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Volpe E, Errani F, Mandrioli L, Ciulli S. Advances in Viral Aquatic Animal Disease Knowledge: The Molecular Methods' Contribution. BIOLOGY 2023; 12:biology12030466. [PMID: 36979158 PMCID: PMC10045235 DOI: 10.3390/biology12030466] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/14/2023] [Revised: 03/15/2023] [Accepted: 03/17/2023] [Indexed: 03/30/2023]
Abstract
Aquaculture is the fastest-growing food-producing sector, with a global production of 122.6 million tonnes in 2020. Nonetheless, aquatic animal production can be hampered by the occurrence of viral diseases. Furthermore, intensive farming conditions and an increasing number of reared fish species have boosted the number of aquatic animals' pathogens that researchers have to deal with, requiring the quick development of new detection and study methods for novel unknown pathogens. In this respect, the molecular tools have significantly contributed to investigating thoroughly the structural constituents of fish viruses and providing efficient detection methods. For instance, next-generation sequencing has been crucial in reassignment to the correct taxonomic family, the sturgeon nucleo-cytoplasmic large DNA viruses, a group of viruses historically known, but mistakenly considered as iridoviruses. Further methods such as in situ hybridisation allowed objectifying the role played by the pathogen in the determinism of disease, as the cyprinid herpesvirus 2, ostreid herpesvirus 1 and betanodaviruses. Often, a combination of molecular techniques is crucial to understanding the viral role, especially when the virus is detected in a new aquatic animal species. With this paper, the authors would critically revise the scientific literature, dealing with the molecular techniques employed hitherto to study the most relevant finfish and shellfish viral pathogens.
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Affiliation(s)
- Enrico Volpe
- Department of Veterinary Medical Sciences, Alma Mater Studiorum, University of Bologna, 47042 Cesenatico, FC, Italy
| | - Francesca Errani
- Department of Veterinary Medical Sciences, Alma Mater Studiorum, University of Bologna, 47042 Cesenatico, FC, Italy
| | - Luciana Mandrioli
- Department of Veterinary Medical Sciences, Alma Mater Studiorum, University of Bologna, 47042 Cesenatico, FC, Italy
| | - Sara Ciulli
- Department of Veterinary Medical Sciences, Alma Mater Studiorum, University of Bologna, 47042 Cesenatico, FC, Italy
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2
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Jin Y, Bergmann SM, Mai Q, Yang Y, Liu W, Sun D, Chen Y, Yu Y, Liu Y, Cai W, Dong H, Li H, Yu H, Wu Y, Lai M, Zeng W. Simultaneous Isolation and Identification of Largemouth Bass Virus and Rhabdovirus from Moribund Largemouth Bass ( Micropterus salmoides). Viruses 2022; 14:v14081643. [PMID: 36016264 PMCID: PMC9415833 DOI: 10.3390/v14081643] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/22/2022] [Revised: 07/23/2022] [Accepted: 07/25/2022] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Largemouth bass is an important commercially farmed fish in China, but the rapid expansion of its breeding has resulted in increased incidence of diseases caused by bacteria, viruses and parasites. In this study, moribund largemouth bass containing ulcer foci on body surfaces indicated the most likely pathogens were iridovirus and rhabdovirus members and this was confirmed using a combination of immunohistochemistry, cell culture, electron microscopy and conserved gene sequence analysis. We identified that these fish had been co-infected with these viruses. We observed bullet-shaped virions (100−140 nm long and 50−100 nm in diameter) along with hexagonal virions with 140 nm diameters in cell culture inoculated with tissue homogenates. The viruses were plaque purified and a comparison of the highly conserved regions of the genome of these viruses indicated that they are most similar to largemouth bass virus (LMBV) and hybrid snakehead rhabdovirus (HSHRV), respectively. Regression infection experiments indicated fish mortalities for LMBV-FS2021 and HSHRV-MS2021 were 86.7 and 11.1%, respectively. While co-infection resulted in 93.3% mortality that was significantly (p < 0.05) higher than the single infections even though the viral loads differed by >100-fold. Overall, we simultaneously isolated and identified LMBV and a HSHRV-like virus from diseased largemouth bass, and our results can provide novel ideas for the prevention and treatment of combined virus infection especially in largemouth bass.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuqi Jin
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Animal Molecular Design and Precise Breeding, School of Life Science and Engineering, Foshan University, Foshan 528231, China; (Y.J.); (Q.M.); (Y.Y.); (W.L.); (D.S.); (Y.C.); (Y.Y.); (Y.L.); (H.D.); (H.L.); (H.Y.)
| | - Sven M. Bergmann
- Institute of Infectology, Friedrich-Loffler-Institut (FLI), Federal Research Institute for Animal Health, Südufer 10, 17493 Greifswald-InselRiems, Germany;
| | - Qianyi Mai
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Animal Molecular Design and Precise Breeding, School of Life Science and Engineering, Foshan University, Foshan 528231, China; (Y.J.); (Q.M.); (Y.Y.); (W.L.); (D.S.); (Y.C.); (Y.Y.); (Y.L.); (H.D.); (H.L.); (H.Y.)
| | - Ying Yang
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Animal Molecular Design and Precise Breeding, School of Life Science and Engineering, Foshan University, Foshan 528231, China; (Y.J.); (Q.M.); (Y.Y.); (W.L.); (D.S.); (Y.C.); (Y.Y.); (Y.L.); (H.D.); (H.L.); (H.Y.)
| | - Weiqiang Liu
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Animal Molecular Design and Precise Breeding, School of Life Science and Engineering, Foshan University, Foshan 528231, China; (Y.J.); (Q.M.); (Y.Y.); (W.L.); (D.S.); (Y.C.); (Y.Y.); (Y.L.); (H.D.); (H.L.); (H.Y.)
| | - Dongli Sun
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Animal Molecular Design and Precise Breeding, School of Life Science and Engineering, Foshan University, Foshan 528231, China; (Y.J.); (Q.M.); (Y.Y.); (W.L.); (D.S.); (Y.C.); (Y.Y.); (Y.L.); (H.D.); (H.L.); (H.Y.)
| | - Yanfeng Chen
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Animal Molecular Design and Precise Breeding, School of Life Science and Engineering, Foshan University, Foshan 528231, China; (Y.J.); (Q.M.); (Y.Y.); (W.L.); (D.S.); (Y.C.); (Y.Y.); (Y.L.); (H.D.); (H.L.); (H.Y.)
| | - Yingying Yu
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Animal Molecular Design and Precise Breeding, School of Life Science and Engineering, Foshan University, Foshan 528231, China; (Y.J.); (Q.M.); (Y.Y.); (W.L.); (D.S.); (Y.C.); (Y.Y.); (Y.L.); (H.D.); (H.L.); (H.Y.)
| | - Yuhong Liu
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Animal Molecular Design and Precise Breeding, School of Life Science and Engineering, Foshan University, Foshan 528231, China; (Y.J.); (Q.M.); (Y.Y.); (W.L.); (D.S.); (Y.C.); (Y.Y.); (Y.L.); (H.D.); (H.L.); (H.Y.)
| | - Wenlong Cai
- Department of Infectious Diseases and Public Health, Jockey Club College of Veterinary Medicine and Life Sciences, City University of Hong Kong, Kowloon, Hong Kong 999077, China;
| | - Hanxu Dong
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Animal Molecular Design and Precise Breeding, School of Life Science and Engineering, Foshan University, Foshan 528231, China; (Y.J.); (Q.M.); (Y.Y.); (W.L.); (D.S.); (Y.C.); (Y.Y.); (Y.L.); (H.D.); (H.L.); (H.Y.)
| | - Hua Li
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Animal Molecular Design and Precise Breeding, School of Life Science and Engineering, Foshan University, Foshan 528231, China; (Y.J.); (Q.M.); (Y.Y.); (W.L.); (D.S.); (Y.C.); (Y.Y.); (Y.L.); (H.D.); (H.L.); (H.Y.)
| | - Hui Yu
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Animal Molecular Design and Precise Breeding, School of Life Science and Engineering, Foshan University, Foshan 528231, China; (Y.J.); (Q.M.); (Y.Y.); (W.L.); (D.S.); (Y.C.); (Y.Y.); (Y.L.); (H.D.); (H.L.); (H.Y.)
| | - Yali Wu
- Foshan Institute of Agricultural Sciences, Guangdong, Foshan 528145, China; (Y.W.); (M.L.)
| | - Mingjian Lai
- Foshan Institute of Agricultural Sciences, Guangdong, Foshan 528145, China; (Y.W.); (M.L.)
| | - Weiwei Zeng
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Animal Molecular Design and Precise Breeding, School of Life Science and Engineering, Foshan University, Foshan 528231, China; (Y.J.); (Q.M.); (Y.Y.); (W.L.); (D.S.); (Y.C.); (Y.Y.); (Y.L.); (H.D.); (H.L.); (H.Y.)
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +86-(0757)-83962672
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Li Y, Ma Y, Hao L, Ma J, Liang Z, Liu Z, Ke H, Li Y. Characterization of a novel brain cell line from Jian carp (Cyprinus carpio var. Jian). FISH PHYSIOLOGY AND BIOCHEMISTRY 2021; 47:439-449. [PMID: 33409805 DOI: 10.1007/s10695-020-00923-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/19/2020] [Accepted: 12/28/2020] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Jian carp (Cyprinus carpio var. Jian) is an economically important cultured fish in China. Currently, it is facing threats from infectious diseases including koi herpesvirus (KHV). Here, we established a new cell line, designated CCB-J, derived from the brain tissue of the Jian carp. CCB-J cells grew well in Leibovitz's L-15 medium containing 20% fetal bovine serum at 25 °C and have been subcultured for more than 60 passages. At the 30th passage, analysis showed that the number of chromosomes was 100, which is identical to that of other carp variants. Sequencing of the 18S ribosomal DNA confirmed that CCB-J originated from Jian carp. After transfection with the pEGFP-N1 plasmid, green fluorescence was observed in CCB-J. The replication of KHV in CCB-J cells was confirmed by RT-PCR and transmission electron microscopy. The viral titers of KHV in CCB-J cells and CCB cells, which have been widely used in the study of KHV, reached 103.9 and 101.8 median tissue culture infectious dose (TCID50/mL), respectively, within 14 days. The result of TaqMan PCR revealed that CCB-J cells were more sensitive to KHV than CCB cells. Meanwhile, a cytopathic effect (CPE) was also observed in the CCB-J cells in a shorter time post-infection compared with CCB cells. In summary, the CCB-J cell line will be a useful tool in the study of viral pathogenesis and vaccine research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ying Li
- College of Veterinary Medicine, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, 510642, China
| | - Yanping Ma
- Institute of Animal Health, Guangdong Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Guangzhou, 510640, China
- Key Laboratory of Livestock Disease Prevention of Guangdong Province, Guangzhou, 510640, China
- Scientific Observation and Experiment Station of Veterinary Drugs and Diagnostic Techniques of Guangdong Province, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, PRC, Guangzhou, 510640, China
| | - Le Hao
- Institute of Animal Health, Guangdong Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Guangzhou, 510640, China
- Key Laboratory of Livestock Disease Prevention of Guangdong Province, Guangzhou, 510640, China
- Scientific Observation and Experiment Station of Veterinary Drugs and Diagnostic Techniques of Guangdong Province, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, PRC, Guangzhou, 510640, China
| | - Jiangyao Ma
- Institute of Animal Health, Guangdong Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Guangzhou, 510640, China
- Key Laboratory of Livestock Disease Prevention of Guangdong Province, Guangzhou, 510640, China
- Scientific Observation and Experiment Station of Veterinary Drugs and Diagnostic Techniques of Guangdong Province, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, PRC, Guangzhou, 510640, China
| | - Zhiling Liang
- Institute of Animal Health, Guangdong Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Guangzhou, 510640, China
- Key Laboratory of Livestock Disease Prevention of Guangdong Province, Guangzhou, 510640, China
- Scientific Observation and Experiment Station of Veterinary Drugs and Diagnostic Techniques of Guangdong Province, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, PRC, Guangzhou, 510640, China
| | - Zhenxing Liu
- Institute of Animal Health, Guangdong Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Guangzhou, 510640, China.
- Key Laboratory of Livestock Disease Prevention of Guangdong Province, Guangzhou, 510640, China.
- Scientific Observation and Experiment Station of Veterinary Drugs and Diagnostic Techniques of Guangdong Province, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, PRC, Guangzhou, 510640, China.
| | - Hao Ke
- Institute of Animal Health, Guangdong Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Guangzhou, 510640, China
- Key Laboratory of Livestock Disease Prevention of Guangdong Province, Guangzhou, 510640, China
- Scientific Observation and Experiment Station of Veterinary Drugs and Diagnostic Techniques of Guangdong Province, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, PRC, Guangzhou, 510640, China
| | - Yugu Li
- College of Veterinary Medicine, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, 510642, China.
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4
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Ababneh M, Hananeh W, Alzghoul M. Mass mortality associated with koi herpesvirus in common carp in Iraq. Heliyon 2020; 6:e04827. [PMID: 32923729 PMCID: PMC7476233 DOI: 10.1016/j.heliyon.2020.e04827] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/01/2020] [Revised: 05/11/2020] [Accepted: 08/27/2020] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Koi herpesvirus disease is a serious disease affecting both wild and common carp species in different continents throughout the world. Based on pathological and molecular findings, we document the presence of koi herpesvirus disease in Iraq as a cause of mass mortality among the common carp of the Tigris river. On a macroscopic level, the fish exhibited variably sized skin ulcerations throughout the entire trunk. The gills showed variable degrees of discoloration with an increased amount of slimy mucus. Microscopically, degeneration and necrosis with infiltration of a heterogenous population of inflammatory cells characterized different organs, primarily the skin and gills, with occasional intranuclear inclusion bodies that are consistent with koi herpesvirus disease. A semi-nested PCR assay coupled with sequencing confirmed the pathological diagnosis. Genotyping and sequence analysis of the TK gene, ORF 136 and markers I and II identified the isolated CyHV-3 as variant A1 of the Asian genotype TUSMT1 (J strain) displaying the I++II+ allele.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mustafa Ababneh
- Department of Basic Medical Veterinary Sciences, Jordan University of Science & Technology, P.O. Box 3030, Irbid, 22110, Jordan
| | - Wael Hananeh
- Department of Pathology and Public Health, Jordan University of Science & Technology, P.O. Box 3030, Irbid, 22110, Jordan
| | - Mohammad Alzghoul
- Department of Basic Medical Veterinary Sciences, Jordan University of Science & Technology, P.O. Box 3030, Irbid, 22110, Jordan
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5
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Ahmadivand S, Soltani M, Shokrpoor S, Rahmati-Holasoo H, El-Matbouli M, Taheri-Mirghaed A. Cyprinid herpesvirus 3 (CyHV-3) transmission and outbreaks in Iran: Detection and characterization in farmed common carp. Microb Pathog 2020; 149:104321. [PMID: 32534183 DOI: 10.1016/j.micpath.2020.104321] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/20/2020] [Revised: 06/02/2020] [Accepted: 06/03/2020] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
This study shows the presence of Cyprinid Herpesvirus-3 (CyHV-3) in common carp (Cyprinus carpio) from Iranian carp farms with cumulative mortality up to 80% during 2015-2016. Pathological signs of disease such as gill necrosis, sunken eyes, and increased slime secretion on the skin and fins were observed in affected fish. The extensive fusion of secondary lamellae with necrotic cells, margination of chromatin, and formation of intranuclear inclusion bodies in gill tissues were also observed by histopathological examination. Most tubular epithelial cells and some hematopoietic cells showed intranuclear inclusion bodies in the kidney. The Iranian CyHV-3 isolates showed identity with Asian strains, and displayed the I++ II+ allele of the Asian lineage, as revealed by sequence analysis of the TK gene, Marker I, and Marker II. The detected isolates were also similar to those detected from koi in the same region of Iran, suggesting the probable transmission of CyHV-3 from ornamental to farmed cyprinids. This represents the first report of CyHV-3 from Iranian farmed common carp to the best of our knowledge.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sohrab Ahmadivand
- Department of Aquatic Animal Health, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Tehran, P.O. Box: 14155-6453, Tehran, Iran.
| | - Mehdi Soltani
- Department of Aquatic Animal Health, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Tehran, P.O. Box: 14155-6453, Tehran, Iran; Centre for Sustainable Aquatic Ecosystems, Harry Butler Institute, Murdoch University, Perth, Australia.
| | - Sara Shokrpoor
- Department of Pathology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Tehran, P.O. Box: 14155-6453, Tehran, Iran
| | - Hooman Rahmati-Holasoo
- Department of Aquatic Animal Health, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Tehran, P.O. Box: 14155-6453, Tehran, Iran
| | - Mansour El-Matbouli
- Clinical Division of Fish Medicine, University of Veterinary Medicine, Vienna, 1210, Austria
| | - Ali Taheri-Mirghaed
- Department of Aquatic Animal Health, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Tehran, P.O. Box: 14155-6453, Tehran, Iran
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6
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Biocontrol of the Common Carp (Cyprinus carpio) in Australia: A Review and Future Directions. FISHES 2020. [DOI: 10.3390/fishes5020017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
Invasive pest species are recognized as one of the important drivers of reduced global biodiversity. In Australia, the 267 invasive plant, animal and microbial species, established since European colonization in the 1770s, have been unequivocally declared the most important threat to species diversity in this country. One invasive pest, the common carp (Cyprinus carpio), has been targeted in an integrated pest management plan that might include cyprinid herpesvirus 3 (CyHV-3) as a potential biocontrol agent. The species-specificity of the released virus (and of field variants that will inevitably arise) has been assessed, and the virus judged to be safe. It has also been hypothesised that, because the virulence of the CyHV-3 will likely decline following release, the virus should be used strategically: initially, the aim would be to markedly reduce numbers of carp in naive populations, and then some other, as yet uncertain, complementary broad-scale control measure would knock-down carp numbers even further. Brief results are included from recent studies on the modelling of release and spread of the virus, the ecological and social concerns associated with virus release, and the restoration benefits that might be expected following carp control. We conclude that, while further work is required (on the virus, the target species, environmental issues, and especially the identification of a suitable broad-scale complementary control measure), optimism must prevail in order to ensure an eventual solution to this important environmental problem.
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7
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Bergmann SM, Jin Y, Franzke K, Grunow B, Wang Q, Klafack S. Koi herpesvirus (KHV) and KHV disease (KHVD) - a recently updated overview. J Appl Microbiol 2020; 129:98-103. [PMID: 32077213 DOI: 10.1111/jam.14616] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/11/2019] [Revised: 02/06/2020] [Accepted: 02/07/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Over the last years, there has been an enormous increase in the knowledge on koi herpesvirus (KHV), koi herpesvirus disease (KHVD), pathogenesis and virus variants. Different KHV lineages have clearly been identified, possible genomic changes during replication in different cell cultures at different temperatures but also in several hosts have been identified, a persistent stage of infection has been specified and it has been shown that infection with KHV is not host specific at all, but KHVD is. Additionally, it has been shown that it is possible to combat KHVD by immunization with inactivated and attenuated live vaccines using different delivery systems but also to benefit from alternative treatments with e.g. exopolysaccharids obtained from Arthrospira platensis.
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Affiliation(s)
- S M Bergmann
- OIE and National Reference Laboratory for KHVD, Institute of Infectology, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut (FLI), Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany
| | - Y Jin
- OIE and National Reference Laboratory for KHVD, Institute of Infectology, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut (FLI), Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany
| | - K Franzke
- OIE and National Reference Laboratory for KHVD, Institute of Infectology, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut (FLI), Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany
| | - B Grunow
- Institute of Muscle Biology & Growth, Junior Research Group Fish Growth Physiology, Leibniz Institute for Farm Animal Biology (FBN), Dummerstorf, Germany
| | - Q Wang
- Key Lab of Fishery Drug Development, Ministry of Agriculture, Key Lab of Aquatic Animal Immune Technology, Peal River Fisheries Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Fishery Sciences, Guangzhou, PR China
| | - S Klafack
- OIE and National Reference Laboratory for KHVD, Institute of Infectology, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut (FLI), Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany.,Institute for Medical Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Greifswald, Greifswald, Germany
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Shahin K, Soto E, Martínez-López B, Barnum S. Genetic Diversity of Cyprinid Herpesvirus 3 from Different Geographical Locations during 1999-2019 in the United States of America. JOURNAL OF AQUATIC ANIMAL HEALTH 2020; 32:50-56. [PMID: 32069378 DOI: 10.1002/aah.10098] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/01/2019] [Accepted: 12/23/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Cyprinid herpesvirus 3, also known as koi herpesvirus (KHV), is an important pathogen in common and koi carp Cyprinus carpio, varieties. Two main genotypes of KHV have been reported worldwide that are associated with Asian and European origins. In the USA, outbreaks of KHV diseases have been reported in different states since the early 1990s; however, the diversity of KHV is unknown. In the current study, 67 DNA samples that were extracted from clinical cases of koi tissues that were submitted for diagnosis during KHV outbreaks from 10 different states in the USA from 1999 to 2019 were used to investigate their genetic diversity. The thymidine kinase gene was amplified, sequenced, and used for phylogenetic analysis. Our results showed that the KHV isolates that were collected from the different states were clustered in the two known KHV genogroups, where 31 isolates belonged to the Asian genotype branch and 36 to the European genotype branch. The spatiotemporal analysis demonstrated fluctuation of KHV genotypes in the USA, as the main KHV genotype that was detected in koi in the USA from 1999 to 2013 was the European genotype, whereas the Asian KHV genotype appeared to emerge in the USA in 2008, increasing in incidence until 2019. The current study provides evidence on the genetic diversity of KHV in the USA. Future studies that evaluate the virulence of these genetically diverse isolates is warranted to obtain a better understanding of the epidemiology of this re-emerging pathogen. This may provide an improved awareness of the current status of KHV and help to control the disease in the koi population in the USA.
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Affiliation(s)
- Khalid Shahin
- Department of Medicine and Epidemiology, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Tupper Hall 2108, One Shields Avenue, Davis, California, 95616, USA
| | - Esteban Soto
- Department of Medicine and Epidemiology, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Tupper Hall 2108, One Shields Avenue, Davis, California, 95616, USA
| | - Beatriz Martínez-López
- Center for Animal Disease Modeling and Surveillance, Department of Medicine and Epidemiology, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Tupper Hall 2108, One Shields Avenue, Davis, California, 95616, USA
| | - Samantha Barnum
- Real-Time PCR Research and Diagnostic Core Facility, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Tupper Hall 2108, One Shields Avenue, Davis, California, 95616, USA
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Klafack S, Fiston-Lavier AS, Bergmann SM, Hammoumi S, Schröder L, Fuchs W, Lusiastuti A, Lee PY, Heredia SV, Gosselin-Grenet AS, Avarre JC. Cyprinid herpesvirus 3 Evolves In Vitro through an Assemblage of Haplotypes that Alternatively Become Dominant or Under-Represented. Viruses 2019; 11:v11080754. [PMID: 31443175 PMCID: PMC6723609 DOI: 10.3390/v11080754] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/28/2019] [Revised: 08/08/2019] [Accepted: 08/11/2019] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Viruses are able to evolve in vitro by mutations after serial passages in cell cultures, which can lead to either a loss, or an increase, of virulence. Cyprinid herpesvirus 3 (CyHV-3), a 295-kb double-stranded DNA virus, is the etiological agent of the koi herpesvirus disease (KHVD). To assess the influence of serial passages, an isolate of CyHV-3 (KHV-T) was passaged 99 times onto common carp brain (CCB) cells, and virus virulence was evaluated during passages through the experimental infections of common carp. After 78 CCB passages, the isolate was much less virulent than the original form. A comparative genomic analysis of these three forms of KHV-T (P0, P78 and P99) revealed a limited number of variations. The largest one was a deletion of 1363 bp in the predicted ORF150, which was detected in P78, but not in P99. This unexpected finding was confirmed by conventional PCR and digital PCR. The results presented here primarily suggest that, CyHV-3 evolves, at least in vitro, through an assemblage of haplotypes that alternatively become dominant or under-represented.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sandro Klafack
- Institute of Infectology, Friedrich-Loeffer-Institut, Federal Research Institute for Animal Health, 17493 Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany
| | | | - Sven M Bergmann
- Institute of Infectology, Friedrich-Loeffer-Institut, Federal Research Institute for Animal Health, 17493 Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany.
| | - Saliha Hammoumi
- ISEM, IRD, CNRS, EPHE, University of Montpellier, 34095 Montpellier, France
| | - Lars Schröder
- Institute of Molecular Virology and Cell Biology, Friedrich Loeffer Institut, Federal Research Institute for Animal Health, 17493 Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany
| | - Walter Fuchs
- Institute of Molecular Virology and Cell Biology, Friedrich Loeffer Institut, Federal Research Institute for Animal Health, 17493 Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany
| | - Angela Lusiastuti
- Research Institute for Freshwater Aquaculture and Fisheries Extension, Bogor 16129, Indonesia
| | - Pei-Yu Lee
- GenReach Biotechnology, Taichung City 407, Taiwan
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Monitoring changing cellular characteristics during the development of a fin cell line from Cyprinus carpio. Comp Biochem Physiol B Biochem Mol Biol 2018; 225:1-12. [PMID: 29960082 DOI: 10.1016/j.cbpb.2018.06.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/13/2018] [Revised: 06/11/2018] [Accepted: 06/20/2018] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
The establishment and in-depth characterization of a novel continuous cell line derived from fin tissue of common carp (Cyprinus carpio), CCApin, is reported. The cells of the cell line could be propagated in Leibovitz's L-15 medium containing 15% foetal calf serum and 0.5% carp serum for >150 passages during the last 24 months, with a stable fast growth. Furthermore, antibody staining indicated that cell types obtained in primary cultures, containing the epithelial stem-cell marker tumorprotein 63, were different from cells in long-term cell cultures, containing tight junction protein zona occludens 1 and cytokeratin 7. These observations suggest a switch of dominant cell types. Molecular analysis of gene expression profiles of caudal fin tissue and CCApin cells showed that genes relevant in epithelial cells but also in mesenchymal cells were expressed. However, during cultivation of CCApin a set of very steadily expressed, primarily mesenchymal genes like collagen 1 alpha 1, fibronectin or cadherin 2 was found. In summary, the long-term cell culture could be described as a stably growing epithelial population with some mesenchymal features. There are several application possibilities, especially for virus susceptibility studies, e.g. cyprinid herpesvirus-3 (CyHV-3). The study leads to a better understanding of molecular and physiological mechanisms of in vitro fish cell cultures.
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11
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Gao Y, Suárez NM, Wilkie GS, Dong C, Bergmann S, Lee PYA, Davison AJ, Vanderplasschen AFC, Boutier M. Genomic and biologic comparisons of cyprinid herpesvirus 3 strains. Vet Res 2018; 49:40. [PMID: 29716648 PMCID: PMC5930815 DOI: 10.1186/s13567-018-0532-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/07/2018] [Accepted: 03/30/2018] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Cyprinid herpesvirus 3 (CyHV-3) is the archetypal fish alloherpesvirus and the etiologic agent of a lethal disease in common and koi carp. To date, the genome sequences of only four CyHV-3 isolates have been published, but no comparisons of the biologic properties of these strains have been reported. We have sequenced the genomes of a further seven strains from various geographical sources, and have compared their growth in vitro and virulence in vivo. The major findings were: (i) the existence of the two genetic lineages previously described as European and Asian was confirmed, but inconsistencies between the geographic origin and genotype of some strains were revealed; (ii) potential inter-lineage recombination was detected in one strain, which also suggested the existence of a third, as yet unidentified lineage; (iii) analysis of genetic disruptions led to the identification of non-essential genes and their potential role in virulence; (iv) comparison of the in vitro and in vivo properties of strains belonging to the two lineages revealed that inter-lineage polymorphisms do not contribute to the differences in viral fitness observed; and (v) a negative correlation was observed among strains between viral growth in vitro and virulence in vivo. This study illustrates the importance of coupling genomic and biologic comparisons of viral strains in order to enhance understanding of viral evolution and pathogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuan Gao
- Immunology-Vaccinology, Department of Infectious and Parasitic Diseases (B43b), Fundamental and Applied Research for Animals & Health (FARAH), Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Liège, Liège, Belgium
| | - Nicolás M Suárez
- MRC-University of Glasgow Centre for Virus Research, Glasgow, UK
| | - Gavin S Wilkie
- MRC-University of Glasgow Centre for Virus Research, Glasgow, UK
| | - Chuanfu Dong
- MOE Key Laboratory of Aquatic Food Safety/State Key Laboratory for Bio-control, School of Life Sciences, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Sven Bergmann
- Friedrich-Loeffler Institut, Federal Research Institute for Animal Health, Institute of Infectology, Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany
| | - Pei-Yu Alison Lee
- Department of Research and Development, GeneReach, Biotechnology Corporation, Taichung, China
| | - Andrew J Davison
- MRC-University of Glasgow Centre for Virus Research, Glasgow, UK
| | - Alain F C Vanderplasschen
- Immunology-Vaccinology, Department of Infectious and Parasitic Diseases (B43b), Fundamental and Applied Research for Animals & Health (FARAH), Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Liège, Liège, Belgium.
| | - Maxime Boutier
- Immunology-Vaccinology, Department of Infectious and Parasitic Diseases (B43b), Fundamental and Applied Research for Animals & Health (FARAH), Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Liège, Liège, Belgium
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12
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Impacts of an invasive virus (CyHV-3) on established invasive populations of common carp (Cyprinus carpio) in North America. Biol Invasions 2018. [DOI: 10.1007/s10530-017-1655-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
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13
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McColl KA, Sunarto A, Slater J, Bell K, Asmus M, Fulton W, Hall K, Brown P, Gilligan D, Hoad J, Williams LM, Crane MSJ. Cyprinid herpesvirus 3 as a potential biological control agent for carp (Cyprinus carpio) in Australia: susceptibility of non-target species. JOURNAL OF FISH DISEASES 2017; 40:1141-1153. [PMID: 28026008 DOI: 10.1111/jfd.12591] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/01/2016] [Revised: 10/20/2016] [Accepted: 10/21/2016] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
Carp (Cyprinus carpio L.) is a pest species in Australian waterways, and cyprinid herpesvirus 3 (CyHV-3) is being considered as a potential biological control (biocontrol) agent. An important consideration for any such agent is its target specificity. In this study, the susceptibility to CyHV-3 of a range of non-target species (NTS) was tested. The NTS were as follows: 13 native Australian, and one introduced, fish species; a lamprey species; a crustacean; two native amphibian species (tadpole and mature stages); two native reptilian species; chickens; and laboratory mice. Animals were exposed to 100-1000 times the approximate minimum amount of CyHV-3 required to cause disease in carp by intraperitoneal and/or bath challenge, and then examined clinically each day over the course of 28 days post-challenge. There were no clinical signs, mortalities or histological evidence consistent with a viral infection in a wide taxonomic range of NTS. Furthermore, there was no molecular evidence of infection with CyHV-3, and, in particular, all RT-PCRs for viral mRNA were negative. As a consequence, the results encourage further investigation of CyHV-3 as a potential biocontrol agent that is specific for carp.
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Affiliation(s)
- K A McColl
- CSIRO-Australian Animal Health Laboratory, Geelong, Vic., Australia
| | - A Sunarto
- CSIRO-Australian Animal Health Laboratory, Geelong, Vic., Australia
| | - J Slater
- CSIRO-Australian Animal Health Laboratory, Geelong, Vic., Australia
| | - K Bell
- K&C Global Fisheries, Sale, Vic., Australia
| | - M Asmus
- Department of Primary Industries, Narrandera Fisheries Centre, Narrandera, NSW, Australia
| | - W Fulton
- Department of Primary Industries, Fisheries Research Branch, Queenscliff, Vic., Australia
| | - K Hall
- Department of Primary Industries, Fisheries Research Branch, Queenscliff, Vic., Australia
| | - P Brown
- The Murray-Darling Freshwater Research Centre and La Trobe University, Mildura, Vic., Australia
| | - D Gilligan
- Department of Primary Industries, Narrandera Fisheries Centre, Narrandera, NSW, Australia
| | - J Hoad
- CSIRO-Australian Animal Health Laboratory, Geelong, Vic., Australia
| | - L M Williams
- CSIRO-Australian Animal Health Laboratory, Geelong, Vic., Australia
| | - M St J Crane
- CSIRO-Australian Animal Health Laboratory, Geelong, Vic., Australia
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14
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Lin L, Chen S, Russell DS, Löhr CV, Milston-Clements R, Song T, Miller-Morgan T, Jin L. Analysis of stress factors associated with KHV reactivation and pathological effects from KHV reactivation. Virus Res 2017; 240:200-206. [PMID: 28860099 DOI: 10.1016/j.virusres.2017.08.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/25/2017] [Revised: 08/20/2017] [Accepted: 08/21/2017] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Koi herpesvirus (KHV) is a highly pathogenic virus of common carp and koi. KHV becomes latent in recovered koi or exposed koi without symptoms, and the latent infection can reactivate under stress conditions. KHV reactivation from latency often occurs when water temperature rapidly rises above 17°C. Dissolved O2 is lower at ≥17°C than at non-stress temperatures ≤15°C. To determine whether reduced dissolved O2 level has a role in KHV reactivation during temperature stress, KHV reactivation was investigated in KHV latently infected koi (KHV+ koi) under stress temperatures by maintaining dissolved O2 consistent with the O2 level at 15°C. There was no significant difference in the amount of reactivated virus between KHV+ koi maintained with and without O2 supplementation during temperature stress. Both handling and sampling were found to be stressful to koi and can contribute to KHV reactivation from latency. There was an increase in KHV genome within white blood cells (WBC) during KHV reactivation, which is about 3-4 fold higher than the amount of KHV genome detectable in WBC during the latency stage. At day 15 post-temperature stress (PTS), inflammation and necrosis were observed in multiple tissues, especially in the gills, eye, intestine, skin and kidney. KHV DNA was also detectable in multiple tissues on days 6, 9 and 15 PTS. Following day 3 PTS, the plasma cortisol levels were higher than that observed in koi before temperature stress, suggesting that KHV reactivation is associated with physiological stress in KHV+ koi.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lisa Lin
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR 97331, United States
| | - Sammi Chen
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR 97331, United States
| | - Duncan S Russell
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR 97331, United States
| | - Christiane V Löhr
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR 97331, United States
| | - Ruth Milston-Clements
- Department of Microbiology, College of Science, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR 97331, United States
| | - Tiffany Song
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR 97331, United States
| | - Tim Miller-Morgan
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR 97331, United States; Aquatic Animal Health Program, Oregon Sea Grant, Hatfield Marine Science Center, Oregon State University, Newport, OR, 97365, United States
| | - Ling Jin
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR 97331, United States; Department of Microbiology, College of Science, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR 97331, United States.
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15
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Zheng S, Wang Q, Bergmann SM, Li Y, Zeng W, Wang Y, Liu C, Shi C. Investigation of latent infections caused by cyprinid herpesvirus 3 in koi ( Cyprinus carpio) in southern China. J Vet Diagn Invest 2017; 29:366-369. [PMID: 28430085 DOI: 10.1177/1040638716689117] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Although herpesviruses such as cyprinid herpesvirus 3 (CyHV-3) can establish lifelong latent infections, little is known about latency conditions in farmed koi populations in China. We used nested polymerase chain reaction targeting the TK gene and an indirect antibody ELISA to screen asymptomatic fish obtained from southern China for evidence of CyHV-3 infection. CyHV-3 DNA could be detected either in peripheral blood leukocytes or from gills of asymptomatic koi. Most koi sera did not contain anti-CyHV-3 antibodies; however, 5 samples were ELISA positive, providing evidence of prior CyHV-3 infections. These findings suggest that koi may survive CyHV-3 infections and become virus carriers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shucheng Zheng
- Key Laboratory of Fishery Drug Development of Ministry of Agriculture, Key Laboratory of Aquatic Animal Immune Technology of Guangdong Province, Pearl River Fisheries Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Fishery Sciences, Guangzhou, Guangdong, the People's Republic of China (Zheng, Q Wang, Li, Zeng, Y Wang, Liu, Shi).,College of Fisheries and Life Science, Shanghai Ocean University, Shanghai, the People's Republic of China (Zheng).,German Reference Laboratory for KHVD, Institute of Infectology, Friedrich-Loffler-Institut (FLI), Federal Research Institute for Animal Health, Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany (Bergmann)
| | - Qing Wang
- Key Laboratory of Fishery Drug Development of Ministry of Agriculture, Key Laboratory of Aquatic Animal Immune Technology of Guangdong Province, Pearl River Fisheries Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Fishery Sciences, Guangzhou, Guangdong, the People's Republic of China (Zheng, Q Wang, Li, Zeng, Y Wang, Liu, Shi).,College of Fisheries and Life Science, Shanghai Ocean University, Shanghai, the People's Republic of China (Zheng).,German Reference Laboratory for KHVD, Institute of Infectology, Friedrich-Loffler-Institut (FLI), Federal Research Institute for Animal Health, Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany (Bergmann)
| | - Sven M Bergmann
- Key Laboratory of Fishery Drug Development of Ministry of Agriculture, Key Laboratory of Aquatic Animal Immune Technology of Guangdong Province, Pearl River Fisheries Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Fishery Sciences, Guangzhou, Guangdong, the People's Republic of China (Zheng, Q Wang, Li, Zeng, Y Wang, Liu, Shi).,College of Fisheries and Life Science, Shanghai Ocean University, Shanghai, the People's Republic of China (Zheng).,German Reference Laboratory for KHVD, Institute of Infectology, Friedrich-Loffler-Institut (FLI), Federal Research Institute for Animal Health, Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany (Bergmann)
| | - Yingying Li
- Key Laboratory of Fishery Drug Development of Ministry of Agriculture, Key Laboratory of Aquatic Animal Immune Technology of Guangdong Province, Pearl River Fisheries Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Fishery Sciences, Guangzhou, Guangdong, the People's Republic of China (Zheng, Q Wang, Li, Zeng, Y Wang, Liu, Shi).,College of Fisheries and Life Science, Shanghai Ocean University, Shanghai, the People's Republic of China (Zheng).,German Reference Laboratory for KHVD, Institute of Infectology, Friedrich-Loffler-Institut (FLI), Federal Research Institute for Animal Health, Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany (Bergmann)
| | - Weiwei Zeng
- Key Laboratory of Fishery Drug Development of Ministry of Agriculture, Key Laboratory of Aquatic Animal Immune Technology of Guangdong Province, Pearl River Fisheries Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Fishery Sciences, Guangzhou, Guangdong, the People's Republic of China (Zheng, Q Wang, Li, Zeng, Y Wang, Liu, Shi).,College of Fisheries and Life Science, Shanghai Ocean University, Shanghai, the People's Republic of China (Zheng).,German Reference Laboratory for KHVD, Institute of Infectology, Friedrich-Loffler-Institut (FLI), Federal Research Institute for Animal Health, Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany (Bergmann)
| | - Yingying Wang
- Key Laboratory of Fishery Drug Development of Ministry of Agriculture, Key Laboratory of Aquatic Animal Immune Technology of Guangdong Province, Pearl River Fisheries Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Fishery Sciences, Guangzhou, Guangdong, the People's Republic of China (Zheng, Q Wang, Li, Zeng, Y Wang, Liu, Shi).,College of Fisheries and Life Science, Shanghai Ocean University, Shanghai, the People's Republic of China (Zheng).,German Reference Laboratory for KHVD, Institute of Infectology, Friedrich-Loffler-Institut (FLI), Federal Research Institute for Animal Health, Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany (Bergmann)
| | - Chun Liu
- Key Laboratory of Fishery Drug Development of Ministry of Agriculture, Key Laboratory of Aquatic Animal Immune Technology of Guangdong Province, Pearl River Fisheries Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Fishery Sciences, Guangzhou, Guangdong, the People's Republic of China (Zheng, Q Wang, Li, Zeng, Y Wang, Liu, Shi).,College of Fisheries and Life Science, Shanghai Ocean University, Shanghai, the People's Republic of China (Zheng).,German Reference Laboratory for KHVD, Institute of Infectology, Friedrich-Loffler-Institut (FLI), Federal Research Institute for Animal Health, Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany (Bergmann)
| | - Cunbin Shi
- Key Laboratory of Fishery Drug Development of Ministry of Agriculture, Key Laboratory of Aquatic Animal Immune Technology of Guangdong Province, Pearl River Fisheries Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Fishery Sciences, Guangzhou, Guangdong, the People's Republic of China (Zheng, Q Wang, Li, Zeng, Y Wang, Liu, Shi).,College of Fisheries and Life Science, Shanghai Ocean University, Shanghai, the People's Republic of China (Zheng).,German Reference Laboratory for KHVD, Institute of Infectology, Friedrich-Loffler-Institut (FLI), Federal Research Institute for Animal Health, Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany (Bergmann)
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16
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Klafack S, Wang Q, Zeng W, Wang Y, Li Y, Zheng S, Kempter J, Lee PY, Matras M, Bergmann SM. Genetic Variability of Koi Herpesvirus In vitro-A Natural Event? Front Microbiol 2017. [PMID: 28642739 PMCID: PMC5462989 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2017.00982] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Worldwide koi herpesvirus (KHV) causes high mortalities in Cyprinus carpio L. aquaculture. So far, it is unknown how the different variants of KHV have developed and how they spread in the fish, but also in the environmental water bodies. Therefore, a phylogenetic method based on variable number of tandem repeats (VNTR) was improved to gain deeper insights into the phylogeny of KHV and its possible worldwide distribution. Moreover, a VNTR-3 qPCR was designed which allows fast virus typing. This study presents a useful method for molecular tracing of diverse KHV types, variants, and lineages.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sandro Klafack
- Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Federal Research Institute for Animal HealthGreifswald-Insel Riems, Germany
| | - Qing Wang
- Pearl River Fisheries Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Fishery SciencesGuangzhou, China
| | - Weiwei Zeng
- Pearl River Fisheries Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Fishery SciencesGuangzhou, China
| | - Yingying Wang
- Pearl River Fisheries Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Fishery SciencesGuangzhou, China
| | - Yingying Li
- Pearl River Fisheries Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Fishery SciencesGuangzhou, China
| | - Shucheng Zheng
- Pearl River Fisheries Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Fishery SciencesGuangzhou, China
| | - Jolanta Kempter
- Department of Aquaculture, West Pomeranian University of TechnologySzczecin, Poland
| | - Pei-Yu Lee
- Department of Research and Development, GeneReach Biotechnology CorporationTaichung, China
| | - Marek Matras
- National Veterinary Research InstitutePulawy, Poland
| | - Sven M Bergmann
- Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Federal Research Institute for Animal HealthGreifswald-Insel Riems, Germany
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17
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Cabon J, Louboutin L, Castric J, Bergmann S, Bovo G, Matras M, Haenen O, Olesen NJ, Morin T. Validation of a serum neutralization test for detection of antibodies specific to cyprinid herpesvirus 3 in infected common and koi carp (Cyprinus carpio). JOURNAL OF FISH DISEASES 2017; 40:687-701. [PMID: 27716953 DOI: 10.1111/jfd.12550] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/02/2016] [Revised: 07/13/2016] [Accepted: 07/18/2016] [Indexed: 05/18/2023]
Abstract
Cyprinid herpesvirus 3 (CyHV-3) is the aetiological agent of a serious infective, notifiable disease affecting common carp and varieties. In survivors, infection is generally characterized by a subclinical latency phase with restricted viral replication. The CyHV-3 genome is difficult to detect in such carrier fish that represent a potential source of dissemination if viral reactivation occurs. In this study, the analytical and diagnostic performance of an alternative serum neutralization (SN) method based on the detection of CyHV-3-specific antibodies was assessed using 151 serum or plasma samples from healthy and naturally or experimentally CyHV-3-infected carp. French CyHV-3 isolate 07/108b was neutralized efficiently by sera from carp infected with European, American and Taiwanese CyHV-3 isolates, but no neutralization was observed using sera specific to other aquatic herpesviruses. Diagnostic sensitivity, diagnostic specificity and repeatability of 95.9%, 99.0% and 99.3%, respectively, were obtained, as well as a compliance rate of 89.9% in reproducibility testing. Neutralizing antibodies were steadily detected in infected carp subjected to restrictive or permissive temperature variations over more than 25 months post-infection. The results suggest that this non-lethal diagnostic test could be used in the future to improve the epidemiological surveillance and control of CyHV-3 disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Cabon
- French Agency for Food, Environmental and Occupational Health & Safety (ANSES), Ploufragan-Plouzané Laboratory, Viral Fish Pathology Unit, Université Bretagne Loire, Plouzané, France
| | - L Louboutin
- French Agency for Food, Environmental and Occupational Health & Safety (ANSES), Ploufragan-Plouzané Laboratory, Viral Fish Pathology Unit, Université Bretagne Loire, Plouzané, France
| | - J Castric
- French Agency for Food, Environmental and Occupational Health & Safety (ANSES), Ploufragan-Plouzané Laboratory, Viral Fish Pathology Unit, Université Bretagne Loire, Plouzané, France
| | - S Bergmann
- Friedrich Loeffler Institut (FLI), Insel Riems, Institute of Infectiology, Greifswald, Germany
| | - G Bovo
- Fish Virology Department, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale delle Venezie (IZS-Ve), Legnaro, Padova, Italy
| | - M Matras
- Department of Fish Diseases, National Veterinary Research Institute (NVRI) in Pulawy, Pulawy, Poland
| | - O Haenen
- Central Veterinary Institute (CVI) of WUR, NRL for Fish, Shellfish and Crustacean Diseases, Lelystad, The Netherlands
| | - N J Olesen
- Technical University of Denmark (DTU), National Veterinary Institute, Frederiksberg C, Denmark
| | - T Morin
- French Agency for Food, Environmental and Occupational Health & Safety (ANSES), Ploufragan-Plouzané Laboratory, Viral Fish Pathology Unit, Université Bretagne Loire, Plouzané, France
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18
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Neave MJ, Sunarto A, McColl KA. Transcriptomic analysis of common carp anterior kidney during Cyprinid herpesvirus 3 infection: Immunoglobulin repertoire and homologue functional divergence. Sci Rep 2017; 7:41531. [PMID: 28148967 PMCID: PMC5288646 DOI: 10.1038/srep41531] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/20/2016] [Accepted: 12/20/2016] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Cyprinid herpesvirus 3 (CyHV-3) infects koi and common carp and causes widespread mortalities. While the virus is a significant concern for aquaculture operations in many countries, in Australia the virus may be a useful biocontrol agent for pest carp. However, carp immune responses to CyHV-3, and the molecular mechanisms underpinning resistance, are not well understood. Here we used RNA-Seq on carp during different phases of CyHV-3 infection to detect the gene expression dynamics of both host and virus simultaneously. During acute CyHV-3 infection, the carp host modified the expression of genes involved in various immune systems and detoxification pathways. Moreover, the activated pathways were skewed toward humoral immune responses, which may have been influenced by the virus itself. Many immune-related genes were duplicated in the carp genome, and often these were expressed differently across the infection phases. Of particular interest were two interleukin-10 homologues that were not expressed synchronously, suggesting neo- or sub-functionalization. The carp immunoglobulin repertoire significantly diversified during active CyHV-3 infection, which was followed by the selection of high-affinity B-cells. This is indicative of a developing adaptive immune response, and is the first attempt to use RNA-Seq to understand this process in fish during a viral infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthew J. Neave
- CSIRO Health and Biosecurity, Australian Animal Health Laboratory, Geelong, VIC 3220, Australia
| | - Agus Sunarto
- CSIRO Health and Biosecurity, Australian Animal Health Laboratory, Geelong, VIC 3220, Australia
- AMAFRAD Centre for Fisheries Research and Development, Fish Health Research Laboratory, Jakarta 12540, Indonesia
| | - Kenneth A. McColl
- CSIRO Health and Biosecurity, Australian Animal Health Laboratory, Geelong, VIC 3220, Australia
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19
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Rahmati-Holasoo H, Zargar A, Ahmadivand S, Shokrpoor S, Ezhari S, Ebrahimzadeh Mousavi HA. First detection of koi herpesvirus from koi, Cyprinus carpio L. experiencing mass mortalities in Iran: clinical, histopathological and molecular study. JOURNAL OF FISH DISEASES 2016; 39:1153-63. [PMID: 26813421 DOI: 10.1111/jfd.12448] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/19/2015] [Revised: 11/10/2015] [Accepted: 11/12/2015] [Indexed: 05/12/2023]
Abstract
Koi herpesvirus (KHV) is the aetiological agent of an emerging disease (KHVD) associated with mass mortalities in koi and common carp and reported from at least 30 countries. We report the first detection of KHV from koi in Iran using clinical, histopathological and molecular studies. KHV-infected fish showed reduced swimming activity, sunken eyes and increased mucus production on skin and fins. On post-mortem examination, gill necrosis was observed in the majority of fish. Histopathologically, the gill showed diffuse necrosis of the branchial epithelial cells. Margination of chromatin was detected in gills, kidney, heart, spleen, intestine and brain. In addition, sequence analyses of the TK gene, ORF 136 and marker I and II, demonstrates that Iranian KHV isolates were identical and classified as variant A1 of TUSMT1 (J strain) and displayed the I(++) II(+) allele of this Asian genotype.
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Affiliation(s)
- H Rahmati-Holasoo
- Department of Aquatic Animal Health, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Tehran, Tehran, Iran
| | - A Zargar
- Department of Aquatic Animal Health, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Tehran, Tehran, Iran
| | - S Ahmadivand
- Department of Aquatic Animal Health, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Tehran, Tehran, Iran
| | - S Shokrpoor
- Department of Pathology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Tehran, Tehran, Iran
| | - S Ezhari
- Department of Aquatic Animal Health, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Tehran, Tehran, Iran
| | - H A Ebrahimzadeh Mousavi
- Department of Aquatic Animal Health, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Tehran, Tehran, Iran
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20
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Hammoumi S, Vallaeys T, Santika A, Leleux P, Borzym E, Klopp C, Avarre JC. Targeted genomic enrichment and sequencing of CyHV-3 from carp tissues confirms low nucleotide diversity and mixed genotype infections. PeerJ 2016; 4:e2516. [PMID: 27703859 PMCID: PMC5045873 DOI: 10.7717/peerj.2516] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/05/2016] [Accepted: 09/01/2016] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Koi herpesvirus disease (KHVD) is an emerging disease that causes mass mortality in koi and common carp, Cyprinus carpio L. Its causative agent is Cyprinid herpesvirus 3 (CyHV-3), also known as koi herpesvirus (KHV). Although data on the pathogenesis of this deadly virus is relatively abundant in the literature, still little is known about its genomic diversity and about the molecular mechanisms that lead to such a high virulence. In this context, we developed a new strategy for sequencing full-length CyHV-3 genomes directly from infected fish tissues. Total genomic DNA extracted from carp gill tissue was specifically enriched with CyHV-3 sequences through hybridization to a set of nearly 2 million overlapping probes designed to cover the entire genome length, using KHV-J sequence (GenBank accession number AP008984) as reference. Applied to 7 CyHV-3 specimens from Poland and Indonesia, this targeted genomic enrichment enabled recovery of the full genomes with >99.9% reference coverage. The enrichment rate was directly correlated to the estimated number of viral copies contained in the DNA extracts used for library preparation, which varied between ∼5000 and ∼2×107. The average sequencing depth was >200 for all samples, thus allowing the search for variants with high confidence. Sequence analyses highlighted a significant proportion of intra-specimen sequence heterogeneity, suggesting the presence of mixed infections in all investigated fish. They also showed that inter-specimen genetic diversity at the genome scale was very low (>99.95% of sequence identity). By enabling full genome comparisons directly from infected fish tissues, this new method will be valuable to trace outbreaks rapidly and at a reasonable cost, and in turn to understand the transmission routes of CyHV-3.
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Affiliation(s)
- Saliha Hammoumi
- Institut des Sciences de l'Evolution de Montpellier, UMR226 IRD-CNRS-UM-EPHE , Montpellier , France
| | | | - Ayi Santika
- Main Center for Freshwater Aquaculture Development , Sukabumi , Indonesia
| | - Philippe Leleux
- Plate-forme Genotoul Bioinfo, UR875 Biométrie et Intelligence Artificielle, Institut National de la Recherche Agronomique , Castanet-Tolosan , France
| | - Ewa Borzym
- Department of Fish Diseases, National Veterinary Research Institute , Pulawy , Poland
| | - Christophe Klopp
- Plate-forme Genotoul Bioinfo, UR875 Biométrie et Intelligence Artificielle, Institut National de la Recherche Agronomique , Castanet-Tolosan , France
| | - Jean-Christophe Avarre
- Institut des Sciences de l'Evolution de Montpellier, UMR226 IRD-CNRS-UM-EPHE , Montpellier , France
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Murwantoko, Fusianto CK, Triyanto. Gene Cloning and Protein Expression of Koi Herpesvirus ORF25. HAYATI JOURNAL OF BIOSCIENCES 2016. [DOI: 10.1016/j.hjb.2016.10.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
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22
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Chen J, Chee D, Wang Y, Lim GY, Chong SM, Lin YN, Huangfu T. Identification of a novel cyprinid herpesvirus 3 genotype detected in koi from the East Asian and South-East Asian Regions. JOURNAL OF FISH DISEASES 2015; 38:915-923. [PMID: 25297376 DOI: 10.1111/jfd.12305] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/29/2014] [Revised: 07/29/2014] [Accepted: 07/29/2014] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
Cyprinid herpesvirus 3 (CyHV-3) is a highly contagious virus that causes significant morbidity and mortality in common carp Cyprinus carpio L. and considered to be one of the most important pathogens of koi and common carp worldwide. Cyprinid herpesvirus 3 infected consignments imported from East Asian and South-East Asian regions were identified during quarantine period in Singapore, and virus from a 2005 consignment was successfully isolated in koi fin cells. A combination of sequence analyses and duplex PCR were used to characterize 15 CyHV-3 isolates detected in koi consignments between 2005 and 2011. Sequence analyses of the enlarged 9/5, SphI-5 and TK gene regions identified both the Asian 1 (n = 11) and European 4 (n = 4) genotypes. Duplex PCR analysis of two variable marker regions between ORF29 and ORF30 (marker I) as well as ORF133 and its upstream region (marker II) revealed viruses of genotypes J (I++ II+ ), U/I (I-- II- ), an intermediate genotype (I++ II- ) and a novel genotype, I++ II+Δ , which was identified in viruses from seven different consignments. This novel genotype has a 13-bp deletion in marker II, while maintaining the I++ allele of marker I. The I++ II+Δ genotype may have emerged from East Asian and South-East Asian regions in recent years.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Chen
- Virology Section, Animal Health Laboratory Department, Laboratories Group, Agri-Food and Veterinary Authority of Singapore, Singapore
| | - D Chee
- Aquatic Animal Health Section, Animal Health Laboratory Department, Laboratories Group, Agri-Food and Veterinary Authority of Singapore, Singapore
| | - Y Wang
- Virology Section, Animal Health Laboratory Department, Laboratories Group, Agri-Food and Veterinary Authority of Singapore, Singapore
| | - G Y Lim
- Virology Section, Animal Health Laboratory Department, Laboratories Group, Agri-Food and Veterinary Authority of Singapore, Singapore
| | - S M Chong
- Aquatic Animal Health Section, Animal Health Laboratory Department, Laboratories Group, Agri-Food and Veterinary Authority of Singapore, Singapore
| | - Y N Lin
- Virology Section, Animal Health Laboratory Department, Laboratories Group, Agri-Food and Veterinary Authority of Singapore, Singapore
| | - T Huangfu
- Virology Section, Animal Health Laboratory Department, Laboratories Group, Agri-Food and Veterinary Authority of Singapore, Singapore
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Imajoh M, Fujioka H, Furusawa K, Tamura K, Yamasaki K, Kurihara S, Yamane J, Kawai K, Oshima S. Establishment of a new cell line susceptible to Cyprinid herpesvirus 3 (CyHV-3) and possible latency of CyHV-3 by temperature shift in the cells. JOURNAL OF FISH DISEASES 2015; 38:507-514. [PMID: 24820532 DOI: 10.1111/jfd.12252] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/24/2014] [Revised: 03/24/2014] [Accepted: 03/24/2014] [Indexed: 06/03/2023]
Abstract
A new cell line named CCF-K104 predominantly consisting of fibroblastic cells showed optimal growth at temperatures from 25 °C to 30 °C. Serial morphological changes in the cells induced by Cyprinid herpesvirus 3 (CyHV-3) included cytoplasmic vacuolar formation, cell rounding and detachment. Mature virions were purified from CyHV-3-infected CCF-K104 cells by sucrose gradient ultracentrifugation and had a typical herpesvirus structure on electron microscopy. Infectious CyHV-3 was produced stably in CCF-K104 cells over 30 viral passages. Our findings showed that CCF-K104 is a useful cell line for isolation and productive replication of CyHV-3. A temperature shift from 25 °C to 15 °C or 35 °C did not allow serial morphological changes as observed at 25 °C for 14 days. Under the same conditions, real-time PCR showed that CyHV-3 was present with low viral DNA loads, suggesting that CyHV-3 may establish latent infection in CCF-K104 cells. Amplification of the left and right terminal repeat sequences of the CyHV-3 genome arranged in a head-to-tail manner was detected by nested PCR following an upshift in temperature from 25 °C to 35 °C. The PCR results suggested that the circular genome may represent a latent form of CyHV-3.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Imajoh
- Laboratory of Fish Disease, Faculty of Agriculture, Kochi University, Nankoku, Kochi, Japan
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24
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Swaminathan TR, Basheer VS, Kumar R, Kathirvelpandian A, Sood N, Jena JK. Establishment and characterization of fin-derived cell line from ornamental carp, Cyprinus carpio koi, for virus isolation in India. In Vitro Cell Dev Biol Anim 2015; 51:705-13. [DOI: 10.1007/s11626-015-9881-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/23/2014] [Accepted: 02/16/2015] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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25
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Boutier M, Ronsmans M, Rakus K, Jazowiecka-Rakus J, Vancsok C, Morvan L, Peñaranda MMD, Stone DM, Way K, van Beurden SJ, Davison AJ, Vanderplasschen A. Cyprinid Herpesvirus 3: An Archetype of Fish Alloherpesviruses. Adv Virus Res 2015; 93:161-256. [PMID: 26111587 DOI: 10.1016/bs.aivir.2015.03.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
The order Herpesvirales encompasses viruses that share structural, genetic, and biological properties. However, members of this order infect hosts ranging from molluscs to humans. It is currently divided into three phylogenetically related families. The Alloherpesviridae family contains viruses infecting fish and amphibians. There are 12 alloherpesviruses described to date, 10 of which infect fish. Over the last decade, cyprinid herpesvirus 3 (CyHV-3) infecting common and koi carp has emerged as the archetype of fish alloherpesviruses. Since its first description in the late 1990s, this virus has induced important economic losses in common and koi carp worldwide. It has also had negative environmental implications by affecting wild carp populations. These negative impacts and the importance of the host species have stimulated studies aimed at developing diagnostic and prophylactic tools. Unexpectedly, the data generated by these applied studies have stimulated interest in CyHV-3 as a model for fundamental research. This review intends to provide a complete overview of the knowledge currently available on CyHV-3.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maxime Boutier
- Immunology-Vaccinology (B43b), Department of Infectious and Parasitic Diseases, Fundamental and Applied Research for Animals & Health (FARAH), Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Liège, Liège, Belgium
| | - Maygane Ronsmans
- Immunology-Vaccinology (B43b), Department of Infectious and Parasitic Diseases, Fundamental and Applied Research for Animals & Health (FARAH), Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Liège, Liège, Belgium
| | - Krzysztof Rakus
- Immunology-Vaccinology (B43b), Department of Infectious and Parasitic Diseases, Fundamental and Applied Research for Animals & Health (FARAH), Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Liège, Liège, Belgium
| | - Joanna Jazowiecka-Rakus
- Immunology-Vaccinology (B43b), Department of Infectious and Parasitic Diseases, Fundamental and Applied Research for Animals & Health (FARAH), Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Liège, Liège, Belgium
| | - Catherine Vancsok
- Immunology-Vaccinology (B43b), Department of Infectious and Parasitic Diseases, Fundamental and Applied Research for Animals & Health (FARAH), Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Liège, Liège, Belgium
| | - Léa Morvan
- Immunology-Vaccinology (B43b), Department of Infectious and Parasitic Diseases, Fundamental and Applied Research for Animals & Health (FARAH), Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Liège, Liège, Belgium
| | - Ma Michelle D Peñaranda
- Immunology-Vaccinology (B43b), Department of Infectious and Parasitic Diseases, Fundamental and Applied Research for Animals & Health (FARAH), Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Liège, Liège, Belgium
| | - David M Stone
- The Centre for Environment, Fisheries and Aquaculture Science, Weymouth Laboratory, Weymouth, Dorset, United Kingdom
| | - Keith Way
- The Centre for Environment, Fisheries and Aquaculture Science, Weymouth Laboratory, Weymouth, Dorset, United Kingdom
| | - Steven J van Beurden
- Department of Pathobiology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Andrew J Davison
- MRC-University of Glasgow Centre for Virus Research, Glasgow, United Kingdom
| | - Alain Vanderplasschen
- Immunology-Vaccinology (B43b), Department of Infectious and Parasitic Diseases, Fundamental and Applied Research for Animals & Health (FARAH), Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Liège, Liège, Belgium.
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Sunarto A, McColl KA. Expression of immune-related genes of common carp during cyprinid herpesvirus 3 infection. DISEASES OF AQUATIC ORGANISMS 2015; 113:127-135. [PMID: 25751855 DOI: 10.3354/dao02824] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
Fish herpesviruses and their hosts may have coevolved for 400 to 450 million yr. During this coexistence, the hosts have equipped themselves with an elaborate immune system to defend themselves from invading viruses, whereas the viruses have developed strategies to evade host immunity, including the expression of cytokine genes that have been captured from the host. Taking advantage of our experimental model for cyprinid herpesvirus 3 (CyHV-3) persistence in carp, we studied the gene expression of host and virus immune-related genes in each stage of infection: acute, persistent and reactivation phases. IFNγ-1, IFNγ-2, IL-12 and IL-10 host genes, and the CyHV-3 vIL-10 gene (khvIL-10) were highly significantly up-regulated in different phases of CyHV-3 infection. Similarly, host IL-1β was up-regulated in the acute phase of CyHV-3 infection. There was no significant difference in the expression of host TNFα-1 and MHC-II genes during all phases of CyHV-3 infection. Based on the expression profile of carp immune-related genes in each stage of CyHV-3 infection, we propose a possible interaction between carp IL-12, carp IL-10 and khvIL-10 during the course of viral infection. To our knowledge, this is the first report on the expression of cytokine genes during all phases (acute, persistent and reactivation) of CyHV-3 infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Agus Sunarto
- CSIRO Biosecurity Flagship, Australian Animal Health Laboratory, Geelong, VIC 3220, Australia
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Li W, Lee X, Weng S, He J, Dong C. Whole-genome sequence of a novel Chinese cyprinid herpesvirus 3 isolate reveals the existence of a distinct European genotype in East Asia. Vet Microbiol 2014; 175:185-94. [PMID: 25510475 DOI: 10.1016/j.vetmic.2014.11.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/16/2014] [Revised: 11/02/2014] [Accepted: 11/16/2014] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
Cyprinid herpesvirus 3 (CyHV3), also known as koi herpesvirus (KHV), can be subdivided primarily into European and Asian genotypes, which are represented by CyHV3-U or CyHV3-I and CyHV3-J, respectively. In this study, the whole genome sequence of a novel Chinese CyHV3 isolate (GZ11) was determined and annotated. CyHV3-GZ11 genome was found to contain 295,119 nucleotides with 52.9% G/C content, which is highly similar to those of published CyHV3-U, CyHV3-I, and CyHV3-J strains. With reference to CyHV3-U, CyHV3-I, and CyHV3-J, CyHV3-GZ11 was also classified into 164 open reading frames (ORF), which include eight repeated ORFs. On the basis of the 12 alloherpeviruses core genes, results from phylogenetic analysis showed that CyHV3-GZ11 had closer evolutionary relationships with CyHV3-U and CyHV3-I than with CyHV3/KHV-J, which were also supported by genome wide-based single nucleotide substitution analysis and the use of a series of developed molecular markers. This study was the first to reveal the presence of a distinct European CyHV3 genotype in East and Southeast Asia at a whole genome level, which will evoke new insights on exploring the origin, evolution, and epidemiology of the virus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wei Li
- MOE Key Laboratory of Aquatic Food Safety / State Key Laboratory for Bio-control, School of Life Sciences, Sun Yat-sen University, No.135, Xingang Road West, Guangzhou 510275, PR China
| | - Xuezhu Lee
- MOE Key Laboratory of Aquatic Food Safety / State Key Laboratory for Bio-control, School of Life Sciences, Sun Yat-sen University, No.135, Xingang Road West, Guangzhou 510275, PR China
| | - Shaoping Weng
- MOE Key Laboratory of Aquatic Food Safety / State Key Laboratory for Bio-control, School of Life Sciences, Sun Yat-sen University, No.135, Xingang Road West, Guangzhou 510275, PR China
| | - Jianguo He
- MOE Key Laboratory of Aquatic Food Safety / State Key Laboratory for Bio-control, School of Life Sciences, Sun Yat-sen University, No.135, Xingang Road West, Guangzhou 510275, PR China; School of Marine Sciences, Sun Yat-sen University, No.135, Xingang Road West, Guangzhou 510275, PR China.
| | - Chuanfu Dong
- MOE Key Laboratory of Aquatic Food Safety / State Key Laboratory for Bio-control, School of Life Sciences, Sun Yat-sen University, No.135, Xingang Road West, Guangzhou 510275, PR China.
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28
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Cho MY, Won KM, Kim JW, Jee BY, Park MA, Hong S. Detection of koi herpesvirus (KHV) in healthy cyprinid seed stock. DISEASES OF AQUATIC ORGANISMS 2014; 112:29-36. [PMID: 25392040 DOI: 10.3354/dao02784] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
Koi herpesvirus (KHV) disease is a lethal disease in common carp, an important food fish in Asian countries, the seed of which is used in restocking programs for freshwater fishery management. We inspected apparently healthy seed stock of common carp Cyprinus carpio L. and Siberian crucian carp Carassius auratus for the presence of KHV using PCR-based diagnostic tests as a part of a stock enhancement program from 2009 to 2010 in Korea. Consequently, KHV was detected from 24 of 232 inspections with yearly detection percentages of 5.2% in 2009 and 15.5% in 2010 using PCR primer sets for TK or SphI-5 as recommended by the OIE Manual of Diagnostic Tests for Aquatic Animals. Results indicate that the SphI-5 primer set was slightly more sensitive than the TK primer set, as shown by a higher detection rate. To determine the genotype of the KHV strains detected in this study, ORF40-specific PCR amplification was conducted, and the PCR products from 6 samples showed 100% nucleotide sequence identity with a Japanese strain (GenBank accession number AP008984) but not with US (DG657948) and Israeli strains (DG177346). This report conclusively demonstrated the presence of KHV in externally healthy seed of common carp and Siberian crucian carp, indicating a possible risk that subclinically infected seed stock can be released with a potential threat to wild populations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mi-Young Cho
- Aquatic Life Disease Control Division, National Fisheries Research and Development Institute, Busan 619-902, Korea
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29
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Sunarto A, McColl KA, Crane MSJ, Schat KA, Slobedman B, Barnes AC, Walker PJ. Characteristics of cyprinid herpesvirus 3 in different phases of infection: Implications for disease transmission and control. Virus Res 2014; 188:45-53. [DOI: 10.1016/j.virusres.2014.03.024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/11/2014] [Revised: 03/24/2014] [Accepted: 03/24/2014] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
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30
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Barrett J, Bamford H, Jackson P. Management of alien fishes in the Murray-Darling Basin. ECOLOGICAL MANAGEMENT & RESTORATION 2014. [DOI: 10.1111/emr.12095] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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31
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Rakus K, Ouyang P, Boutier M, Ronsmans M, Reschner A, Vancsok C, Jazowiecka-Rakus J, Vanderplasschen A. Cyprinid herpesvirus 3: an interesting virus for applied and fundamental research. Vet Res 2013; 44:85. [PMID: 24073814 PMCID: PMC3850573 DOI: 10.1186/1297-9716-44-85] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/25/2013] [Accepted: 09/03/2013] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Cyprinid herpesvirus 3 (CyHV-3), a member of the family Alloherpesviridae is the causative agent of a lethal, highly contagious and notifiable disease in common and koi carp. The economic importance of common and koi carp industries together with the rapid spread of CyHV-3 worldwide, explain why this virus became soon after its isolation in the 1990s a subject of applied research. In addition to its economic importance, an increasing number of fundamental studies demonstrated that CyHV-3 is an original and interesting subject for fundamental research. In this review, we summarized recent advances in CyHV-3 research with a special interest for studies related to host-virus interactions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Krzysztof Rakus
- Immunology-Vaccinology (B43b), Department of Infectious and Parasitic Diseases, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Liège, Liège, B-4000, Belgium.
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Gotesman M, Soliman H, El-Matbouli M. Antibody screening identifies 78 putative host proteins involved in Cyprinid herpesvirus 3 infection or propagation in common carp, Cyprinus carpio L. JOURNAL OF FISH DISEASES 2013; 36:721-33. [PMID: 23347276 PMCID: PMC3961710 DOI: 10.1111/jfd.12073] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/16/2012] [Revised: 11/16/2012] [Accepted: 11/17/2012] [Indexed: 05/15/2023]
Abstract
Cyprinid herpesvirus 3 (CyHV-3) is the aetiological agent of a serious and notifiable disease afflicting common and koi carp, Cyprinus carpio L., termed koi herpesvirus disease (KHVD). Significant progress has been achieved in the last 15 years, since the initial reports surfaced from Germany, USA and Israel of the CyHV-3 virus, in terms of pathology and detection. However, relatively few studies have been carried out in understanding viral replication and propagation. Antibody-based affinity has been used for detection of CyHV-3 in enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay and PCR-based techniques, and immunohistological assays have been used to describe a CyHV-3 membrane protein, termed ORF81. In this study, monoclonal antibodies linked to N-hydroxysuccinimide (NHS)-activated spin columns were used to purify CyHV-3 and host proteins from tissue samples originating in either CyHV-3 symptomatic or asymptomatic fish. The samples were next analysed either by polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (PAGE) and subsequently by electrospray ionization coupled to mass spectrometry (ESI-MS) or by ESI-MS analysis directly after purification. A total of 78 host proteins and five CyHV-3 proteins were identified in the two analyses. These data can be used to develop novel control methods for CyHV-3, based on pathways or proteins identified in this study.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Gotesman
- Clinical Division of Fish Medicine, University of Veterinary Medicine, Vienna, Austria
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Gotesman M, Kattlun J, Bergmann SM, El-Matbouli M. CyHV-3: the third cyprinid herpesvirus. DISEASES OF AQUATIC ORGANISMS 2013; 105:163-74. [PMID: 23872859 PMCID: PMC3961040 DOI: 10.3354/dao02614] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/08/2023]
Abstract
Common carp (including ornamental koi carp) Cyprinus carpio L. are ecologically and economically important freshwater fish in Europe and Asia. C. carpio have recently been endangered by a third cyprinid herpesvirus, known as cyprinid herpesvirus-3 (CyHV-3), the etiological agent of koi herpesvirus disease (KHVD), which causes significant morbidity and mortality in koi and common carp. Clinical and pathological signs include epidermal abrasions, excess mucus production, necrosis of gill and internal organs, and lethargy. KHVD has decimated major carp populations in Israel, Indonesia, Taiwan, Japan, Germany, Canada, and the USA, and has been listed as a notifiable disease in Germany since 2005, and by the World Organisation for Animal Health since 2007. KHVD is exacerbated in aquaculture because of the relatively high host stocking density, and CyHV-3 may be concentrated by filter-feeding aquatic organisms. CyHV-3 is taxonomically grouped within the family Alloherpesviridae, can be propagated in a number of cell lines, and is active at a temperature range of 15 to 28°C. Three isolates originating from Japan (KHV-J), USA (KHV-U), and Israel (KHV-I) have been sequenced. CyHV-3 has a 295 kb genome with 156 unique open reading frames and replicates in the cell nucleus, and mature viral particles are 170 to 200 nm in diameter. CyHV-3 can be detected by multiple PCR-based methods and by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. Several modes of immunization have been developed for KHVD; however, fish immunized with either vaccine or wild-type virus may become carriers for CyHV-3. There is no current treatment for KHVD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael Gotesman
- Clinical Division of Fish Medicine, University of Veterinary Medicine, Vienna, Austria
| | - Julia Kattlun
- Clinical Division of Fish Medicine, University of Veterinary Medicine, Vienna, Austria
| | - Sven M. Bergmann
- Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Federal Research Institute for Animal Health, Institute of Infectology, Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany
| | - Mansour El-Matbouli
- Clinical Division of Fish Medicine, University of Veterinary Medicine, Vienna, Austria
- Corresponding author.
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Kim HJ, Kwon SR. Evidence for two koi herpesvirus (KHV) genotypes in South Korea. DISEASES OF AQUATIC ORGANISMS 2013; 104:197-202. [PMID: 23759557 DOI: 10.3354/dao02590] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/02/2023]
Abstract
The geographic distribution of koi herpesvirus (KHV) has recently been analyzed by polymerase chain reaction (PCR, based on the alleles of 3 domains) and sequence analysis using 3 regions of KHV genomic DNA (SphI-5, 9/5, and the thymidine kinase gene). In this study, samples from 6 carp showing symptoms of KHV infection in 2008 were examined for the presence of KHV by using PCR and cell culture isolation methods. KHV was detected in 2 (Pyeongtaek and Buan) of the samples. Sequence analysis revealed that the genotype of the KHV PT-08 isolate was Asia genotype variant 1 (A1), and the genotype of the KHV BA-08 isolate was European genotype variant 4 (E4). In addition, PCR patterns and sequence analysis based on the alleles of 3 domains of an alternate KHV classification system confirmed that the genotype of the KHV PT-08 isolate was CyHV3-J, and the genotype of the KHV BA-08 isolate was CyHV3-third genotype. To our knowledge, this is the first study to demonstrate the presence of 2 genotypes of KHV (genotype A1/CyHV3-J; genotype E4/CyHV3-third genotype) in South Korea.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hyoung Jun Kim
- Animal, Plant and Fisheries Quarantine and Inspection Agency, Jungbu Regional Office, Incheon, South Korea
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35
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Dong C, Li X, Weng S, Xie S, He J. Emergence of fatal European genotype CyHV-3/KHV in mainland China. Vet Microbiol 2013; 162:239-44. [DOI: 10.1016/j.vetmic.2012.10.024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/29/2012] [Revised: 10/09/2012] [Accepted: 10/15/2012] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
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Avarre JC, Santika A, Bentenni A, Zainun Z, Madeira JP, Maskur M, Bigarré L, Caruso D. Spatio-temporal analysis of cyprinid herpesvirus 3 genetic diversity at a local scale. JOURNAL OF FISH DISEASES 2012; 35:767-774. [PMID: 22805046 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2761.2012.01404.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/12/2012] [Revised: 05/29/2012] [Accepted: 05/29/2012] [Indexed: 06/01/2023]
Abstract
Cyprinid herpesvirus 3 (CyHV-3), the causative agent of koi herpesvirus disease, is a major threat for carp populations in many countries worldwide, including Indonesia. It has been shown that many genotypes circulate worldwide, all highly related to one of the two known lineages U/I and J. In this study, we evaluated the spatial and temporal distribution of CyHV-3 strains in a small enzootic area, the lake of Cirata (West Java, Indonesia). Of the 365 samples analysed, from clinical or asymptomatic fish, 244 were found positive for CyHV-3, suggesting a high occurrence of the virus. Genotyping of these viral specimens with a range of molecular markers revealed the presence of numerous haplotypes in the host population, all related to the J lineage. In single individuals, mixed-genotype infections occurred at high frequency. The present results demonstrate that polymorphic molecular markers are suitable to monitor the genetic evolution of a viral population in an enzootic area.
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Affiliation(s)
- J-C Avarre
- Institut des Sciences de l'Evolution de Montpellier, UMR226 IRD-CNRS-UM2, Montpellier, France.
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Rathore G, Kumar G, Raja Swaminathan T, Swain P. Koi herpes virus: a review and risk assessment of Indian aquaculture. INDIAN JOURNAL OF VIROLOGY : AN OFFICIAL ORGAN OF INDIAN VIROLOGICAL SOCIETY 2012; 23:124-33. [PMID: 23997436 DOI: 10.1007/s13337-012-0101-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/03/2012] [Accepted: 08/14/2012] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
Common carp (Cyprinus carpio) is a widely cultivated freshwater fish for human consumption, while koi carp, is a farmed colored sub species of common carp used for ornamental purposes. Since 1998, both common carp and koi carp are severely affected by a viral disease called as Koi herpes virus disease (KHVD). This disease is caused by Koi herpes virus (KHV), also known as cyprinid herpes virus-3. The virus causes interstitial nephritis and gill necrosis in carps, so it is also termed as carp interstitial nephritis and gill necrosis virus. KHV is a double stranded icosahedral DNA virus belonging to family Alloherpesviridae, with a genome size of 295 kbp, larger than any member of Herpesviridae. The viral genome encodes 156 potential protein coding open reading frames. Each virion consists of forty structural proteins, which are classified as capsid (3), envelope (13), tegument (2) and unclassified (22) structural proteins. Diagnosis of KHVD is mainly based on detection of viral DNA by polymerase chain reaction amplification using specific primers or loop mediated isothermal amplification. Temperature dependent latent infection is unique to KHV; and carrier fish are often not detected, thereby possibly resulting in spread of this pathogen to newer areas. The disease is now known to occur in, or has been recorded from at least 26 different countries of the world. Fortunately, KHVD has not been reported from India or from Indian major carps. To monitor the disease status of the country, a total of 254 fish samples collected from different parts of India were screened by PCR for the presence of KHV. None of the tested samples were found to be positive for KHV. These results demonstrate that tested samples from different parts of India were apparently free from KHV. Preliminary risk assessment of KHV suggest that in the event of unrestricted importation of koi carps into our country, there is a higher probability of risk to aquaculture as compared to natural waters. So there is strong need to develop diagnostic capabilities and launch surveillance programmes for KHV in India.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gaurav Rathore
- National Bureau of Fish Genetic Resources, Canal Ring Road, P.O. Dilkusha, Lucknow, 226002 UP India
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Abstract
Koi herpesvirus (KHV) (species Cyprinid herpesvirus 3) ORF134 was shown to transcribe a spliced transcript encoding a 179-amino-acid (aa) interleukin-10 (IL-10) homolog (khvIL-10) in koi fin (KF-1) cells. Pairwise sequence alignment indicated that the expressed product shares 25% identity with carp IL-10, 22 to 24% identity with mammalian (including primate) IL-10s, and 19.1% identity with European eel herpesvirus IL-10 (ahvIL-10). In phylogenetic analyses, khvIL-10 fell in a divergent position from all host IL-10 sequences, indicating extensive structural divergence following capture from the host. In KHV-infected fish, khvIL-10 transcripts were observed to be highly expressed during the acute and reactivation phases but to be expressed at very low levels during low-temperature-induced persistence. Similarly, KHV early (helicase [Hel] and DNA polymerase [DNAP]) and late (intercapsomeric triplex protein [ITP] and major capsid protein [MCP]) genes were also expressed at high levels during the acute and reactivation phases, but only low-level expression of the ITP gene was detected during the persistent phase. Injection of khvIL-10 mRNA into zebrafish (Danio rerio) embryos increased the number of lysozyme-positive cells to a similar degree as zebrafish IL-10. Downregulation of the IL-10 receptor long chain (IL-10R1) using a specific morpholino abrogated the response to both khvIL-10 and zebrafish IL-10 transcripts, indicating that, despite the structural divergence, khvIL-10 functions via this receptor. This is the first report describing the characteristics of a functional viral IL-10 gene in the Alloherpesviridae.
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Hanson L, Dishon A, Kotler M. Herpesviruses that infect fish. Viruses 2011; 3:2160-91. [PMID: 22163339 PMCID: PMC3230846 DOI: 10.3390/v3112160] [Citation(s) in RCA: 86] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/15/2011] [Revised: 10/15/2011] [Accepted: 10/22/2011] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Herpesviruses are host specific pathogens that are widespread among vertebrates. Genome sequence data demonstrate that most herpesviruses of fish and amphibians are grouped together (family Alloherpesviridae) and are distantly related to herpesviruses of reptiles, birds and mammals (family Herpesviridae). Yet, many of the biological processes of members of the order Herpesvirales are similar. Among the conserved characteristics are the virion structure, replication process, the ability to establish long term latency and the manipulation of the host immune response. Many of the similar processes may be due to convergent evolution. This overview of identified herpesviruses of fish discusses the diseases that alloherpesviruses cause, the biology of these viruses and the host-pathogen interactions. Much of our knowledge on the biology of Alloherpesvirdae is derived from research with two species: Ictalurid herpesvirus 1 (channel catfish virus) and Cyprinid herpesvirus 3 (koi herpesvirus).
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Affiliation(s)
- Larry Hanson
- Department of Basic Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, Mississippi State University, P.O. Box 6100, Starkville, MS 39759, USA
| | - Arnon Dishon
- KoVax Ltd., P.O. Box 45212, Bynet Build., Har Hotzvim Inds. Pk., Jerusalem 97444, Israel; E-Mail:
| | - Moshe Kotler
- Department of Pathology, Hadassah Medical School, the Hebrew University, Jerusalem 91120, Israel; E-Mail:
- The Lautenberg Center for General and Tumor Immunology, Hadassah Medical School, the Hebrew University, Jerusalem 91120, Israel
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Dong C, Weng S, Li W, Li X, Yi Y, Liang Q, He J. Characterization of a new cell line from caudal fin of koi, Cyprinus carpio koi, and first isolation of cyprinid herpesvirus 3 in China. Virus Res 2011; 161:140-9. [PMID: 21839788 DOI: 10.1016/j.virusres.2011.07.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/22/2011] [Revised: 07/25/2011] [Accepted: 07/26/2011] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
A new continuous cell line (KCF-1) from caudal fin of koi, Cyprinus carpio koi, was developed and sub-cultured more than 100 passages since the present study was initiated in March 2006. KCF-1 predominantly consisted of short fibroblast-like cells and grew well in Dulbecco's modified Eagle medium (DMEM) supplemented with 10% fetal bovine serum (FBS). Chromosome analysis revealed that 56% of the KCF-1 cells maintained normal diploid chromosome number (2n=100) at Passage 82. Using the KCF-1 cell line, a strain of cyprinid herpesvirus 3 (designated as CyHV-3-QY08) was isolated from the diseased koi. CyHV-3-QY08 continuously propagated in the KCF-1 cells, as confirmed by immunofluorescence assay (IFA) and transmission electron microscopy (TEM). KCF-1 cells infected with CyHV-3-QY08 produced typical cytopathic effects characterized by severe vacuolation, deformation of nuclei, and marginalization of the nuclear chromatin, which are consistent with those of previous reports. CyHV-3-QY08 was purified and subsequently analyzed by SDS-PAGE and TEM. The results showed that the purified virions contained two types of morphologies and were composed of more than 30 obvious viral polypeptides. An infectivity experiment revealed that CyHV-3-QY08 could cause 100% mortality in the infected koi. Based on the genome sequence of CyHV-3-I/U, the CyHV-3(I/U)-ORF136 homologue in CyHV-3-QY08 was cloned and sequenced. Multiple sequence alignments of CyHV-3-I/U-ORF136 homologues showed that CyHV-3-QY08 belonged to the typical Asian genotype. The CyHV-3(I/U)-ORF136 homologue seems to be a novel molecule marker, which can be used to distinguish Asia isolates from Europe-America strains.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chuanfu Dong
- Moe Key Laboratory of Aquatic Food Safety/State Key Laboratory for Bio-control, School of Life Sciences, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou 510275, People's Republic of China
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Avarre JC, Madeira JP, Santika A, Zainun Z, Baud M, Cabon J, Caruso D, Castric J, Bigarré L, Engelsma M, Maskur M. Investigation of Cyprinid herpesvirus-3 genetic diversity by a multi-locus variable number of tandem repeats analysis. J Virol Methods 2011; 173:320-7. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jviromet.2011.03.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/03/2010] [Revised: 02/24/2011] [Accepted: 03/01/2011] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
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