A Review of OIE Country Status Recovery Using Vaccinate-to-Live Versus Vaccinate-to-Die Foot-and-Mouth Disease Response Policies I: Benefits of Higher Potency Vaccines and Associated NSP DIVA Test Systems in Post-Outbreak Surveillance

Leaderless foot-and-mouth disease virus serotype O did not cause clinical disease and failed to establish a persistent infection in cattle

The foot-and-mouth disease virus (FMDV) Leader proteinase Lpro inhibits host mRNA translation and blocks the interferon response which promotes viral survival. Lpro is not required for viral replication in vitro but serotype A FMDV lacking Lpro has been shown to be attenuated in cattle and pigs. However, it is not known, whether leaderless viruses can cause persistent infection in vivo after simulated natural infection and whether the attenuated phenotype is the same in other serotypes. We have generated an FMDV O/FRA/1/2001 variant lacking most of the Lpro coding region (ΔLb). Cattle were inoculated intranasopharyngeally and observed for 35 days to determine if O FRA/1/2001 ΔLb is attenuated during the acute phase of infection and whether it can maintain a persistent infection in the upper respiratory tract. We found that although this leaderless virus can replicate in vitro in different cell lines, it is unable to establish an acute infection with vesicular lesions and viral shedding nor is it able to persistently infect bovine pharyngeal tissues.

Foot-and-Mouth Disease

Foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) is a viral infection of livestock that is an important determinant of global trade in animal products. The disease causes a highly contagious vesicular syndrome of cloven-hoofed animals. Successful control of FMD is dependent upon early detection and recognition of the clinical signs, followed by appropriate notification and response of responsible government entities. Awareness of the clinical signs of FMD amongst producers and veterinary practitioners is therefore the key in protecting US agriculture from the catastrophic impacts of an FMD outbreak. This review summarizes key clinical and epidemiologic features of FMD from a US perspective.

Postvaccination serosurveillance of foot-and-mouth disease through virus-neutralizing and nonstructural protein antibody tests on pig farms in Taiwan: 2009-2020

The use of virus-neutralizing (VN) and nonstructural protein (NSP) antibody tests in a serosurveillance program for foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) can identify pig herds that are adequately vaccinated, with a high percentage of pigs with VN positive antibody titers; these tests can also help identify pigs with NSP-positivity that have previously been or are currently infected even in vaccinated herds. To identify infected herds and manage infection, the combination of VN and NSP antibody tests was used in Taiwan's serosurveillance program implemented simultaneously with the compulsory FMD vaccination program. The result was the eradication of FMD: Taiwan was recognized by the World Organization for Animal Health as an FMD-free country without vaccination in 2020. Evaluation of the compulsory vaccination program incorporated in the FMD control program in Taiwan revealed that the vaccine quality was satisfactory and the vaccination program was effective during the period of compulsory vaccination (2010-2017). Sound immunological coverage was achieved, with 89.1% of pigs having VN antibody titers exceeding 1:16 in 2016. This level of immunological coverage would be expected to substantially reduce or prevent FMD transmission, which was borne out by the results of the NSP tests. We identified farms having positive NSP reactors (very low annual prevalence) before the cessation of FMD vaccination in July 2018; however, detailed serological and clinical investigations of pigs of all ages in suspect herds demonstrated that no farms were harboring infected animals after the second half of 2013. Thus, the results revealed no evidence of FMD circulation in the field, and Taiwan regained FMD-free status.

In-process quality control in foot-and-mouth disease vaccine production by detection of viral non-structural proteins using chemiluminescence dot blot assay

Foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) is a contagious viral disease of cloven-footed animals. Immunization with inactivated virus vaccine is effective to control the disease. Six-monthly vaccination regimen in endemic regions has proven to be effective. To enable the differentiation of infected animals from those vaccinated, non-structural proteins (NSPs) are excluded during vaccine production. While the antibodies to structural proteins (SPs) could be observed both in vaccinated and infected animals, NSP antibodies are detectable only in natural infection. Quality control assays that detect NSPs in vaccine antigen preparations, are thus vital in the FMD vaccine manufacturing process. In this study, we designed a chemiluminescence dot blot assay to detect the 3A and 3B NSPs of FMDV. It is sensitive enough to detect up to 20 ng of the NSP, and exhibited specificity as it does not react with the viral SPs. This cost-effective assay holds promise in quality control assessment in FMD vaccine manufacturing.

A meta-analysis on the potency of foot-and-mouth disease vaccines in different animal models

Whether mice can be used as a foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) model has been debated for a long time. However, the major histocompatibility complex between pigs and mice is very different. In this study, the protective effects of FMD vaccines in different animal models were analyzed by a meta-analysis. The databases PubMed, China Knowledge Infrastructure, EMBASE, and Baidu Academic were searched. For this purpose, we evaluated evidence from 14 studies that included 869 animals with FMD vaccines. A random effects model was used to combine effects using Review Manager 5.4 software. A forest plot showed that the protective effects in pigs were statistically non-significant from those in mice [MH = 0.56, 90% CI (0.20, 1.53), P = 0.26]. The protective effects in pigs were also statistically non-significant from those in guinea pigs [MH = 0.67, 95% CI (0.37, 1.21), P = 0.18] and suckling mice [MH = 1.70, 95% CI (0.10, 28.08), P = 0.71]. Non-inferiority test could provide a hypothesis that the models (mice, suckling mice and guinea pigs) could replace pigs as FMDV vaccine models to test the protective effect of the vaccine. Strict standard procedures should be established to promote the assumption that mice and guinea pigs should replace pigs in vaccine evaluation.

Molecular Epidemiology of Foot-and-Mouth Disease Viruses in the Emirate of Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates

Foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) is an endemic disease in the United Arab Emirates (UAE) in both wild and domestic animals. Despite this, no systematic FMD outbreak investigation accompanied by molecular characterisation of FMD viruses (FMDVs) in small ruminants or cattle has been performed, and only a single report that describes sequences for FMDVs in wildlife from the Emirate has been published. In this study, FMD outbreaks that occurred in 2021 in five animal farms and one animal market in the Emirate of Abu Dhabi were investigated. Cases involved sheep, goats, and cattle, as well as Arabian oryx (Oryx leucoryx). Twelve samples were positive for FMDV via RT-qPCR, and four samples (Arabian oryx n = 1, goat n = 2, and sheep n = 1) were successfully genotyped using VP1 nucleotide sequencing. These sequences shared 88~98% identity and were classified within the serotype O, Middle East-South Asia topotype (O/ME-SA). Phylogenetic analysis revealed that the Arabian oryx isolate (UAE/2/2021) belonged to the PanAsia-2 lineage, the ANT-10 sublineage, and was closely related to the FMDVs recently detected in neighbouring countries. The FMDV isolates from goats (UAE/10/2021 and UAE/11/2021) and from sheep (UAE/14/2021) formed a monophyletic cluster within the SA-2018 lineage that contained viruses from Bangladesh, India, and Sri Lanka. This is the first study describing the circulation of the FMDV O/ME-SA/SA-2018 sublineage in the UAE. These data shed light on the epidemiology of FMD in the UAE and motivate further systematic epidemiological studies and genomic sequencing to enhance the ongoing national animal health FMD control plan.

The Immunogenicity of a Foot-and-Mouth Disease Virus Serotype O Vaccine in Commercial and Subsistence Cattle Herds in Zambia

The recent introduction of foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) virus serotype O (O/EA-2 topotype) in Southern Africa has changed the epidemiology of the disease and vaccine requirements of the region. Commercial and subsistence cattle herds in Zambia were vaccinated with an FMD virus serotype O Manisa vaccine according to a double- or single-dose vaccination schedule. Heterologous antibody responses induced by this vaccine against a representative O/EA-2 virus from Zambia were determined. Virus neutralisation tests (VNTs) showed double-dosed cattle had a mean reciprocal log virus neutralisation titre of 2.02 (standard error [SE] = 0.16, n = 9) for commercial herds and 1.65 (SE = 0.17, n = 5) for subsistence herds 56 days after the first vaccination (dpv). Significantly lower mean titres were observed for single-dosed commercial herds (0.90, SE = 0.08, n = 9) and subsistence herds (1.15, SE = 0.18, n = 3) 56 dpv. A comparison of these results and those generated by solid-phase competitive ELISA (SPCE) tests showed a statistically significant positive correlation by Cohen's kappa coefficient. Therefore, SPCE might be used in assessing the immunogenicity of vaccines in place of VNT. Furthermore, for this vaccine and field strain, a vaccination regime employing a two-dose primary course and revaccination after 4-6 months is likely to be appropriate.

Assessment of a reconfiguration of the InterSpread Plus US national FMD model as a potential tool to analyze a foot-and-mouth disease outbreak on a single large cattle feedlot in the United States

Introduction

An incursion of foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) into the United States remains a concern of high importance and would have devastating socioeconomic impacts to the livestock and associated industries. This highly transmissible and infectious disease poses continual risk for introduction into the United States (US), due to the legal and illegal global movement of people, animals, and animal products. While stamping out has been shown to effectively control FMD, depopulation of large cattle feedlots (>50,000 head) presents a number of challenges for responders due to the resources required to depopulate and dispose of large numbers of animals in a timely and effective manner.

Methods

However, evaluating alternative strategies for FMD control on large feedlots requires a detailed within-farm modeling approach, which can account for the unique structure of these operations. To address this, we developed a single feedlot, within-farm spread model using a novel configuration within the InterSpread Plus (ISP) framework. As proof of concept we designed six scenarios: (i) depopulation - the complete depopulation of the feedlot, (ii) burn-through - a managed "burn-through" where the virus is allowed to spread through the feedlot and only movement restriction and biosecurity are implemented, (iii) firebreak-NV - targeted depopulation of infected pens and adjacent pens without vaccination; (iv) firebreak - targeted depopulation of infected pens and adjacent pens with vaccination of remaining pens; (v) harvest-NV - selective harvest of pens where a 100% movement restriction is applied for 28-30 days, then pens are set for selection to be sent to slaughter, while allowing a controlled "burn-through" without vaccination; and (vi) harvest - selective harvest of pens with vaccination.

Results

Overall, the burn-through scenario (ii) had the shortest epidemic duration (31d (30, 33)) median (25th, 75th percentiles), while the firebreak scenario (iv) had the longest (47d (38,55)). Additionally, we found that scenarios implementing depopulation delayed the peak day of infection and reduced the total number of pens infected compared to non-depopulation scenarios.

Discussion

This novel configuration of ISP provides proof of concept for further development of this new tool to enhance response planning for an incursion of FMD in the US and provides the capability to investigate response strategies that are designed to address specific outbreak response objectives.

Perspective vaccines for emerging viral diseases in farm animals

The world has watched the emergence of numerous animal viruses that may threaten animal health which were added to the perpetual growing list of animal pathogens. This emergence drew the attention of the experts and animal health groups to the fact that it has become necessary to work on vaccine development. The current review aims to explore the perspective vaccines for emerging viral diseases in farm animals. This aim was fulfilled by focusing on modern technologies as well as next generation vaccines that have been introduced in the field of vaccines, either in clinical developments pending approval, or have already come to light and have been applied to animals with acceptable results such as viral-vectored vaccines, virus-like particles, and messenger RNA-based platforms. Besides, it shed the light on the importance of differentiation of infected from vaccinated animals technology in eradication programs of emerging viral diseases. The new science of nanomaterials was explored to elucidate its role in vaccinology. Finally, the role of Bioinformatics or Vaccinomics and its assist in vaccine designing and developments were discussed. The reviewing of the published manuscripts concluded that the use of conventional vaccines is considered an out-of-date approach in eliminating emerging diseases. However, these types of vaccines are considered the suitable plan especially in countries with few resources and capabilities. Piloted vaccines that rely on genetic-based technologies with continuous analyses of current viruses should be the aim of future vaccinology. Smart genomics of emerging viruses will be the gateway to choosing appropriate vaccines, regardless of the evolutionary rates of viruses.

Heterogeneity and Recombination of Foot-and-Mouth Disease Virus during Multi-Strain Coinfection of Cattle

Superinfection of cattle persistently infected with foot-and-mouth disease virus (FMDV), with a heterologous FMDV strain has been shown to generate novel recombinant viruses. In this study, we investigated the pathogenesis events within specific tissues associated with FMDV coinfections in cattle subjected to either simultaneous or serial exposure to two distinct strains of FMDV. Both strains of FMDV (one each of serotypes O and A) were similarly localized to the nasopharyngeal mucosa during the early stages of infection. However, while no recombinant FMDV genomes were recovered from simultaneously coinfected cattle, interserotypic recombinants were isolated from nasopharyngeal tissue samples obtained at 48 h after heterologous superinfection of a persistently infected FMDV carrier. Additionally, analysis of FMDV genomes obtained from replicate nasopharyngeal tissue samples demonstrated that adjacent segments of the mucosa were sometimes infected by distinct viruses, demonstrating a multifocal and heterogeneous distribution of FMDV infection during primary and persistent phases of infection. This work indicates that superinfection of FMDV carriers may be an important source of emergent recombinant strains of FMDV in areas where multiple strains are co-circulating. IMPORTANCE Foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) is a socioeconomically impactful livestock disease with a complex epidemiology and ecology. Although recombinant viruses have been identified in field samples, the mechanisms of emergence of those viruses have never been elucidated. This current study demonstrates how serial infection of cattle with two distinct serotypes of FMD virus (FMDV) leads to rapid generation of recombinant viruses in the upper respiratory tracts of infected animals. This finding is particularly relevant in relation to the management of persistently infected FMDV carrier cattle that can maintain subclinical FMDV infection for months to years after an initial infection. Such carrier animals may function as mixing vessels that facilitate the emergence of novel recombinant FMDV strains in areas where multiple virus strains are in circulation.

Analysis of suspensions and recoveries of official foot and mouth disease free status of WOAH Members between 1996 and 2020

Foot and mouth disease was the first disease for which, in 1996, the World Organisation for Animal Health (WOAH; founded as OIE) established an official list of disease-free territories, which has helped to facilitate the trade of animals and animal products from those territories. Since that year, there have been a number of suspensions of FMD-free status which have impacted the livestock industry of the territories affected. The objective of this study is to identify factors associated with the time taken to recover FMD-free status after suspension. Historical applications submitted (between 1996 and the first semester of 2020) by WOAH Members for recognition and recovery of FMD-free status were used as the main source of data. Only FMD-free status suspensions caused by outbreaks were considered. Data on the Member's socio-economic characteristics, livestock production systems, FMD outbreak characteristics, and control strategies were targeted for the analysis. The period of time taken to recover FMD-free status was estimated using Kaplan-Meier survival curves. A Cox proportional hazard model was used to identify factors associated with the time taken to recover FMD-free status after suspension. A total of 163 territories were granted official FMD-free status during the study period. The study sample consisted of 45 FMD-free status suspensions. Africa and the Americas accounted for over 50% of FMD-free status suspensions, while over 70% of these occurred in formerly FMD-free territories where vaccination was not practiced. The study noted that implementing a stamping-out or vaccination and remove policy shortened the time to recover FMD-free status, compared with a vaccination and retain policy. Other variables associated with the outcome were the income level of the Member, Veterinary Service capacity, time taken to implement control measures, time taken until the disposal of the last FMD case, whether the territory bordered FMD-infected territories, and time elapsed since FMD freedom. This analysis will contribute toward the understanding of the main determinants affecting the time to recover the FMD free status of WOAH Members and policy processes for FMD control and elimination.

Epidemiologic and economic considerations regarding persistently infected cattle during vaccinate-to-live strategies for control of foot-and-mouth disease in FMD-free regions

Development of a foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) carrier state following FMD virus (FMDV) infection is a well-established phenomenon in cattle. However, the proportion of cattle likely to become carriers and the duration of the carrier state at a herd or population-level are incompletely understood. The objective of this study was to examine the epidemiologic and economic impacts of vaccination-to-live strategy in a disease-free region or country. We developed and simulated scenarios of FMD spread and control in the US livestock population, which included depopulation for a limited period, followed by a vaccinate-to-live strategy with strong biosecurity and movement restrictions. Six scenarios of FMD spread and control were simulated in the InterSpread Plus (ISP) modeling tool. Data on the number of infected and depopulated cattle (by operation types) from ISP model runs were used to estimate the monthly number of infected but not depopulated (potential carrier) cattle after the infection. Using available literature data on the FMD carrier state, we estimated the monthly proportion of carrier cattle (from infected but not depopulated cattle) over time following infection. Among the simulated scenarios, the median (25th, 75th percentile) number of infected cattle ranged from 43,217 (42,819, 55,274) head to 148,907 (75,819, 205,350) head, and the epidemic duration ranged from 20 (11, 30) to 76 (38, 136) days. In general, larger outbreaks occurred when depopulation was carried out through longer periods, and the onset of the vaccination was late (p > 0.05). The estimated proportion of surviving cattle, which were infected and not depopulated and had the potential to become persistently infected ranged from 14 to 35% of total infected cattle. Production losses in beef and dairy sectors were higher when outbreaks started in multiple states simultaneously, but production losses were small compared to trade losses and consumer avoidance losses. These results can be used to inform the consideration of a vaccinate-to-live strategy for FMD outbreaks and the development of appropriate post-outbreak management strategies. Furthermore, this output will enable a more detailed examination of the epidemiologic and economic implications of allowing convalescent cattle to survive and remain in production chains after FMD outbreaks in FMD-free regions.

Seroprevalence and associated risk factors for foot and mouth disease virus seropositivity in cattle in selected districts of Gamo zone, Southern Ethiopia

Background

Foot and mouth disease (FMD) is a highly contagious viral disease of cloven-hoofed animals, which hampers livestock production and productivity in Ethiopia. This cross-sectional study was conducted from January to December 2021 to estimate the seroprevalence of FMD in cattle and to assess farmers' knowledge about the disease in selected districts of the Gamo zone. Three districts and two kebeles (smallest administrative division) from each district were purposively sampled using a simple random sampling technique to select individual animals from each kebeles. A total of 384 sera samples were collected, and concurrently, 100 farmers were interviewed. The samples were tested for antibodies against nonstructural proteins of the FMD virus using a 3ABC enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). Univariable and multivariable logistic regressions were used to analyze FMD-associated risk factors.

Result

The questionnaire survey result revealed that among the interviewed farmers, 66% of farmers had knowledge about the disease, and 28% of farmers reported having a case of FMD in at least one cattle in their farm in the previous 6 months. The overall seroprevalence of FMD in cattle was 26.8%. The multivariable logistic regression revealed that age, breed, and agroecology had a significant association with seropositivity. Higher seroprevalence (64.57%) was observed in lowland, followed by midland (9.30%) and highland (5.88%). Study animals from lowland areas were 9.26 times more likely to be seropositive (OR = 9.26, CI = 2.22–38.62) for FMD than highland animals. Also, adult animals were 9.01 times (OR = 9.01, CI = 3.18–25.53) more likely to be seropositive for the disease than young animals. The multivariable logistic regression revealed that crossbreeds have an 84.7% (OR = 0.153, CI = 0.028–0.82) lower likelihood to be seropositive to FMD than local breeds.

Conclusion

This study result confirms that FMD is highly prevalent in the study area, and farmers' knowledge regarding disease transmission and vaccine availability is minimal. Hence the regional concerned bodies should implement FMD vaccination campaigns and create awareness for smallholder farmers regarding the disease transmission, FMD vaccine schedule, and vaccination importance.

Control of foot-and-mouth disease in a closed society: A case study of Soviet Estonia

Foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) is a dangerous infectious disease of even-toed ungulates, however since 1991, the European Union has banned preventive vaccination. During the occupation of the USSR, there were two outbreaks in Estonia: the first started in 1952 (at which time the barns typically housed about 20 cows); and the second began in 1982 (a period when barns typically housed several 100 animals). Neither outbreak was reported to the international community. At that time, it was also forbidden to talk about the disease in the internal media, and speakers could be punished. This study sought to find answers as to how the disease was treated and eliminated in the Estonian SSR, how infected animals and milk were handled, and if some of the methods used can be applied today. Written archival sources and 29 interviews with specialists remembering the outbreaks were used. Preventive slaughter of animals in the USSR was prohibited during the outbreak. As a preventive measure vaccination was used, traveling out of their counties by people were restricted and disinfection mats were used on the roads. In sick animals, udder wounds were treated with various wound ointments, such as zinc ointment, but also ointment made from boiled spruce resin. Birch tar was also recommended in the literature for leg treatments. Mouth wounds were washed with potassium permanganate solution. Workers used rubber gloves when handling sick animals. The barns were disinfected with lime and ash water. The milk from the diseased cows was pasteurized and given to calves, pigs, or diseased animals. Animals that did not recover were transferred to a meat processing plant. The meat was kept in potassium permanganate solution before processing and canned or made into sausages. When the disease was discovered, farm workers were locked in barns and released only when the disease had been eliminated. Such inhumane treatment could only be practiced in a totalitarian society.

Development of an ELISA to distinguish between foot-and-mouth disease virus infected and vaccinated animals utilising the viral non-structural protein 3ABC

Introduction. Foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) is a highly contagious and economically devastating viral disease of livestock and is endemic in much of Asia, including Pakistan. Vaccination is used to control disease outbreaks and sensitive diagnostic methods which can differentiate infected animals from vaccinated animals (DIVA) are essential for monitoring the effectiveness of disease control programmes. Tests based on the detection of the non-structural protein (NSP) 3ABC are reliable indicators of virus replication in infected and vaccinated populations.Hypothesis/Gap statement. Diagnosis of FMD is expensive using commercial ELISA kits, yet is essential for controlling this economically-important disease.Aim. The development of a low-cost diagnostic ELISA, using protein made in Escherichia coli.Methodology. In this study, the viral precursor protein 3ABC (r3ABC) was expressed in E. coli, solubilised using detergent and purified using nickel affinity chromatography. The fusion protein contained an attenuating mutation in the protease and a SUMO tag. It was characterised by immunoblotting and immunoprecipitation, which revealed antigenicity against virus-specific polyclonal sera. Using r3ABC, an indirect ELISA was developed and evaluated using field sera from healthy/naïve, vaccinated and infected animals.Results. The diagnostic sensitivity and specificity of the r3ABC in-house ELISA were 95.3 and 96.3% respectively. The ELISA was validated through comparison with the commercially available ID Screen FMD NSP competition kit. Results indicated good concordance rates on tested samples and high agreement between the two tests.Conclusion. The ELISA described here can effectively differentiate between infected and vaccinated animals and represents an important low cost tool for sero-surveillance and control of FMD in endemic settings.

Foot-and-Mouth Disease: Optimization, Reproducibility, and Scalability of High-Yield Production of Virus-Like Particles for a Next-Generation Vaccine

Inactivated Foot-and-Mouth Disease (FMD) vaccine has proven to be effective in the control of the disease. However, its production has some disadvantages, including the costly biosafety facilities required for the production of huge amounts of growing live virus, the need of an exhaustive purification process to eliminate non-structural proteins of the virus in the final formulations in order to differentiate infected from vaccinated animals and variable local regulatory restrictions to produce and commercialize the vaccine. Thus, a novel vaccine against FMD that overcome these restrictions is desirable. Although many developments have been made in this regard, most of them failed in terms of efficacy or when considering their transferability to the industry. We have previously reported the use of transient gene expression in mammalian cells to produce FMD virus-like particles (VLPs) as a novel vaccine for FMD and demonstrated the immunogenicity of the recombinant structures in animal models. Here, we report the optimization of the production system by assaying different DNA:polyethylenimine concentrations, cell densities, and direct and indirect protocols of transfection. Also, we evaluated the reproducibility and scalability of the technology to produce high yields of recombinant VLPs in a cost-effective and scalable system compatible with industrial tech-transfer of an effective and safe vaccine.

Seroprevalence of foot-and-mouth disease virus in cattle herds raised in Maasai Mara ecosystem in Kenya

A cross-sectional study was carried out to determine foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) seroprevalence and identify risk factors of exposure among cattle herds raised in three zones with different types of land use and progressively distant from the Maasai Mara National Reserve (MMNR) boundary. We selected five villages purposively; two in zone 1 (area < 20 km from the MMNR), another two in zone 2 (area between 20-40 km away from the MMNR) and one in zone 3 (area >40 km away from the MMNR). A total of 1170 cattle sera were collected from 390 herds in all the zones and tested for antibodies against the non-structural proteins (NSPs) of FMD virus (FMDV) using two 3ABC-based Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay ELISA kits. All sera samples were also screened for serotype-specific antibodies using Solid Phase Competitive ELISA (SPCE) kits (IZSLER, Italy). We targeted FMDV serotypes A, O, South African Territory [SAT] 1 and SAT 2, known to be endemic in East Africa including Kenya. Data on putative risk factors for FMD seropositivity in cattle were collected using a questionnaire. The overall apparent animal-level FMD seroprevalence based on the parallel comparison of the two anti-NSPs ELISA kits was 83.8 % (95 % CI; 81.8-85.9), and differed significantly across zones. Zone 1 had a higher seroprevalence than zones 2 and 3 (χ² = 116.1, df = 2, p < 0.001). In decreasing order, the overall seroprevalences of FMDV serotypes A, SAT 2, O and SAT 1 were 26.3 % (95 % CI; 23.5-29.2), 21.4 % (95 % CI; 18.8-24.0), 21.2 % (95 % CI; 18.7-23.9) and 13.1 % (95 % CI; 11.1-15.3), respectively. The distribution of these serotypes differed significantly between zones (p < 0.05) except for SAT 2 serotype (χ² = 0.90, df = 2, p = 0.639). Both serotypes A and O were more prevalent in zones 1 and 2 than zone 3 while serotype SAT 1, was higher in zone 3 compared to other zones. The results of multivariable analyses identified animal sex (i.e., female), raising of cattle in zones 1 and 2 (areas < 40 km away from the MMNR); mixing of cattle from multiple herds at watering points, and pastoral husbandry practices, as significant predictors of animal-level FMD seropositivity. This study established that FMD seroprevalence declined with distance from the MMNR.

Serological and phylogenetic characterization of foot and mouth disease viruses from Uganda during cross-sectional surveillance study in cattle between 2014 and 2017

Here, we report the results of a cross-sectional study designed to monitor the circulation and genetic diversity of foot and mouth disease virus (FMDV) in Uganda between 2014 and 2017. In this study, 13,614 sera and 2,068 oral-pharyngeal fluid samples were collected from cattle and analysed to determine FMDV seroprevalence, circulating serotypes and their phylogenetic relationships. Circulation of FMDV was evidenced by the detection of antibodies against non-structural proteins of FMDV or viral isolations in all districts sampled in Uganda. Sequence analysis revealed the presence of FMDV serotypes A, O, SAT 1 and SAT 2. FMDVs belonging to serotype O, isolated from 21 districts, were the most prevalent and were classified into six lineages within two East African topotypes, namely EA-1 and EA-2. Serotype A viruses belonging to the Africa G-I topotype were isolated from two districts. SAT 1 viruses grouped within topotypes I and IV and SAT 2 viruses within topotypes VII, IV and X were isolated from six and four districts respectively. Phylogenetic analysis of SAT 1 and SAT 2 sequences from cattle clustered with historical sequences from African buffalo, indicating possible interspecies transmission at the wildlife-livestock interface. In some cases, Uganda viruses also shared similarities to viral strains recovered from other regions in East Africa. This 3-year study period provides knowledge about the geographical distribution of FMDV serotypes isolated in Uganda and insights into the genetic diversity of the multiple serotypes circulating in the country. Knowledge of circulating FMDV viruses will assist in antigenic matching studies to devise improved FMDV control strategies with vaccination and vaccine strain selection for Uganda.

The Development and Validation of a Novel Nanobody-Based Competitive ELISA for the Detection of Foot and Mouth Disease 3ABC Antibodies in Cattle

Effective management of foot and mouth disease (FMD) requires diagnostic tests to distinguish between infected and vaccinated animals (DIVA). To address this need, several enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) platforms have been developed, however, these tests vary in their sensitivity and specificity and are very expensive for developing countries. Camelid-derived single-domain antibodies fragments so-called Nanobodies, have demonstrated great efficacy for the development of serological diagnostics. This study describes the development of a novel Nanobody-based FMD 3ABC competitive ELISA, for the serological detection of antibodies against FMD Non-Structural Proteins (NSP) in Uganda cattle herds. This in-house ELISA was validated using more than 600 sera from different Uganda districts, and virus serotype specificities. The evaluation of the performance of the assay demonstrated high diagnostic sensitivity and specificity of 94 % (95 % CI: 88.9-97.2), and 97.67 % (95 % CI: 94.15-99.36) respectively, as well as the capability to detect NSP-specific antibodies against multiple FMD serotype infections. In comparison with the commercial PrioCHECK FMDV NSP-FMD test, there was a strong concordance and high correlation and agreement in the performance of the two tests. This new developed Nanobody based FMD 3ABC competitive ELISA could clearly benefit routine disease diagnosis, the establishment of disease-free zones, and the improvement of FMD management and control in endemically complex environments, such as those found in Africa.

Comparative evaluation of two ELISA kits for detecting antibodies to a nonstructural protein of foot-and-mouth disease virus using serum samples collected from naturally and experimentally infected cows

When foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) occurs and a “vaccination-to-live” policy is adopted in a country, the country must perform serological surveillance of a nonstructural protein (NSP) of FMD virus. The NCPanaftosa kit is the only kit for detecting antibodies to NSPs that is officially recognized as the reference regent by the World Organization for Animal Health; however, it is only used in South American countries. In this study, the specificity and sensitivity of the NCPanaftosa kit were compared with those of the PrioCHECK kit sold by an international company. Results in this study suggest that the PrioCHECK kit performs similarly to the NCPanaftosa kit in detecting antibodies to the NSP in the cattle population.

Development of a chemiluminescence immunoassay using recombinant non-structural epitope-based proteins to accurately differentiate foot-and-mouth disease virus-infected and vaccinated bovines

The contamination of inactivated vaccine with non-structural proteins (NSPs) leads to a high false-positive rate, which is a substantial barrier to accurately differentiate foot-and-mouth disease virus (FMDV)-infected animals from vaccinated animals. To address this problem, a new chemiluminescence immunoassay (CLIA) method was developed to detect antibodies targeting the two recombinant epitope-based proteins located in 3A and 3B. The 3Aepitp-3Bepitp CLIA exhibited a diagnostic sensitivity of 94.0% and a diagnostic specificity of 97.5% for the detection of serum samples (naïve bovines, n = 52, vaccinated bovines, n = 422, infected bovines, n = 116) from animals with known status. The CLIA method also had a concordance rate of 88.1% with the PrioCHECK FMDV NSP ELISA based on the detection of 270 serum samples from the field. Importantly, the 3Aepitp-3Bepitp CLIA produced no false-positives when used to detect FMDV in samples from bovines that had been vaccinated up to five times, and it was demonstrated a low false-positive rate when the bovines had been vaccinated up to ten (2.15%) and fifteen times (5.93%). Therefore, the 3Aepitp-3Bepitp CLIA detects FMDV in samples from frequently vaccinated bovines with high accuracy and represents an alternative method to differentiate FMDV-infected and vaccinated bovines.

Development of vaccines against Crimean-Congo haemorrhagic fever virus

Crimean-Congo haemorrhagic fever virus (CCHFV) is a deadly human pathogen of the utmost seriousness being highly lethal causing devastating disease symptoms that result in intense and prolonged suffering to those infected. During the past 40years, this virus has repeatedly caused sporadic outbreaks responsible for relatively low numbers of human casualties, but with an alarming fatality rate of up to 80% in clinically infected patients. CCHFV is transmitted to humans by Hyalomma ticks and contact with the blood of viremic livestock, additionally cases of human-to-human transmission are not uncommon in nosocomial settings. The incidence of CCHF closely matches the geographical range of permissive ticks, which are widespread throughout Africa, Asia, the Middle East and Europe. As such, CCHFV is the most widespread tick-borne virus on earth. It is a concern that recent data shows the geographic distribution of Hyalomma ticks is expanding. Migratory birds are also disseminating Hyalomma ticks into more northerly parts of Europe thus potentially exposing naïve human populations to CCHFV. The virus has been imported into the UK on two occasions in the last five years with the first fatal case being confirmed in 2012. A licensed vaccine to CCHF is not available. In this review, we discuss the background and complications surrounding this limitation and examine the current status and recent advances in the development of vaccines against CCHFV.

Attenuation of Foot-and-Mouth Disease Virus by Engineered Viral Polymerase Fidelity

Foot-and-mouth disease virus (FMDV) RNA-dependent RNA polymerase (RdRp) (3Dpol) catalyzes viral RNA synthesis. Its characteristic low fidelity and absence of proofreading activity allow FMDV to rapidly mutate and adapt to dynamic environments. In this study, we used the structure of FMDV 3Dpol in combination with previously reported results from similar picornaviral polymerases to design point mutations that would alter replication fidelity. In particular, we targeted Trp237 within conserved polymerase motif A because of the low reversion potential inherent in the single UGG codon. Using biochemical and genetic tools, we show that the replacement of tryptophan 237 with phenylalanine imparts higher fidelity, but replacements with isoleucine and leucine resulted in lower-fidelity phenotypes. Viruses containing these W237 substitutions show in vitro growth kinetics and plaque morphologies similar to those of the wild-type (WT) A24 Cruzeiro strain in BHK cells, and both high- and low-fidelity variants retained fitness during coinfection with the wild-type virus. The higher-fidelity W237F (W237FHF) mutant virus was more resistant to the mutagenic nucleoside analogs ribavirin and 5-fluorouracil than the WT virus, whereas the lower-fidelity W237I (W237ILF) and W237LLF mutant viruses exhibited lower ribavirin resistance. Interestingly, the variant viruses showed heterogeneous and slightly delayed growth kinetics in primary porcine kidney cells, and they were significantly attenuated in mouse infection experiments. These data demonstrate, for a single virus, that either increased or decreased RdRp fidelity attenuates virus growth in animals, which is a desirable feature for the development of safer and genetically more stable vaccine candidates.IMPORTANCE Foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) is the most devastating disease affecting livestock worldwide. Here, using structural and biochemical analyses, we have identified FMDV 3Dpol mutations that affect polymerase fidelity. Recombinant FMDVs containing substitutions at 3Dpol tryptophan residue 237 were genetically stable and displayed plaque phenotypes and growth kinetics similar to those of the wild-type virus in cell culture. We further demonstrate that viruses harboring either a W237FHF substitution or W237ILF and W237LLF mutations were highly attenuated in animals. Our study shows that obtaining 3Dpol fidelity variants by protein engineering based on polymerase structure and function could be exploited for the development of attenuated FMDV vaccine candidates that are safer and more stable than strains obtained by selective pressure via mutagenic nucleotides or adaptation approaches.

Further evaluation of an ELISA kit for detection of antibodies to a nonstructural protein of foot-and-mouth disease virus

An ELISA kit for detection of antibodies to a nonstructural protein of foot-and-mouth disease (FMDV) was further evaluated using sequentially collected serum samples of experimentally infected animals, because the sensitivity of the kit used in a previous study was significantly low in field animals. The kit fully detected antibodies in infected animals without vaccination; however, the first detections of antibodies by the kit were later than those by the liquid-phase blocking ELISA that is used for serological surveillance in the aftermath of outbreaks in Japan, for detection of antibodies to structural proteins of FMDV. Additionally, although the kit effectively detected antibodies in infected cattle with vaccination, there were several infected pigs with vaccination for which the kit did not detect antibodies during the experimental period. Taken together, the kit may not be suitable for serological surveillance after an FMD outbreak either with or without emergency vaccination in FMD-free countries.

A Review of OIE Country Status Recovery Using Vaccinate-to-Live Versus Vaccinate-to-Die Foot-and-Mouth Disease Response Policies II: Waiting Periods After Emergency Vaccination in FMD Free Countries

For countries with OIE status, FMD free country where vaccination is not practised, vaccinate-to-live policies have a significant economic disincentive as the trade restriction waiting period is double that of vaccinate-to-die policies. The disposal of healthy vaccinated animals strictly for the purpose of regaining markets with debatable scientific justification is a global concern. The feasibility of aligning the waiting periods to facilitate vaccinate-to-live is explored. The first article of this two-part review (Barnett et al., 2015) explored the qualities of higher potency Foot-and-Mouth Disease (FMD) vaccines, performance of differentiating infected from vaccinated animals (DIVA) diagnostic assays particularly in vaccinates and carriers, as well as aspects of current limitations of post-outbreak surveillance. Here, the history behind the OIE waiting periods for FMD free status is reviewed as well as whether the risk of vaccinated animals and their subsequent products differ appreciably at 3 versus 6 months. It is concluded that alignment is feasible for vaccinate-to-live using higher potency FMD vaccines within the current OIE waiting period framework of 3 and 6 months blocks of time. These waiting periods reflect precedence, historical practicalities and considered expert opinion rather than a specific scientific rationale. The future lies in updated epidemiological and diagnostic technology to establish an acceptable level of statistical certainty for surveillance or target probability of freedom of FMDV (infection or circulation) not time restricted waiting periods. The OIE Terrestrial Code limits trade from a FMD free country where vaccination is not practiced to animal products and live non-vaccinated animals. The risk of FMDV in products derived from higher potency vaccinated animals is appreciably less than for countries with infected FMD status or even from a FMD free country where vaccination is practised for which the Code has Articles with guidelines for safe trade with time restrictions of 3 months or less. All these presume that key requirements in the implementation of emergency vaccination including appropriate vaccine match, vaccine application, susceptible population coverage, etc. are addressed.