D, Goerdt S, Gratchev A. Smurf2 regulates IL17RB by proteasomal degradation of its novel binding partner DAZAP2. Immunobiology 2012; 217:321-8. [DOI: 10.1016/j.imbio.2011.10.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2011] [Revised: 10/06/2011] [Accepted: 10/13/2011] [Indexed: 10/16/2022]
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Mai J, Virtue A, Maley E, Tran T, Yin Y, Meng S, Pansuria M, Jiang X, Wang H, Yang XF. MicroRNAs and other mechanisms regulate interleukin-17 cytokines and receptors. Front Biosci (Elite Ed) 2012. [PMID: 22201969 DOI: 10.2741/474] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
Interleukin-17 cytokines are a family of pro-inflammatory cytokines. Our current studies found: i) IL-17 cytokines are not ubiquitously expressed, but several receptors and TRAF3IP2 are ubiquitously expressed in tissues with a few exceptions; ii) heart and vascular tissue are in the second tier of readiness to respond to IL-17 cytokine stimulation; iii) alternative transcription starting sites and alternative spliced isoforms are found in IL-17 cytokine and receptor transcripts; iv) higher hypomethylation status is associated with higher expressions of IL-17 receptors; v) the binding sites of several RNA binding proteins are found in the 3'UTRs of the mRNAs of IL-17 cytokines and receptors; and vi) numerous microRNA binding sites are statistically equivalent to that of experimentally verified microRNAs-mRNA interactions in the 3'UTRs of IL-17 cytokine and receptor mRNAs. These results suggest that mechanisms including alternative promoters, alternative splicing, RNA binding proteins, and microRNAs regulate the structures and expressions of IL-17 cytokines and receptors. These results provide an insight into the roles of IL-17 in mediating inflammation and immunity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jietang Mai
- Department of Pharmacology and Cardiovascular Research Center, Temple University School of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA 19140, USA
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25
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Neill DR, McKenzie ANJ. Nuocytes and beyond: new insights into helminth expulsion. Trends Parasitol 2011; 27:214-21. [PMID: 21292555 DOI: 10.1016/j.pt.2011.01.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/11/2010] [Revised: 12/24/2010] [Accepted: 01/03/2011] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
Abstract
T helper 2 (Th2) responses, characterized by the expression of the type-2 cytokines interleukin (IL)-4, IL-5, IL-9 and IL-13, are essential for the control of parasitic helminth infections and also drive the pathogenesis of allergy and asthma. Such responses are initiated, maintained and regulated, in part, by an array of innate effector cells and cytokines. However, relatively little is known about how the initiation of type-2 immune responses occurs in vivo. The recent discovery, using helminth models, of several novel innate immune cells capable of shaping type-2 immune responses allows us to reflect on the progress made in this area. It also affords us the opportunity to highlight the diversity of immune responses that can be driven by innate cells responding rapidly to early cytokine cues.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel R Neill
- Department of Infection, Immunity and Inflammation, University of Leicester, LE19HN, UK
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26
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Fitch PM, Henderson P, Schwarze J. Respiratory and gastrointestinal epithelial modulation of the immune response during viral infection. Innate Immun 2011; 18:179-89. [PMID: 21239454 DOI: 10.1177/1753425910391826] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Respiratory and enteric viral infections cause significant morbidity and mortality world-wide and represent a major socio-economic burden. Many of these viruses have received unprecedented public and media interest in recent years. A popular public misconception is that viruses are a threat to which the human body has only limited defences. However, the majority of primary and secondary exposures to virus are asymptomatic or induce only minor symptoms. The mucosal epithelial surfaces are the main portal of entry for viral pathogens and are centrally involved in the initiation, maintenance and polarisation of the innate and adaptive immune response to infection. This review describes the defences employed by the epithelium of the respiratory and gastrointestinal tracts during viral infections with focus on epithelial modulation of the immune response at the innate/adaptive interface.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paul M Fitch
- Centre for Inflammation Research, Queen’s Medical Research Institute, University of Edinburgh, UK
| | - Paul Henderson
- Centre for Inflammation Research, Queen’s Medical Research Institute, University of Edinburgh, UK
- Department of Child Life and Health, University of Edinburgh, UK
| | - Jürgen Schwarze
- Centre for Inflammation Research, Queen’s Medical Research Institute, University of Edinburgh, UK
- Department of Child Life and Health, University of Edinburgh, UK
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27
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Kaiko GE, Phipps S, Angkasekwinai P, Dong C, Foster PS. NK cell deficiency predisposes to viral-induced Th2-type allergic inflammation via epithelial-derived IL-25. J Immunol 2010; 185:4681-90. [PMID: 20855881 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.1001758] [Citation(s) in RCA: 114] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Severe respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) infection has long been associated with an increased risk for the development of childhood asthma and exacerbations of this disorder. Despite much research into the induction of Th2 responses by allergens and helminths, the factors associated with viral infection that predispose to Th2-regulated asthma remain unknown. Recently, clinical studies have shown reduced numbers of NK cells in infants suffering from a severe RSV infection. Here we demonstrate that NK cell deficiency during primary RSV infection of BALB/c mice results in the suppression of IFN-γ production and the development of an RSV-specific Th2 response and subsequent allergic lung disease. The outgrowth of the Th2 responses was dependent on airway epithelial cell-derived IL-25, which induced the upregulation of the notch ligand Jagged1 on dendritic cells. This study identifies a novel pathway underlying viral-driven Th2 responses that may have functional relevance to viral-associated asthma.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gerard E Kaiko
- Centre for Asthma and Respiratory Diseases, School of Biomedical Sciences and Pharmacy, Faculty of Health, University of Newcastle, Newcastle, Australia
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Abstract
Activated mast cells, eosinophils, and basophils infiltrate the airways of asthmatics as a result of an overexuberant T helper 2 (Th2) cell immune response that drives the production of IgE, primes mast cells and basophils, and promotes tissue eosinophilia and mast cell hyperplasia. Recent evidence demonstrates that these innate effectors can be activated outside of this classical Th2 cell paradigm and that they have additional roles in promoting the development of innate and adaptive pulmonary inflammation. There is also an appreciation for the role of airway epithelial cells in orchestrating allergic pulmonary inflammation. Emerging data from basic research highlight the involvement of many unique pathways in the inflammation triggered by complex native allergens and microbes at the airway mucosal surface. Here, we review the role of effector cells and airway epithelial cells in augmenting and, at times, bypassing traditional Th2 cell-mediated allergic inflammation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nora A Barrett
- Department of Medicine, Harvard Medical School, and Division of Rheumatology, Immunology, and Allergy, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Boston, MA 02115, USA.
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Kzhyshkowska J, Krusell L. Cross-talk between endocytic clearance and secretion in macrophages. Immunobiology 2009; 214:576-93. [DOI: 10.1016/j.imbio.2009.03.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/16/2009] [Accepted: 03/16/2009] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
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Abstract
CD4+ T cells, upon activation and expansion, develop into different T helper cell subsets with different cytokine profiles and distinct effector functions. Until recently, T cells were divided into Th1 or Th2 cells, depending on the cytokines they produce. A third subset of IL-17-producing effector T helper cells, called Th17 cells, has now been discovered and characterized. Here, we summarize the current information on the differentiation and effector functions of the Th17 lineage. Th17 cells produce IL-17, IL-17F, and IL-22, thereby inducing a massive tissue reaction owing to the broad distribution of the IL-17 and IL-22 receptors. Th17 cells also secrete IL-21 to communicate with the cells of the immune system. The differentiation factors (TGF-β plus IL-6 or IL-21), the growth and stabilization factor (IL-23), and the transcription factors (STAT3, RORγt, and RORα) involved in the development of Th17 cells have just been identified. The participation of TGF-β in the differentiation of Th17 cells places the Th17 lineage in close relationship with CD4+CD25+Foxp3+ regulatory T cells (Tregs), as TGF-β also induces differentiation of naive T cells into Foxp3+ Tregs in the peripheral immune compartment. The investigation of the differentiation, effector function, and regulation of Th17 cells has opened up a new framework for understanding T cell differentiation. Furthermore, we now appreciate the importance of Th17 cells in clearing pathogens during host defense reactions and in inducing tissue inflammation in autoimmune disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas Korn
- Technical University Munich, Department of Neurology, 81675 Munich, Germany
| | - Estelle Bettelli
- Center for Neurologic Diseases, Brigham & Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts 02115;,
| | - Mohamed Oukka
- Center for Neurologic Diseases, Brigham & Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139
| | - Vijay K. Kuchroo
- Center for Neurologic Diseases, Brigham & Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts 02115;,
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32
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Abstract
It has been well-established that type-2 immunity, characterized by eosinophilia, goblet cell hyperplasia, mucus production, and B cell class switching to IgE, is highly dependent on the production of the type-2 cytokines, interleukin (IL)-4, IL-5, IL-9, and IL-13, by T helper 2 (Th2) cells. However, it is less clear how the type-2 cytokine effector response is induced and in addition what innate cell type produces the initiating factor. Recent reports highlight IL-25 as a type-2 inducing factor, with IL-25 administration resulting in severe gut and lung type-2 pathologies. The expression of IL-25 is also necessary for initiation of a robust type-2 response both at the genesis of the response, as with helminth infection, and during the response, as has been shown in experimental allergic asthma. It is also apparent that, as well as directly controlling type-2 immunity via IL-4, IL-5, and IL-13, IL-25 may also interact with other cytokines and their receptors, such as IL-17A and the IL-17RA receptor. Here, we review the role of IL-25 as an important factor in controlling the initiation and severity of the type-2 response, and as an alternative therapeutic target to the type-2 cytokine family, for the treatment of allergic asthma. (c) 2009 International Union of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Inc.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jillian L Barlow
- MRC Laboratory of Molecular Biology, Hills Road, Cambridge, CB2 0QH, UK
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Saenz SA, Taylor BC, Artis D. Welcome to the neighborhood: epithelial cell-derived cytokines license innate and adaptive immune responses at mucosal sites. Immunol Rev 2009; 226:172-90. [PMID: 19161424 DOI: 10.1111/j.1600-065x.2008.00713.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 360] [Impact Index Per Article: 24.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
There is compelling evidence that epithelial cells (ECs) at mucosal surfaces, beyond their role in creating a physical barrier, are integral components of innate and adaptive immunity. The capacity of these cells to license the functions of specific immune cell populations in the airway and gastrointestinal tract offers the prospect of novel therapeutic strategies to target multiple inflammatory diseases in which barrier immunity is dysregulated. In this review, we discuss the critical functions of EC-derived thymic stromal lymphopoietin (TSLP), interleukin-25 (IL-25), and IL-33 in the development and regulation of T-helper 2 (Th2) cytokine-dependent immune responses. We first highlight recent data that have provided new insights into the factors that control expression of this triad of cytokines and their receptors. In addition, we review their proinflammatory and immunoregulatory functions in models of mucosal infection and inflammation. Lastly, we discuss new findings indicating that despite their diverse structural features and differential expression of their receptors, TSLP, IL-25, and IL-33 cross-regulate one another and share overlapping properties that influence Th2 cytokine-dependent responses at mucosal sites.
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Affiliation(s)
- Steven A Saenz
- Department of Pathobiology, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104-4539, USA
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Abstract
CD4+ T cells, upon activation and expansion, develop into different T helper cell subsets with different cytokine profiles and distinct effector functions. Until recently, T cells were divided into Th1 or Th2 cells, depending on the cytokines they produce. A third subset of IL-17-producing effector T helper cells, called Th17 cells, has now been discovered and characterized. Here, we summarize the current information on the differentiation and effector functions of the Th17 lineage. Th17 cells produce IL-17, IL-17F, and IL-22, thereby inducing a massive tissue reaction owing to the broad distribution of the IL-17 and IL-22 receptors. Th17 cells also secrete IL-21 to communicate with the cells of the immune system. The differentiation factors (TGF-beta plus IL-6 or IL-21), the growth and stabilization factor (IL-23), and the transcription factors (STAT3, RORgammat, and RORalpha) involved in the development of Th17 cells have just been identified. The participation of TGF-beta in the differentiation of Th17 cells places the Th17 lineage in close relationship with CD4+CD25+Foxp3+ regulatory T cells (Tregs), as TGF-beta also induces differentiation of naive T cells into Foxp3+ Tregs in the peripheral immune compartment. The investigation of the differentiation, effector function, and regulation of Th17 cells has opened up a new framework for understanding T cell differentiation. Furthermore, we now appreciate the importance of Th17 cells in clearing pathogens during host defense reactions and in inducing tissue inflammation in autoimmune disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas Korn
- Technical University Munich, Department of Neurology, 81675 Munich, Germany.
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Jung JS, Park BL, Cheong HS, Bae JS, Kim JH, Chang HS, Rhim T, Park JS, Jang AS, Lee YM, Kim KU, Uh ST, Na JO, Kim YH, Park CS, Shin HD. Association of IL-17RB gene polymorphism with asthma. Chest 2008; 135:1173-1180. [PMID: 19118269 DOI: 10.1378/chest.08-1595] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/19/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Interleukin (IL)-17E is a member of the IL-17 family, which induces IL-4, IL-5, IL-13, and eotaxin in experimental animals via IL-17 receptor B (IL-17RB). The activation of IL-17RB amplifies allergic-type inflammatory responses by inducing Jun kinase (or JNK), p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase (or MAPK), and nuclear factor-kappaB. OBJECTIVES We examined the association of polymorphisms in the IL-17RB gene with asthma susceptibility and investigated the effects of those polymorphisms on the transcription of various IL-17RB isoforms. METHODS In total, 954 asthmatic patients or 265 healthy control subjects were screened for polymorphisms in IL-17RB by single-base extension. The messenger RNA expression IL-17RB in B-cell lines derived from patients was also measured by reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction. RESULTS Direct sequencing of 24 unrelated Korean DNA samples revealed 18 genetic variants, including four insertion/deletions and 14 single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs). Six of the SNPs (-1465G>A, +5661G>A, +6297T>C [Y123Y], +13797C>T, +18661C>T, and +18965G>A) were used to screen a larger group of subjects. Intronic polymorphism +5661G>A was significantly associated with the development of asthma (p = 0.001); moreover, a minor allele of IL-17RB +5661G>A appeared at a lower frequency in the asthmatic patients than in the healthy control subjects (0.13 vs 0.19, respectively). The IL-17RB messenger RNA expression in B cells homozygous for IL-17RB+ 5661GG was significantly higher than that in B cells homozygous for IL-17RB+5661AA (p = 0.002). CONCLUSIONS A rare allele of IL-17RB +5661G>A may have a protective role against the development of asthma via regulation at the level of transcription. The SNPs identified in this study may be used to develop markers to assess the risk of asthma.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ji-Sun Jung
- Genome Research Center for Allergy and Respiratory Disease, Soonchunhyang University Bucheon Hospital, Bucheon, Korea
| | - Byung Lae Park
- Department of Genetic Epidemiology, SNP Genetics, Inc, Seoul, Korea; Genome Research Center for Allergy and Respiratory Disease, Soonchunhyang University Bucheon Hospital, Bucheon, Korea; Genome Research Center for Allergy and Respiratory Disease, Soonchunhyang University Bucheon Hospital, Bucheon, Korea
| | - Hyun Sub Cheong
- Department of Genetic Epidemiology, SNP Genetics, Inc, Seoul, Korea
| | - Joon Seol Bae
- Department of Genetic Epidemiology, SNP Genetics, Inc, Seoul, Korea
| | - Ji-Hye Kim
- Genome Research Center for Allergy and Respiratory Disease, Soonchunhyang University Bucheon Hospital, Bucheon, Korea
| | - Hun Soo Chang
- Genome Research Center for Allergy and Respiratory Disease, Soonchunhyang University Bucheon Hospital, Bucheon, Korea
| | | | - Jong-Sook Park
- Genome Research Center for Allergy and Respiratory Disease, Soonchunhyang University Bucheon Hospital, Bucheon, Korea
| | - An-Soo Jang
- Genome Research Center for Allergy and Respiratory Disease, Soonchunhyang University Bucheon Hospital, Bucheon, Korea
| | - Young-Mok Lee
- Division of Allergy and Respiratory Medicine, Soonchunhyang University Seoul Hospital, Seoul, Korea
| | - Ki-Up Kim
- Division of Allergy and Respiratory Medicine, Soonchunhyang University Seoul Hospital, Seoul, Korea
| | - Soo-Taek Uh
- Division of Allergy and Respiratory Medicine, Soonchunhyang University Seoul Hospital, Seoul, Korea
| | - Ju Ock Na
- Division of Allergy and Respiratory Medicine, Soonchunhyang University Chunan Hospital, Chunan, Korea
| | - Yong-Hoon Kim
- Division of Allergy and Respiratory Medicine, Soonchunhyang University Chunan Hospital, Chunan, Korea
| | - Choon-Sik Park
- Genome Research Center for Allergy and Respiratory Disease, Soonchunhyang University Bucheon Hospital, Bucheon, Korea.
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Möller I, Michel K, Frech N, Burger M, Pfeifer D, Frommolt P, Veelken H, Thomas-Kaskel AK. Dendritic cell maturation with poly(I:C)-based versus PGE2-based cytokine combinations results in differential functional characteristics relevant to clinical application. J Immunother 2008; 31:506-19. [PMID: 18463533 DOI: 10.1097/CJI.0b013e318177d9e5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
In vitro maturation of dendritic cells (DCs) for cancer immunotherapy may be accomplished by cytokine cocktails containing prostaglandin E2 (PGE2). More recently, a poly(I:C)-based protocol has been proposed as a potentially superior alternative because of a strong induction of interleukin (IL)-12 secretion by resulting DCs. As optimal DC maturation represents a crucial issue for cancer vaccination trials, we performed a systematic and comprehensive comparison of both protocols with respect to important indicators of DC function. Although both methods yielded phenotypically mature DCs, transcriptional profiling revealed a substantially higher number of differentially regulated genes after poly(I:C)-based than PGE2-based maturation. Several of these are involved in immunologic processes, indicating that both DC types exhibit subtle, but distinct, molecular properties. Up-regulation of genes encoding the T-cell-attracting chemokines CXCL9, 10, and 11 in poly(I:C)-DC but not PGE2-DC was confirmed on a protein level. Although poly(I:C)-based maturation induced substantial IL-12p70 secretion, poly(I:C)-DC also secreted low levels of IL-10 and showed a significantly higher expression of functionally active indoleamine-2,3-dioxygenase than PGE2-DC, which might mediate immune inhibitory functions. Nonetheless, the number of peptide-specific T cells tended to be higher after in vitro priming with poly(I:C)-DC compared with PGE2-DC. Finally, PGE2-DC displayed superior migratory abilities, which are essential for in vivo applications. In summary, we have identified previously unrecognized shared and distinct molecular features of DCs matured by 2 commonly used protocols that lead to subtle, but significant, immunologic features of the resulting cells relevant to clinical applications.
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Gratchev A, Kzhyshkowska J, Kannookadan S, Ochsenreiter M, Popova A, Yu X, Mamidi S, Stonehouse-Usselmann E, Muller-Molinet I, Gooi L, Goerdt S. Activation of a TGF-beta-specific multistep gene expression program in mature macrophages requires glucocorticoid-mediated surface expression of TGF-beta receptor II. J Immunol 2008; 180:6553-65. [PMID: 18453574 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.180.10.6553] [Citation(s) in RCA: 72] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Alternatively activated (M2) macrophages regulate steady state-, cancer-, and inflammation-related tissue remodeling. They are induced by Th2-cytokines and glucocorticoids (GC). The responsiveness of mature macrophages to TGF-beta, a cytokine involved in inflammation, cancer, and atherosclerosis, is currently controversial. Recently, we demonstrated that IL-17 receptor B is up-regulated in human monocyte-derived macrophages differentiated in the presence of Th2 cytokines IL-4 and TGF-beta1. In this study, we show that mature human macrophages differentiated in the presence of IL-4, and dexamethasone (M2(IL-4/GC)) but not M2(IL-4) responds to TGF-beta1 which induced a gene expression program comprising 111 genes including transcriptional/signaling regulators (ID3 and RGS1), immune modulators (ALOX5AP and IL-17 receptor B) and atherosclerosis-related genes (ALOX5AP, ORL1, APOC1, APOC2, and APOE). Analysis of molecular mechanism underlying GC/TGF-beta cooperation revealed that surface expression of TGF-betaRII was high in M2(GC) and M2(IL-4/GC), but absent from M2(IL-4), whereas the expression of TGF-betaRI/II mRNA, TGF-betaRII total protein, and surface expression of TGF-betaRIII were unchanged. GC dexamethasone was essential for increased surface expression of functional TGF-betaRII because its effect was observed also in combination with IL-13, M-CSF, and GM-CSF. Prolonged Smad2-mediated signaling observed in TGF-beta1-treated M2(IL-4/GC) was due to insufficient activity of negative feedback mechanism what can be explained by up-regulation of SIRT1, a negative regulator of Smad7, and the retention of TGF-betaRII complex on the cell surface. In summary, mature human M2 macrophages made permissive to TGF-beta by GC-induced surface expression of TGF-betaRII activate in response to TGF-beta1, a multistep gene expression program featuring traits of macrophages found within an atherosclerotic lesion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexei Gratchev
- Department of Dermatology, Medical Faculty Mannheim, Ruprecht-Karls University of Heidelberg, Mannheim, Germany.
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Gratchev A, Schmuttermaier C, Mamidi S, Gooi L, Goerdt S, Kzhyshkowska J. Expression of Osteoarthritis Marker YKL-39 is Stimulated by Transforming Growth Factor Beta (TGF-beta) and IL-4 in Differentiating Macrophages. Biomark Insights 2008. [DOI: 10.1177/117727190800300003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/20/2023] Open
Abstract
YKL-39 is a Glyco_18 domain containing chitinase-like protein which is currently recognized as a biomarker for the activation of chondrocytes and the progress of the osteoarthritis in human. YKL-39 was identified as an abundantly secreted protein in primary culture of human articular chondrocytes. Two biological activities of YKL-39 might contribute to the disease progression. One is the induction of autoimmune response and second is the participation in tissue remodeling. Other mammalian chitinase-like proteins including chitotriosidase, SI-CLP, YKL-40 and YM1 are expressed by macrophages in various pathological conditions. In contrast, YKL-39 was never reported to be produced by macrophages. We used in vitro model of human monocyte-derived macrophage differentiation to analyse regulation of YKL-39 expression. Expression of YKL-39 was examined by real-time RT-PCR. CD14+ MACS sorted human monocytes differentiated for 6 days under different stimulations including IFNγ, IL-4, dexamethasone and TGF-β. We found that both IL-4 and TGF-β have weak stimulatory effect on YKL-39 expression in all donors tested (3.2 ± 1.7 fold, p = 0.006 and 6.3 ± 3.1 fold, p = 0.014 respectively). However the combination of IL-4 and TGF-β had strong stimulatory effect on the expression of YKL-39 in all analysed individual macrophage cultures (34 ± 36 fold, p = 0.05). IFN-γ did not show statistically significant effect of YKL-39 mRNA expression. Presence of dexamethasone almost completely abolished the stimulatory effects of IL-4 and TGF-β. In summary, we show here for the first time, that human cells of monocyte origin are able to produce YKL-39. Maturation of monocyte derived macrophages in the presence of Th2 cytokine IL-4 and TGF-β leads to the strong activation of YKL-39 expression. Thus elevated levels of YKL-39 observed during chronic inflammations can not be attributed solely to the activity of chondrocytes. In perspective, YKL-39 might serve as a useful biomarker to detect macrophage-specific response in pathologies like tumour, atherosclerosis and Alzheimer disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexei Gratchev
- Department of Dermatology, University Medical Centre Mannheim, Ruprecht-Karls University of Heidelberg, Mannheim, Germany D-68167
| | - Christina Schmuttermaier
- Department of Dermatology, University Medical Centre Mannheim, Ruprecht-Karls University of Heidelberg, Mannheim, Germany D-68167
| | - Srinivas Mamidi
- Department of Dermatology, University Medical Centre Mannheim, Ruprecht-Karls University of Heidelberg, Mannheim, Germany D-68167
| | - LiMing Gooi
- Department of Dermatology, University Medical Centre Mannheim, Ruprecht-Karls University of Heidelberg, Mannheim, Germany D-68167
| | - Sergij Goerdt
- Department of Dermatology, University Medical Centre Mannheim, Ruprecht-Karls University of Heidelberg, Mannheim, Germany D-68167
| | - Julia Kzhyshkowska
- Department of Dermatology, University Medical Centre Mannheim, Ruprecht-Karls University of Heidelberg, Mannheim, Germany D-68167
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Sharkhuu T, Matthaei KI, Forbes E, Mahalingam S, Hogan SP, Hansbro PM, Foster PS. Mechanism of interleukin-25 (IL-17E)-induced pulmonary inflammation and airways hyper-reactivity. Clin Exp Allergy 2007; 36:1575-83. [PMID: 17177681 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2222.2006.02595.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 81] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND IL-25, a novel member of the IL-17 cytokine family, promotes CD4+ T-helper 2 lymphocyte-like (Th type-2) inflammatory responses in the lung. Although IL-25 up-regulates IL-13 in the lung, the contribution of this and other type 2 cytokine signalling pathways to the induction and persistence of airways hyper-reactivity (AHR) and allergic inflammation are unclear. OBJECTIVE To determine the downstream factors employed by IL-25 to induce Th type-2 pulmonary inflammation and AHR. METHODS IL-25 was delivered to the airways of BALB/c mice by intra-tracheal (i.t.) instillation and AHR and Th type-2 inflammatory responses were characterized in wild type (WT) and Th type-2-cytokine and -signalling pathway-deficient (-/-) mice. RESULTS IL-25 treatment resulted in AHR, eosinophilic inflammation, mucus hypersecretion and a progressive increase in the production of Th type-2 cytokines in the lungs. Levels of arginase-I (arg-I) and eotaxin were also elevated by IL-25 treatment. A significant reduction in AHR, and attenuation of mucus production was observed in IL-25-treated IL-13-/-, IL-4 receptor alpha (IL-4Ralpha-/-)- and signal-transducer-and-activator-of-transcription-factor-6 (STAT6-/-)-deficient mice. AHR was also inhibited in IL-4(-/-)- and IL-5/eotaxin(1)(-/-)- deficient mice treated with IL-25, however, mucus hypersecretion was not completely ablated. IL-25 promoted Th type-2 responses by directly acting on naïve T cells. CONCLUSION IL-25 potently (single dose) induces sustained AHR and acute pulmonary inflammation with eosinophilia. IL-25-induced AHR is dependent on the production of Th type-2 cytokines, and removal of IL-13 and its signal transduction pathway prevents IL-25-induced airways inflammation and AHR. IL-25 potently induces inflammatory cascades that may exacerbate allergic airways inflammation by promoting Th type-2 cytokine responses in conjunction with the up-regulation of factors (eotaxin and arg-I) that can amplify inflammation associated with allergic disorders. Dysregulation in IL-25 production may predispose to features of allergic airways disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- T Sharkhuu
- Division of Molecular Bioscience, John Curtin School of Medical Research, Australian National University, Canberra, ACT, Australia
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Kleinschek MA, Owyang AM, Joyce-Shaikh B, Langrish CL, Chen Y, Gorman DM, Blumenschein WM, McClanahan T, Brombacher F, Hurst SD, Kastelein RA, Cua DJ. IL-25 regulates Th17 function in autoimmune inflammation. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2007; 204:161-70. [PMID: 17200411 PMCID: PMC2118427 DOI: 10.1084/jem.20061738] [Citation(s) in RCA: 302] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Interleukin (IL)-25 is a member of the IL-17 family of cytokines. However, unlike the other members of this family, IL-25 promotes T helper (Th) 2 responses. We now show that IL-25 also regulates the development of autoimmune inflammation mediated by IL-17–producing T cells. We have generated IL-25–deficient (il25−/−) mice and found that they are highly susceptible to experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE). The accelerated disease in the il25−/− mice is associated with an increase of IL-23 in the periphery and a subsequent increase in the number of inflammatory IL-17–, IFNγ-, and TNF-producing T cells that invade the central nervous system. Neutralization of IL-17 but not IFNγ in il25−/− mice prevented EAE, suggesting that IL-17 is a major disease-promoting factor. IL-25 treatment at several time points during a relapse-remitting model or chronic model of EAE completely suppressed disease. IL-25 treatment induced elevated production of IL-13, which is required for suppression of Th17 responses by direct inhibition of IL-23, IL-1β, and IL-6 expression in activated dendritic cells. Thus, IL-25 and IL-17, being members of the same cytokine family, play opposing roles in the pathogenesis of organ-specific autoimmunity.
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Owyang AM, Zaph C, Wilson EH, Guild KJ, McClanahan T, Miller HRP, Cua DJ, Goldschmidt M, Hunter CA, Kastelein RA, Artis D. Interleukin 25 regulates type 2 cytokine-dependent immunity and limits chronic inflammation in the gastrointestinal tract. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2006; 203:843-9. [PMID: 16606667 PMCID: PMC1800834 DOI: 10.1084/jem.20051496] [Citation(s) in RCA: 293] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
The cytokine interleukin (IL) 25 has been implicated in the initiation of type 2 immunity by driving the expression of type 2 cytokines such as IL-5 and IL-13, although its role in the regulation of immunity and infection-induced inflammation is unknown. Here, we identify a dual function for IL-25: first, in promoting type 2 cytokine-dependent immunity to gastrointestinal helminth infection and, second, in limiting proinflammatory cytokine production and chronic intestinal inflammation. Treatment of genetically susceptible mice with exogenous IL-25 promoted type 2 cytokine responses and immunity to Trichuris. IL-25 was constitutively expressed by CD4+ and CD8+ T cells in the gut of mouse strains that are resistant to Trichuris, and IL-25–deficient mice on a genetically resistant background failed to develop a type 2 immune response or eradicate infection. Furthermore, chronically infected IL-25−/− mice developed severe infection-induced intestinal inflammation associated with heightened expression of interferon-γ and IL-17, identifying a role for IL-25 in limiting pathologic inflammation at mucosal sites. Therefore, IL-25 is not only a critical mediator of type 2 immunity, but is also required for the regulation of inflammation in the gastrointestinal tract.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexander M Owyang
- Department of Pathobiology, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
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Létuvé S, Lajoie-Kadoch S, Audusseau S, Rothenberg ME, Fiset PO, Ludwig MS, Hamid Q. IL-17E upregulates the expression of proinflammatory cytokines in lung fibroblasts. J Allergy Clin Immunol 2006; 117:590-6. [PMID: 16522458 DOI: 10.1016/j.jaci.2005.10.025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 71] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/11/2005] [Revised: 10/13/2005] [Accepted: 10/19/2005] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND IL-17E is a new TH2 cytokine that promotes airway eosinophilia in mice. IL-17E proinflammatory activity has been proposed to involve induction of cytokine and chemokine production. Recruitment of inflammatory cells may be mediated by tissue-resident cells. OBJECTIVE This study aimed to evaluate whether fibroblasts represent a target of IL-17E for the production of eosinophil active mediators in the lung. METHODS Expression of IL-17B receptor (IL-17BR), a receptor for IL-17E, was evaluated by immunofluorescent staining, Western blot, and real-time PCR in human primary lung fibroblasts. Mediator production was analyzed by using real-time PCR and ELISA after stimulation of fibroblasts with IL-17E alone or in combination with TNF-alpha and TGF-beta1. Expression of IL-17E and of eosinophil major basic protein was evaluated by immunohistochemistry in bronchial biopsies from subjects with asthma. RESULTS Human primary lung fibroblasts constitutively expressed IL-17BR. IL-17BR mRNA levels were increased in cells stimulated with TNF-alpha and decreased with TGF-beta1. IL-17E slightly upregulated CC chemokine ligand (CCL)-5, CCL-11, GM-CSF, and CXC chemokine ligand (CXCL)-8 mRNA in fibroblasts. Moreover, IL-17E and TNF-alpha synergistically induced GM-CSF and CXCL-8 mRNA. IL-17E also potentiated the upregulation of CXCL-8 transcripts observed with TGF-beta1. In contrast, TGF-beta1 decreased IL-17E-induced CCL-11 mRNA. The capacity of IL-17E to enhance GM-CSF and CXCL-8 responses to TNF-alpha was accompanied by production and secretion of both proteins by lung fibroblasts. Finally, IL-17E was detected in asthma in eosinophil-infiltrated bronchial submucosa. CONCLUSION IL-17E may contribute to the induction and maintenance of eosinophilic inflammation in the airways by acting on lung fibroblasts. This study supports a role for IL-17E in asthma pathophysiology.
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MESH Headings
- Asthma/immunology
- Asthma/physiopathology
- Biopsy
- Bronchi/immunology
- Bronchi/pathology
- Cells, Cultured
- Chemokine CCL11
- Chemokine CCL5
- Chemokines, CC/biosynthesis
- Chemokines, CC/immunology
- Chemokines, CXC/biosynthesis
- Chemokines, CXC/immunology
- Chemotactic Factors, Eosinophil/biosynthesis
- Chemotactic Factors, Eosinophil/immunology
- Chemotaxis, Leukocyte
- Cytokines/biosynthesis
- Cytokines/immunology
- Cytokines/physiology
- Eosinophil Major Basic Protein/biosynthesis
- Eosinophil Major Basic Protein/immunology
- Eosinophils/immunology
- Fibroblasts/immunology
- Granulocyte-Macrophage Colony-Stimulating Factor/biosynthesis
- Granulocyte-Macrophage Colony-Stimulating Factor/immunology
- Humans
- Inflammation
- Interleukin-17/biosynthesis
- Interleukin-17/physiology
- Lung/immunology
- Receptors, Interleukin/biosynthesis
- Receptors, Interleukin/immunology
- Receptors, Interleukin-17
- Transforming Growth Factor beta/physiology
- Transforming Growth Factor beta1
- Tumor Necrosis Factor-alpha/physiology
- Up-Regulation
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Affiliation(s)
- Séverine Létuvé
- Meakins-Christie Laboratories, Department of Pathology and Medicine, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec, Canada
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43
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Lajoie-Kadoch S, Joubert P, Létuvé S, Halayko AJ, Martin JG, Soussi-Gounni A, Hamid Q. TNF-alpha and IFN-gamma inversely modulate expression of the IL-17E receptor in airway smooth muscle cells. Am J Physiol Lung Cell Mol Physiol 2006; 290:L1238-46. [PMID: 16428271 DOI: 10.1152/ajplung.00301.2005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
The interleukin-17B receptor (IL-17BR) is expressed in a variety of tissues and is upregulated under inflammatory conditions. This receptor binds both its cognate ligand IL-17B and IL-17E/IL-25, a novel cytokine known to promote Th2 responses. The present study shows that airway smooth muscle cells express IL-17BR in vitro and that its expression is upregulated by TNF-alpha and downregulated by IFN-gamma. Our data indicate that TNF-alpha upregulates IL-17BR mainly through nuclear factor-kappaB as assessed with the IkappaB kinase 2 inhibitor AS-602868. In addition, both IFN-gamma and dexamethasone are able to antagonize a TNF-alpha-induced IL-17BR increase in mRNA expression. The mitogen-activated protein kinase kinase inhibitor U0126 totally reversed the inhibition observed with IFN-gamma, suggesting the involvement of the extracellular signal-regulated kinase pathway in this effect. In addition, on stimulation with IL-17E, airway smooth muscle cells increase their expression of ECM components, namely procollagen-alphaI and lumican mRNA. Furthermore, immunohistochemical analysis of biopsies from asthmatic subjects reveals that this receptor is abundant in smooth muscle layers. This is the first report showing IL-17BR receptor in structural cells of the airways. Our results suggest a potential proremodeling effect of IL-17E on airway smooth muscle cells through the induction of ECM and that its receptor is upregulated by proinflammatory conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stéphane Lajoie-Kadoch
- Meakins-Christie Laboratories, McGill University, 3626 St-Urbain Street, Montreal, Québec, Canada H2X 2P2
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44
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Maezawa Y, Nakajima H, Suzuki K, Tamachi T, Ikeda K, Inoue JI, Saito Y, Iwamoto I. Involvement of TNF Receptor-Associated Factor 6 in IL-25 Receptor Signaling. J Immunol 2006; 176:1013-8. [PMID: 16393988 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.176.2.1013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 88] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
IL-25 (IL-17E) induces IL-4, IL-5, and IL-13 production from an unidentified non-T/non-B cell population and subsequently induces Th2-type immune responses such as IgE production and eosinophilic airway inflammation. IL-25R is a single transmembrane protein with homology to IL-17R, but the IL-25R signaling pathways have not been fully understood. In this study, we investigated the signaling pathway under IL-25R, especially the possible involvement of TNFR-associated factor (TRAF)6 in this pathway. We found that IL-25R cross-linking induced NF-kappaB activation as well as ERK, JNK, and p38 activation. We also found that IL-25R-mediated NF-kappaB activation was inhibited by the expression of dominant negative TRAF6 but not of dominant negative TRAF2. Furthermore, IL-25R-mediated NF-kappaB activation, but not MAPK activation, was diminished in TRAF6-deficient murine embryonic fibroblast. In addition, coimmunoprecipitation assay revealed that TRAF6, but not TRAF2, associated with IL-25R even in the absence of ligand binding. Finally, we found that IL-25R-mediated gene expression of IL-6, TGF-beta, G-CSF, and thymus and activation-regulated chemokine was diminished in TRAF6-deficient murine embryonic fibroblast. Taken together, these results indicate that TRAF6 plays a critical role in IL-25R-mediated NF-kappaB activation and gene expression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuko Maezawa
- Department of Allergy and Clinical Immunology, Graduate School of Medicine, Chiba University, Chiba, Japan
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45
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Li TS, Li XN, Chang ZJ, Fu XY, Liu L. Identification and functional characterization of a novel interleukin 17 receptor: a possible mitogenic activation through ras/mitogen-activated protein kinase signaling pathway. Cell Signal 2005; 18:1287-98. [PMID: 16310341 DOI: 10.1016/j.cellsig.2005.10.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/21/2005] [Accepted: 10/05/2005] [Indexed: 01/23/2023]
Abstract
Interleukin-17 receptor (IL-17R) is increasingly emerged as a distinct receptor family functioning in diverse cellular processes including inflammation and cancer. In this study, we uncovered a novel member of IL-17R from mouse tissue that was named mouse IL-17RE (mIL-17R). Mouse IL-17RE cDNA is composed of at least 14 exons and presents at least 6 spliced isoforms (mIL-17RE1-6) with a molecular weight ranging from 34.2 to 70.1 kD. Mouse IL-17RE is expressed in limited tissues such as lung, kidney, stomach, intestine and testis, etc., and is mainly localized in the cytoplasm and on cell membrane. IL-17RE can also be detected in numerous tumor cell lines. Importantly, a mitogenic effect was detected in BaF3 cells stably transfected with the chimeric receptor fused by the ectodomain of erythropoietin receptor (EPOR) with the transmembrane and endomain of IL-17RE in a serum-dependent but EPO-independent manner. Moreover, ERK1/2 phosphorylation was significantly up-regulated as the dose of mIL-17RE increased. Specific RNAi targeting at mIL-17RE dramatically inhibited the activation of ERK1/2, indicating that mIL-17RE could functionally activate RAS/MAPK signaling pathway. Using dominant negative MEK (Dn-MEK) or RAS (Dn-RAS) as a signaling blocker, we were able to show that mIL-17RE probably activated RAS/MAPK signaling at or upstream of RAS. Overall, our results strongly indicate that mIL-17RE may belong to a novel growth-receptor like molecule that has the capability to support cellular mitogenesis through RAS/MAPK pathway.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tie-Shi Li
- Tsinghua Institute of Genome Research, Department of Biological Sciences and Biotechnology and Institute of Biomedicine, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China
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