1
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Losada JM. Concluding Embryogenesis After Diaspora: Seed Germination in Illicium Parviflorum. Integr Comp Biol 2023; 63:1352-1363. [PMID: 37349968 PMCID: PMC10755177 DOI: 10.1093/icb/icad078] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/15/2023] [Revised: 06/07/2023] [Accepted: 06/13/2023] [Indexed: 06/24/2023] Open
Abstract
Albuminous seeds, dispersed with a minimally developed embryo surrounded by nutrient storage tissue, are pervasive across extinct and extant early diverging angiosperm lineages. Typically, seed ontogenic studies have focused on the time between fertilization and seed release, but in albuminous seeds, embryogenesis is incomplete at the time of seed dispersal. Here, I studied the morphological and nutritional relationships between the embryo and the endosperm after seed dispersal in Illicium parviflorum (Austrobaileyales). Seeds of I. parviflorum germinate over a period of three months. Different stages during the germination process were anatomically evaluated using a combination of histochemistry and immunocytochemistry. At dispersal, the seeds of Illicium contain a tiny achlorophyllous embryo with minimal histological differentiation, surrounded by copious amounts of lipo-protein globules stored in the endosperm within cell walls rich in un-esterified pectins. Six weeks later, the embryo expanded and differentiated the vascular tissues before the emergence of the radicle through the seed coat, as the stored lipids and proteins coalesced within cells. Six weeks later, the cotyledons contained starch and complex lipids intracellularly, and accumulated low-esterified pectins in their cell walls. The proteolipid-rich albuminous seeds of Illicium exemplify how woody angiosperms of the Austrobaileyales, Amborellales, and many magnoliids release seeds with high-energy storage compounds that are reprocessed by embryos that complete development during germination. Seedlings of these lineages thrive in the understory of tropical environments, which match with the predicted habitats where angiosperms evolved.
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Affiliation(s)
- Juan M Losada
- Institute of Subtropical and Mediterranean Hortofruticulture La Mayora – CSIC – UMA. Avda. Dr. Wienberg s/n., Algarrobo-Costa, Málaga, 29750, Spain
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2
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Sun Y, Liu Y, Li J, Yan S. Acetic Acid Immersion Alleviates the Softening of Cooked Sagittaria sagittifolia L. Slices by Affecting Cell Wall Polysaccharides. Foods 2023; 12:foods12030506. [PMID: 36766035 PMCID: PMC9914095 DOI: 10.3390/foods12030506] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/12/2022] [Revised: 01/12/2023] [Accepted: 01/17/2023] [Indexed: 01/25/2023] Open
Abstract
This study investigated the mechanism for acetic acid pretreatment to improve cell wall integrity and thereby enhance the hardness of cooked Sagittaria sagittifolia L. slices by affecting polysaccharides in the cell wall. Distilled water immersion and 0.6% acetic acid immersion (the solid/liquid ratio is 1:10) for 15 h at room temperature could result in the conversion of pectin through different reactions during thermal processing. Combined in situ and in vitro analysis demonstrated that acetic acid pretreatment could promote the interaction of cellulose microfiber or hemicellulose with RG-Ⅰ side chains during thermal processing of S. sagittifolia L. slices, promote the entanglement between linear pectin molecules and make hemicellulose show a lower molecular weight under cooking, making it easy to firmly bind to pectin, which resulted in texture changes. The findings may help improve the texture of thermally processed vegetables and fruits and deep processing of starchy vegetables.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yangyang Sun
- College of Food Science and Technology, Huazhong Agriculture University, Wuhan 430070, China
| | - Yanzhao Liu
- College of Food Science and Technology, Huazhong Agriculture University, Wuhan 430070, China
| | - Jie Li
- College of Food Science and Technology, Huazhong Agriculture University, Wuhan 430070, China
- Aquatic Vegetable Preservation and Processing Technology Engineering Center of Hubei Province, Wuhan 430070, China
| | - Shoulei Yan
- College of Food Science and Technology, Huazhong Agriculture University, Wuhan 430070, China
- Aquatic Vegetable Preservation and Processing Technology Engineering Center of Hubei Province, Wuhan 430070, China
- Correspondence:
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3
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Cosgrove DJ. Building an extensible cell wall. PLANT PHYSIOLOGY 2022; 189:1246-1277. [PMID: 35460252 PMCID: PMC9237729 DOI: 10.1093/plphys/kiac184] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 28.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/19/2022] [Accepted: 03/21/2022] [Indexed: 05/15/2023]
Abstract
This article recounts, from my perspective of four decades in this field, evolving paradigms of primary cell wall structure and the mechanism of surface enlargement of growing cell walls. Updates of the structures, physical interactions, and roles of cellulose, xyloglucan, and pectins are presented. This leads to an example of how a conceptual depiction of wall structure can be translated into an explicit quantitative model based on molecular dynamics methods. Comparison of the model's mechanical behavior with experimental results provides insights into the molecular basis of complex mechanical behaviors of primary cell wall and uncovers the dominant role of cellulose-cellulose interactions in forming a strong yet extensible network.
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4
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Sathitnaitham S, Suttangkakul A, Wonnapinij P, McQueen-Mason SJ, Vuttipongchaikij S. Gel-permeation chromatography-enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay method for systematic mass distribution profiling of plant cell wall matrix polysaccharides. THE PLANT JOURNAL : FOR CELL AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2021; 106:1776-1790. [PMID: 33788319 DOI: 10.1111/tpj.15255] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/22/2020] [Accepted: 03/26/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Cell walls are dynamic and multi-component materials that play important roles in many areas of plant biology. The composition and interactions of the structural elements give rise to material properties, which are modulated by the activity of wall-related enzymes. Studies of the genes and enzymes that determine wall composition and function have made great progress, but rarely take account of potential compensatory changes in wall polymers that may accompany and accommodate changes in other components, particularly for specific polysaccharides. Here, we present a method that allows the simultaneous examination of the mass distributions and quantities of specific cell wall matrix components, allowing insight into direct and indirect consequences of cell wall manipulations. The method employs gel-permeation chromatography fractionation of cell wall polymers followed by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay to identify polymer types. We demonstrate the potential of this method using glycan-directed monoclonal antibodies to detect epitopes representing xyloglucans, heteromannans, glucuronoxylans, homogalacturonans (HGs) and methyl-esterified HGs. The method was used to explore compositional diversity in different Arabidopsis organs and to examine the impacts of changing wall composition in a number of previously characterized cell wall mutants. As demonstrated in this article, this methodology allows a much deeper understanding of wall composition, its dynamism and plasticity to be obtained, furthering our knowledge of cell wall biology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sukhita Sathitnaitham
- Department of Genetics, Faculty of Science, Kasetsart University, 50 Ngam Wong Wan, Chatuchak, Bangkok, 10900, Thailand
| | - Anongpat Suttangkakul
- Department of Genetics, Faculty of Science, Kasetsart University, 50 Ngam Wong Wan, Chatuchak, Bangkok, 10900, Thailand
- Center of Advanced Studies for Tropical Natural Resources, Kasetsart University, 50 Ngam Wong Wan, Chatuchak, Bangkok, 10900, Thailand
| | - Passorn Wonnapinij
- Department of Genetics, Faculty of Science, Kasetsart University, 50 Ngam Wong Wan, Chatuchak, Bangkok, 10900, Thailand
- Center of Advanced Studies for Tropical Natural Resources, Kasetsart University, 50 Ngam Wong Wan, Chatuchak, Bangkok, 10900, Thailand
| | | | - Supachai Vuttipongchaikij
- Department of Genetics, Faculty of Science, Kasetsart University, 50 Ngam Wong Wan, Chatuchak, Bangkok, 10900, Thailand
- Center of Advanced Studies for Tropical Natural Resources, Kasetsart University, 50 Ngam Wong Wan, Chatuchak, Bangkok, 10900, Thailand
- Omics Center for Agriculture, Bioresources, Food and Health, Kasetsart University (OmiKU), Bangkok, Thailand
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5
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Surówka E, Potocka I, Dziurka M, Wróbel-Marek J, Kurczyńska E, Żur I, Maksymowicz A, Gajewska E, Miszalski Z. Tocopherols mutual balance is a key player for maintaining Arabidopsis thaliana growth under salt stress. PLANT PHYSIOLOGY AND BIOCHEMISTRY : PPB 2020; 156:369-383. [PMID: 33007531 DOI: 10.1016/j.plaphy.2020.09.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/22/2020] [Accepted: 09/07/2020] [Indexed: 05/26/2023]
Abstract
Enhanced channeling carbon through pathways: shikimate/chorismate, benzenoid-phenylopropanoid or 2-C-methyl-D-erythritol 4-phosphate (MEP) provides a multitude of secondary metabolites and cell wall components and allows plants response to environmental stresses. Through the biosynthetic pathways, different secondary metabolites, like tocopherols (TCs), are bind to mutual dependencies and metabolic loops, that are not yet fully understood. We compared, in parallel, the influence of α- and γ-TCs on metabolites involved in osmoprotective/antioxidative response, and physico-chemical modification of plasma membrane and cell wall. We studied Arabidopsis thaliana Columbia ecotype (WT), mutant vte1 deficient in α- and γ-TCs, mutant vte4 over-accumulating γ-TC instead of α-TC, and transgenic line tmt over-accumulating α-TC; exposed to NaCl. The results indicate that salt stress activates β-carboxylation processes in WT plants and in plants with altered TCs accumulation. In α-TC-deficient plants, NaCl causes ACC decrease, but does not change SA, whose concentration remains higher than in α-TC accumulating plants. α/γ-TCs contents influence carbohydrates, poliamines, phenolic (caffeic, ferrulic, cinnamic) acids accumulation patterns. Salinity results in increased detection of the LM5 galactan and LM19 homogalacturonan epitopes in α-TC accumulating plants, and the LM6 arabinan and MAC207 AGP epitopes in α-TC deficient mutants. Parallel, plants with altered TCs composition show decreased both the cell turgor and elastic modulus determined at the individual cell level. α-TC deficient plants reveal lower values of cell turgor and elastic modulus, but higher cell hydraulic conductivity than α-TC accumulating plants. Under salt stress, α-TC shows stronger regulatory effect than γ-TC through the impact on chloroplastic biosynthetic pathways and ROS/osmotic-modulating compounds.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ewa Surówka
- The Franciszek Górski Institute of Plant Physiology of the Polish Academy of Sciences, ul. Niezapominajek 21, 30-239, Kraków, Poland.
| | - Izabela Potocka
- Institute of Biology, Biotechnology and Environmental Protection, Faculty of Natural Sciences, University of Silesia in Katowice, Jagiellońska 28, 40-032, Katowice, Poland.
| | - Michał Dziurka
- The Franciszek Górski Institute of Plant Physiology of the Polish Academy of Sciences, ul. Niezapominajek 21, 30-239, Kraków, Poland
| | - Justyna Wróbel-Marek
- Institute of Biology, Biotechnology and Environmental Protection, Faculty of Natural Sciences, University of Silesia in Katowice, Jagiellońska 28, 40-032, Katowice, Poland
| | - Ewa Kurczyńska
- Institute of Biology, Biotechnology and Environmental Protection, Faculty of Natural Sciences, University of Silesia in Katowice, Jagiellońska 28, 40-032, Katowice, Poland.
| | - Iwona Żur
- The Franciszek Górski Institute of Plant Physiology of the Polish Academy of Sciences, ul. Niezapominajek 21, 30-239, Kraków, Poland
| | - Anna Maksymowicz
- The Franciszek Górski Institute of Plant Physiology of the Polish Academy of Sciences, ul. Niezapominajek 21, 30-239, Kraków, Poland
| | - Ewa Gajewska
- Department of Plant Physiology and Biochemistry, Faculty of Biology and Environmental Protection, University of Łódź, Banacha 12/16, 90-237, Łódź, Poland
| | - Zbigniew Miszalski
- The Franciszek Górski Institute of Plant Physiology of the Polish Academy of Sciences, ul. Niezapominajek 21, 30-239, Kraków, Poland
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6
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Ding L, Li M, Guo X, Tang M, Cao J, Wang Z, Liu R, Zhu K, Guo L, Liu S, Tan X. Arabidopsis GDSL1 overexpression enhances rapeseed Sclerotinia sclerotiorum resistance and the functional identification of its homolog in Brassica napus. PLANT BIOTECHNOLOGY JOURNAL 2020; 18:1255-1270. [PMID: 31693306 PMCID: PMC7152613 DOI: 10.1111/pbi.13289] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/08/2018] [Revised: 10/17/2019] [Accepted: 10/27/2019] [Indexed: 05/18/2023]
Abstract
Sclerotinia stem rot (SSR) caused by Sclerotinia sclerotiorum is a devastating disease of rapeseed (Brassica napus L.). To date, the genetic mechanisms of rapeseed' interactions with S. sclerotiorum are not fully understood, and molecular-based breeding is still the most effective control strategy for this disease. Here, Arabidopsis thaliana GDSL1 was characterized as an extracellular GDSL lipase gene functioning in Sclerotinia resistance. Loss of AtGDSL1 function resulted in enhanced susceptibility to S. sclerotiorum. Conversely, overexpression of AtGDSL1 in B. napus enhanced resistance, which was associated with increased reactive oxygen species (ROS) and salicylic acid (SA) levels, and reduced jasmonic acid levels. In addition, AtGDSL1 can cause an increase in lipid precursor phosphatidic acid levels, which may lead to the activation of downstream ROS/SA defence-related pathways. However, the rapeseed BnGDSL1 with highest sequence similarity to AtGDSL1 had no effect on SSR resistance. A candidate gene association study revealed that only one AtGDSL1 homolog from rapeseed, BnaC07g35650D (BnGLIP1), significantly contributed to resistance traits in a natural B. napus population, and the resistance function was also confirmed by a transient expression assay in tobacco leaves. Moreover, genomic analyses revealed that BnGLIP1 locus was embedded in a selected region associated with SSR resistance during the breeding process, and its elite allele type belonged to a minor allele in the population. Thus, BnGLIP1 is the functional equivalent of AtGDSL1 and has a broad application in rapeseed S. sclerotiorum-resistance breeding.
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Affiliation(s)
- Li‐Na Ding
- Institute of Life SciencesJiangsu UniversityZhenjiangChina
| | - Ming Li
- Institute of Life SciencesJiangsu UniversityZhenjiangChina
| | - Xiao‐Juan Guo
- Institute of Life SciencesJiangsu UniversityZhenjiangChina
| | - Min‐Qiang Tang
- National Key Laboratory of Crop Genetic ImprovementHuazhong Agricultural UniversityWuhanChina
| | - Jun Cao
- Institute of Life SciencesJiangsu UniversityZhenjiangChina
| | - Zheng Wang
- Institute of Life SciencesJiangsu UniversityZhenjiangChina
| | - Rui Liu
- Institute of Life SciencesJiangsu UniversityZhenjiangChina
| | - Ke‐Ming Zhu
- Institute of Life SciencesJiangsu UniversityZhenjiangChina
| | - Liang Guo
- National Key Laboratory of Crop Genetic ImprovementHuazhong Agricultural UniversityWuhanChina
| | - Sheng‐Yi Liu
- The Oil Crops Research Institute (OCRI) of the Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences (CAAS)WuhanChina
| | - Xiao‐Li Tan
- Institute of Life SciencesJiangsu UniversityZhenjiangChina
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7
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Philippe G, Geneix N, Petit J, Guillon F, Sandt C, Rothan C, Lahaye M, Marion D, Bakan B. Assembly of tomato fruit cuticles: a cross-talk between the cutin polyester and cell wall polysaccharides. THE NEW PHYTOLOGIST 2020; 226:809-822. [PMID: 31883116 DOI: 10.1111/nph.16402] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/14/2019] [Accepted: 12/17/2019] [Indexed: 05/23/2023]
Abstract
The cuticle is an essential and ubiquitous biological polymer composite covering aerial plant organs, whose structural component is the cutin polyester entangled with cell wall polysaccharides. The nature of the cutin-embedded polysaccharides (CEPs) and their association with cutin polyester are still unresolved Using tomato fruit as a model, chemical and enzymatic pretreatments combined with biochemical and biophysical methods were developed to compare the fine structure of CEPs with that of the noncutinized polysaccharides (NCPs). In addition, we used tomato fruits from cutin-deficient transgenic lines cus1 (cutin synthase 1) to study the impact of cutin polymerization on the fine structure of CEPs. Cutin-embedded polysaccharides exhibit specific structural features including a high degree of esterification (i.e. methylation and acetylation), a low ramification of rhamnogalacturonan (RGI), and a high crystallinity of cellulose. In addition to decreasing cutin deposition and polymerization, cus1 silencing induced a specific modification of CEPs, especially on pectin content, while NCPs were not affected. This new evidence of the structural specificities of CEPs and of the cross-talk between cutin polymerization and polysaccharides provides new hypotheses concerning the formation of these complex lipopolysaccharide edifices.
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Affiliation(s)
- Glenn Philippe
- Unité Biopolymères, Interactions, Assemblages, INRAE, BP71627, 44316, Nantes Cedex 3, France
| | - Nathalie Geneix
- Unité Biopolymères, Interactions, Assemblages, INRAE, BP71627, 44316, Nantes Cedex 3, France
| | - Johann Petit
- UMR 1332 Biologie du Fruit et Pathologie - INRAE Bordeaux-Aquitaine Bât, IBVM , 71 av. Edouard Bourlaux, CS 20032, 33882, Villenave d'Ornon Cedex, France
| | - Fabienne Guillon
- Unité Biopolymères, Interactions, Assemblages, INRAE, BP71627, 44316, Nantes Cedex 3, France
| | - Christophe Sandt
- Synchrotron SOLEIL, Ligne SMIS, L'Orme des Merisiers, 91192, Gif-sur-Yvette, France
| | - Christophe Rothan
- UMR 1332 Biologie du Fruit et Pathologie - INRAE Bordeaux-Aquitaine Bât, IBVM , 71 av. Edouard Bourlaux, CS 20032, 33882, Villenave d'Ornon Cedex, France
| | - Marc Lahaye
- Unité Biopolymères, Interactions, Assemblages, INRAE, BP71627, 44316, Nantes Cedex 3, France
| | - Didier Marion
- Unité Biopolymères, Interactions, Assemblages, INRAE, BP71627, 44316, Nantes Cedex 3, France
| | - Bénédicte Bakan
- Unité Biopolymères, Interactions, Assemblages, INRAE, BP71627, 44316, Nantes Cedex 3, France
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8
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Yang H, Benatti MR, Karve RA, Fox A, Meilan R, Carpita NC, McCann MC. Rhamnogalacturonan-I is a determinant of cell-cell adhesion in poplar wood. PLANT BIOTECHNOLOGY JOURNAL 2020; 18:1027-1040. [PMID: 31584248 PMCID: PMC7061878 DOI: 10.1111/pbi.13271] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/07/2019] [Revised: 09/16/2019] [Accepted: 09/29/2019] [Indexed: 05/19/2023]
Abstract
The molecular basis of cell-cell adhesion in woody tissues is not known. Xylem cells in wood particles of hybrid poplar (Populus tremula × P. alba cv. INRA 717-1B4) were separated by oxidation of lignin with acidic sodium chlorite when combined with extraction of xylan and rhamnogalacturonan-I (RG-I) using either dilute alkali or a combination of xylanase and RG-lyase. Acidic chlorite followed by dilute alkali treatment enables cell-cell separation by removing material from the compound middle lamellae between the primary walls. Although lignin is known to contribute to adhesion between wood cells, we found that removing lignin is a necessary but not sufficient condition to effect complete cell-cell separation in poplar lines with various ratios of syringyl:guaiacyl lignin. Transgenic poplar lines expressing an Arabidopsis thaliana gene encoding an RG-lyase (AtRGIL6) showed enhanced cell-cell separation, increased accessibility of cellulose and xylan to hydrolytic enzyme activities, and increased fragmentation of intact wood particles into small cell clusters and single cells under mechanical stress. Our results indicate a novel function for RG-I, and also for xylan, as determinants of cell-cell adhesion in poplar wood cell walls. Genetic control of RG-I content provides a new strategy to increase catalyst accessibility and saccharification yields from woody biomass for biofuels and industrial chemicals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Haibing Yang
- Department of Biological SciencesPurdue UniversityWest LafayetteINUSA
| | | | - Rucha A. Karve
- Department of Forestry and Natural ResourcesPurdue UniversityWest LafayetteINUSA
| | - Arizona Fox
- Department of Biological SciencesPurdue UniversityWest LafayetteINUSA
- Present address:
Arcadis U.S., Inc150 West Market St., Suite 728IndianapolisIN46204USA
| | - Richard Meilan
- Department of Forestry and Natural ResourcesPurdue UniversityWest LafayetteINUSA
- Purdue Center for Plant BiologyWest LafayetteINUSA
| | - Nicholas C. Carpita
- Department of Biological SciencesPurdue UniversityWest LafayetteINUSA
- Purdue Center for Plant BiologyWest LafayetteINUSA
- Department of Botany and Plant PathologyPurdue UniversityWest LafayetteINUSA
| | - Maureen C. McCann
- Department of Biological SciencesPurdue UniversityWest LafayetteINUSA
- Purdue Center for Plant BiologyWest LafayetteINUSA
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9
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Collins PP, O'donoghue EM, Rebstock R, Tiffin HR, Sutherland PW, Schröder R, McAtee PA, Prakash R, Ireland HS, Johnston JW, Atkinson RG, Schaffer RJ, Hallett IC, Brummell DA. Cell type-specific gene expression underpins remodelling of cell wall pectin in exocarp and cortex during apple fruit development. JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL BOTANY 2019; 70:6085-6099. [PMID: 31408160 DOI: 10.1093/jxb/erz370] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/14/2019] [Accepted: 08/09/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
In apple (Malus×domestica) fruit, the different layers of the exocarp (cuticle, epidermis, and hypodermis) protect and maintain fruit integrity, and resist the turgor-driven expansion of the underlying thin-walled cortical cells during growth. Using in situ immunolocalization and size exclusion epitope detection chromatography, distinct cell type differences in cell wall composition in the exocarp were revealed during apple fruit development. Epidermal cell walls lacked pectic (1→4)-β-d-galactan (associated with rigidity), whereas linear (1→5)-α-l-arabinan (associated with flexibility) was exclusively present in the epidermal cell walls in expanding fruit and then appeared in all cell types during ripening. Branched (1→5)-α-l-arabinan was uniformly distributed between cell types. Laser capture microdissection and RNA sequencing (RNA-seq) were used to explore transcriptomic differences controlling cell type-specific wall modification. The RNA-seq data indicate that the control of cell wall composition is achieved through cell-specific gene expression of hydrolases. In epidermal cells, this results in the degradation of galactan side chains by possibly five β-galactosidases (BGAL2, BGAL7, BGAL10, BGAL11, and BGAL103) and debranching of arabinans by α-arabinofuranosidases AF1 and AF2. Together, these results demonstrate that flexibility and rigidity of the different cell layers in apple fruit during development and ripening are determined, at least in part, by the control of cell wall pectin remodelling.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patrick P Collins
- The New Zealand Institute for Plant and Food Research Limited (PFR), Mount Albert Research Centre, Auckland, New Zealand
- School of Biological Sciences, The University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand
| | | | - Ria Rebstock
- The New Zealand Institute for Plant and Food Research Limited (PFR), Mount Albert Research Centre, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - Heather R Tiffin
- PFR, Food Industry Science Centre, Palmerston North, New Zealand
| | - Paul W Sutherland
- The New Zealand Institute for Plant and Food Research Limited (PFR), Mount Albert Research Centre, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - Roswitha Schröder
- The New Zealand Institute for Plant and Food Research Limited (PFR), Mount Albert Research Centre, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - Peter A McAtee
- The New Zealand Institute for Plant and Food Research Limited (PFR), Mount Albert Research Centre, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - Roneel Prakash
- The New Zealand Institute for Plant and Food Research Limited (PFR), Mount Albert Research Centre, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - Hilary S Ireland
- The New Zealand Institute for Plant and Food Research Limited (PFR), Mount Albert Research Centre, Auckland, New Zealand
| | | | - Ross G Atkinson
- The New Zealand Institute for Plant and Food Research Limited (PFR), Mount Albert Research Centre, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - Robert J Schaffer
- School of Biological Sciences, The University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand
- PFR, Motueka, New Zealand
| | - Ian C Hallett
- The New Zealand Institute for Plant and Food Research Limited (PFR), Mount Albert Research Centre, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - David A Brummell
- The New Zealand Institute for Plant and Food Research Limited (PFR), Mount Albert Research Centre, Auckland, New Zealand
- PFR, Food Industry Science Centre, Palmerston North, New Zealand
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10
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Guo X, Runavot JL, Bourot S, Meulewaeter F, Hernandez-Gomez M, Holland C, Harholt J, Willats WGT, Mravec J, Knox P, Ulvskov P. Metabolism of polysaccharides in dynamic middle lamellae during cotton fibre development. PLANTA 2019; 249:1565-1581. [PMID: 30737556 DOI: 10.1007/s00425-019-03107-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/25/2018] [Accepted: 02/04/2019] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
Evidence is presented that cotton fibre adhesion and middle lamella formation are preceded by cutin dilution and accompanied by rhamnogalacturonan-I metabolism. Cotton fibres are single cell structures that early in development adhere to one another via the cotton fibre middle lamella (CFML) to form a tissue-like structure. The CFML is disassembled around the time of initial secondary wall deposition, leading to fibre detachment. Observations of CFML in the light microscope have suggested that the development of the middle lamella is accompanied by substantial cell-wall metabolism, but it has remained an open question as to which processes mediate adherence and which lead to detachment. The mechanism of adherence and detachment were investigated here using glyco-microarrays probed with monoclonal antibodies, transcript profiling, and observations of fibre auto-digestion. The results suggest that adherence is brought about by cutin dilution, while the presence of relevant enzyme activities and the dynamics of rhamnogalacturonan-I side-chain accumulation and disappearance suggest that both attachment and detachment are accompanied by rhamnogalacturonan-I metabolism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaoyuan Guo
- Department of Plant and Environmental Sciences, Copenhagen University, Frederiksberg, Denmark
| | - Jean-Luc Runavot
- Bayer CropScience NV, Innovation Center, Technologiepark 38, 9052, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Stéphane Bourot
- Bayer CropScience NV, Innovation Center, Technologiepark 38, 9052, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Frank Meulewaeter
- Bayer CropScience NV, Innovation Center, Technologiepark 38, 9052, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Mercedes Hernandez-Gomez
- Centre for Plant Sciences, Faculty of Biological Sciences, University of Leeds, Leeds, LS2 9JT, UK
| | - Claire Holland
- Department of Plant and Environmental Sciences, Copenhagen University, Frederiksberg, Denmark
| | - Jesper Harholt
- Department of Plant and Environmental Sciences, Copenhagen University, Frederiksberg, Denmark
| | - William G T Willats
- School of Agriculture, Food and Rural Development, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne, NE1 7RU, UK
| | - Jozef Mravec
- Department of Plant and Environmental Sciences, Copenhagen University, Frederiksberg, Denmark
| | - Paul Knox
- Centre for Plant Sciences, Faculty of Biological Sciences, University of Leeds, Leeds, LS2 9JT, UK
| | - Peter Ulvskov
- Department of Plant and Environmental Sciences, Copenhagen University, Frederiksberg, Denmark.
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11
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Bozbuga R, Lilley CJ, Knox JP, Urwin PE. Host-specific signatures of the cell wall changes induced by the plant parasitic nematode, Meloidogyne incognita. Sci Rep 2018; 8:17302. [PMID: 30470775 PMCID: PMC6251906 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-018-35529-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/15/2018] [Accepted: 10/29/2018] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
Root-knot nematodes (Meloidogyne spp.) are an important group of plant parasitic nematodes that induce within host plant roots unique feeding site structures, termed giant cells, which supply nutrient flow to the nematode. A comparative in situ analysis of cell wall polysaccharides in the giant cells of three host species (Arabidopsis, maize and aduki bean) infected with Meloidogyne incognita has been carried out. Features common to giant cell walls of all three species include the presence of high-esterified pectic homogalacturonan, xyloglucan and pectic arabinan. The species-specific presence of xylan and mixed-linkage glucan (MLG) epitopes in giant cell walls of maize reflected that host’s taxonomic group. The LM5 galactan and LM21 mannan epitopes were not detected in the giant cell walls of aduki bean but were detected in Arabidopsis and maize giant cell walls. The LM2 arabinogalactan-protein epitope was notable for its apparent global variations in root cell walls as a response to infection across the three host species. Additionally, a set of Arabidopsis cell wall mutants were used to determine any impacts of altered cell wall structures on M. incognita infection. Disruption of the arabinogalactan-protein 8 gene had the greatest impact and resulted in an increased infection rate.
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Affiliation(s)
- Refik Bozbuga
- Centre for Plant Sciences, Faculty of Biological Sciences, University of Leeds, LS2 9JT, Leeds, United Kingdom
| | - Catherine J Lilley
- Centre for Plant Sciences, Faculty of Biological Sciences, University of Leeds, LS2 9JT, Leeds, United Kingdom
| | - J Paul Knox
- Centre for Plant Sciences, Faculty of Biological Sciences, University of Leeds, LS2 9JT, Leeds, United Kingdom
| | - Peter E Urwin
- Centre for Plant Sciences, Faculty of Biological Sciences, University of Leeds, LS2 9JT, Leeds, United Kingdom.
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12
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Saffer AM. Expanding roles for pectins in plant development. JOURNAL OF INTEGRATIVE PLANT BIOLOGY 2018; 60:910-923. [PMID: 29727062 DOI: 10.1111/jipb.12662] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/23/2018] [Accepted: 05/02/2018] [Indexed: 05/19/2023]
Abstract
Pectins are complex cell wall polysaccharides important for many aspects of plant development. Recent studies have discovered extensive physical interactions between pectins and other cell wall components, implicating pectins in new molecular functions. Pectins are often localized in spatially-restricted patterns, and some of these non-uniform pectin distributions contribute to multiple aspects of plant development, including the morphogenesis of cells and organs. Furthermore, a growing number of mutants affecting cell wall composition have begun to reveal the distinct contributions of different pectins to plant development. This review discusses the interactions of pectins with other cell wall components, the functions of pectins in controlling cellular morphology, and how non-uniform pectin composition can be an important determinant of developmental processes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adam M Saffer
- Department of Molecular, Cellular and Developmental Biology, Yale University, OML260, 266 Whitney Ave, New Haven, CT 06520-8104, USA
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13
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Berumen-Varela G, Ochoa-Jiménez VA, Burgara-Estrella A, Trillo-Hernández EA, Ojeda-Contreras ÁJ, Orozco-Avitia A, Rivera-Domínguez M, Troncoso-Rojas R, Báez-Sañudo R, Datsenka T, Handa AK, Tiznado-Hernández ME. Functional analysis of a tomato (Solanum lycopersicum L.) rhamnogalacturonan lyase promoter. JOURNAL OF PLANT PHYSIOLOGY 2018; 229:175-184. [PMID: 30121402 DOI: 10.1016/j.jplph.2018.08.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/14/2017] [Revised: 08/03/2018] [Accepted: 08/04/2018] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
The enzyme rhamnogalacturonan lyase (RGL) cleaves α-1,4 glycosidic bonds located between rhamnose and galacturonic acid residues in the main chain of rhamnogalacturonan-I (RG-I), a component of the plant cell wall polymer pectin. Although the mode of action of RGL is well known, its physiological functions associated with fruit biology are less understood. Here, we generated transgenic tomato plants expressing the β-glucuronidase (GUS) reporter gene under the control of a -504 bp or a -776 bp fragment of the promoter of a tomato RGL gene, Solyc11g011300. GUS enzymatic activity and the expression levels of GUS and Solyc11g011300 were measured in a range of organs and fruit developmental stages. GUS staining was undetectable in leaves and roots, but high GUS enzymatic activity was detected in flowers and red ripe (RR) fruits. Maximal expression levels of Solyc11g011300 were detected at the RR developmental stage. GUS activity was 5-fold higher in flowers expressing GUS driven by the -504 bp RGL promoter fragment (RGFL3::GUS) than in the isogenic line, and 1.7-fold higher when GUS gene was driven by the -776 bp RGL promoter fragment (RGLF2::GUS) or the constitutive CaMV35S promoter. Quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction analysis showed that the highest expression of GUS was in fruits at 40 days after anthesis, for both promoter fragments. The promoter of Solyc11g011300 is predicted to contain cis-acting elements, and to be active in pollen grains, pollen tubes, flowers and during tomato fruit ripening, suggesting that the Solyc11g011300 promoter is transcriptionally active and organ-specific.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guillermo Berumen-Varela
- Coordinación de Tecnología de Alimentos de Origen Vegetal, Centro de Investigación en Alimentación y Desarrollo, A. C. Carretera a la Victoria Km 0.6, Hermosillo, Sonora 83304, México; Department of Horticulture and Landscape Architecture, Purdue University, 1165 Horticulture Building, West Lafayette, IN, 47907-1165, USA
| | - Verónica-Alhelí Ochoa-Jiménez
- Coordinación de Tecnología de Alimentos de Origen Vegetal, Centro de Investigación en Alimentación y Desarrollo, A. C. Carretera a la Victoria Km 0.6, Hermosillo, Sonora 83304, México; Department of Horticulture and Landscape Architecture, Purdue University, 1165 Horticulture Building, West Lafayette, IN, 47907-1165, USA
| | - Alexel Burgara-Estrella
- Departamento de Investigación en Física, Universidad de Sonora, Hermosillo, Sonora 83000, Mexico
| | - Eduardo-Antonio Trillo-Hernández
- Coordinación de Tecnología de Alimentos de Origen Vegetal, Centro de Investigación en Alimentación y Desarrollo, A. C. Carretera a la Victoria Km 0.6, Hermosillo, Sonora 83304, México
| | - Ángel-Javier Ojeda-Contreras
- Coordinación de Tecnología de Alimentos de Origen Vegetal, Centro de Investigación en Alimentación y Desarrollo, A. C. Carretera a la Victoria Km 0.6, Hermosillo, Sonora 83304, México
| | - Antonio Orozco-Avitia
- Coordinación de Tecnología de Alimentos de Origen Vegetal, Centro de Investigación en Alimentación y Desarrollo, A. C. Carretera a la Victoria Km 0.6, Hermosillo, Sonora 83304, México
| | - Marisela Rivera-Domínguez
- Coordinación de Ciencia de los Alimentos, Centro de Investigación en Alimentación y Desarrollo, A. C. Carretera a la Victoria Km 0.6, Hermosillo, Sonora 83304, México
| | - Rosalba Troncoso-Rojas
- Coordinación de Tecnología de Alimentos de Origen Vegetal, Centro de Investigación en Alimentación y Desarrollo, A. C. Carretera a la Victoria Km 0.6, Hermosillo, Sonora 83304, México
| | - Reginaldo Báez-Sañudo
- Coordinación de Tecnología de Alimentos de Origen Vegetal, Centro de Investigación en Alimentación y Desarrollo, A. C. Carretera a la Victoria Km 0.6, Hermosillo, Sonora 83304, México
| | - Tatsiana Datsenka
- Department of Horticulture and Landscape Architecture, Purdue University, 1165 Horticulture Building, West Lafayette, IN, 47907-1165, USA
| | - Avtar K Handa
- Department of Horticulture and Landscape Architecture, Purdue University, 1165 Horticulture Building, West Lafayette, IN, 47907-1165, USA
| | - Martín-Ernesto Tiznado-Hernández
- Coordinación de Tecnología de Alimentos de Origen Vegetal, Centro de Investigación en Alimentación y Desarrollo, A. C. Carretera a la Victoria Km 0.6, Hermosillo, Sonora 83304, México.
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14
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Sechet J, Marion-Poll A, North HM. Emerging Functions for Cell Wall Polysaccharides Accumulated during Eudicot Seed Development. PLANTS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2018; 7:E81. [PMID: 30274256 PMCID: PMC6313846 DOI: 10.3390/plants7040081] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2018] [Revised: 09/23/2018] [Accepted: 09/27/2018] [Indexed: 01/17/2023]
Abstract
The formation of seeds is a reproductive strategy in higher plants that enables the dispersal of offspring through time and space. Eudicot seeds comprise three main components, the embryo, the endosperm and the seed coat, where the coordinated development of each is important for the correct formation of the mature seed. In addition, the seed coat protects the quiescent progeny and can provide transport mechanisms. A key underlying process in the production of seed tissues is the formation of an extracellular matrix termed the cell wall, which is well known for its essential function in cytokinesis, directional growth and morphogenesis. The cell wall is composed of a macromolecular network of polymers where the major component is polysaccharides. The attributes of polysaccharides differ with their composition and charge, which enables dynamic remodeling of the mechanical and physical properties of the matrix by adjusting their production, modification or turnover. Accordingly, the importance of specific polysaccharides or modifications is increasingly being associated with specialized functions within seed tissues, often through the spatio-temporal accumulation or remodeling of particular polymers. Here, we review the evolution and accumulation of polysaccharides during eudicot seed development, what is known of their impact on wall architecture and the diverse roles associated with these in different seed tissues.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julien Sechet
- Institut Jean-Pierre Bourgin, INRA, AgroParisTech, CNRS, Université Paris-Saclay, 78000 Versailles, France.
| | - Annie Marion-Poll
- Institut Jean-Pierre Bourgin, INRA, AgroParisTech, CNRS, Université Paris-Saclay, 78000 Versailles, France.
| | - Helen M North
- Institut Jean-Pierre Bourgin, INRA, AgroParisTech, CNRS, Université Paris-Saclay, 78000 Versailles, France.
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15
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Torode TA, O'Neill R, Marcus SE, Cornuault V, Pose S, Lauder RP, Kračun SK, Rydahl MG, Andersen MCF, Willats WGT, Braybrook SA, Townsend BJ, Clausen MH, Knox JP. Branched Pectic Galactan in Phloem-Sieve-Element Cell Walls: Implications for Cell Mechanics. PLANT PHYSIOLOGY 2018; 176:1547-1558. [PMID: 29150558 PMCID: PMC5813576 DOI: 10.1104/pp.17.01568] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/02/2017] [Accepted: 11/14/2017] [Indexed: 05/18/2023]
Abstract
A major question in plant biology concerns the specification and functional differentiation of cell types. This is in the context of constraints imposed by networks of cell walls that both adhere cells and contribute to the form and function of developing organs. Here, we report the identification of a glycan epitope that is specific to phloem sieve element cell walls in several systems. A monoclonal antibody, designated LM26, binds to the cell wall of phloem sieve elements in stems of Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana), Miscanthus x giganteus, and notably sugar beet (Beta vulgaris) roots where phloem identification is an important factor for the study of phloem unloading of Suc. Using microarrays of synthetic oligosaccharides, the LM26 epitope has been identified as a β-1,6-galactosyl substitution of β-1,4-galactan requiring more than three backbone residues for optimized recognition. This branched galactan structure has previously been identified in garlic (Allium sativum) bulbs in which the LM26 epitope is widespread throughout most cell walls including those of phloem cells. Garlic bulb cell wall material has been used to confirm the association of the LM26 epitope with cell wall pectic rhamnogalacturonan-I polysaccharides. In the phloem tissues of grass stems, the LM26 epitope has a complementary pattern to that of the LM5 linear β-1,4-galactan epitope, which is detected only in companion cell walls. Mechanical probing of transverse sections of M x giganteus stems and leaves by atomic force microscopy indicates that phloem sieve element cell walls have a lower indentation modulus (indicative of higher elasticity) than companion cell walls.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas A Torode
- Centre for Plant Sciences, Faculty of Biological Sciences, University of Leeds, Leeds LS2 9JT, United Kingdom
- Sainsbury Laboratory, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, CB2 1LR, United Kingdom
| | - Rachel O'Neill
- Centre for Plant Sciences, Faculty of Biological Sciences, University of Leeds, Leeds LS2 9JT, United Kingdom
- Department of Plant Biology and Crop Science, Rothamsted Research, Harpenden, Hertfordshire, AL5 2JQ, United Kingdom
| | - Susan E Marcus
- Centre for Plant Sciences, Faculty of Biological Sciences, University of Leeds, Leeds LS2 9JT, United Kingdom
| | - Valérie Cornuault
- Centre for Plant Sciences, Faculty of Biological Sciences, University of Leeds, Leeds LS2 9JT, United Kingdom
| | - Sara Pose
- Centre for Plant Sciences, Faculty of Biological Sciences, University of Leeds, Leeds LS2 9JT, United Kingdom
| | - Rebecca P Lauder
- Department of Plant Biology and Crop Science, Rothamsted Research, Harpenden, Hertfordshire, AL5 2JQ, United Kingdom
| | - Stjepan K Kračun
- Department of Plant and Environmental Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Frederiksberg 1871, Denmark
| | - Maja Gro Rydahl
- Department of Plant and Environmental Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Frederiksberg 1871, Denmark
| | - Mathias C F Andersen
- Center for Nanomedicine and Theranostics, Department of Chemistry, Technical University of Denmark, Kemitorvet, DK-2800 Kgs. Lyngby, Denmark
| | - William G T Willats
- School of Agriculture, Food and Rural Development, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne NE1 7RU, UK
| | - Siobhan A Braybrook
- Sainsbury Laboratory, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, CB2 1LR, United Kingdom
| | - Belinda J Townsend
- Department of Plant Biology and Crop Science, Rothamsted Research, Harpenden, Hertfordshire, AL5 2JQ, United Kingdom
| | - Mads H Clausen
- Center for Nanomedicine and Theranostics, Department of Chemistry, Technical University of Denmark, Kemitorvet, DK-2800 Kgs. Lyngby, Denmark
| | - J Paul Knox
- Centre for Plant Sciences, Faculty of Biological Sciences, University of Leeds, Leeds LS2 9JT, United Kingdom
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16
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Guedes FTP, Laurans F, Quemener B, Assor C, Lainé-Prade V, Boizot N, Vigouroux J, Lesage-Descauses MC, Leplé JC, Déjardin A, Pilate G. Non-cellulosic polysaccharide distribution during G-layer formation in poplar tension wood fibers: abundance of rhamnogalacturonan I and arabinogalactan proteins but no evidence of xyloglucan. PLANTA 2017; 246:857-878. [PMID: 28699115 DOI: 10.1007/s00425-017-2737-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/18/2017] [Accepted: 07/05/2017] [Indexed: 05/07/2023]
Abstract
RG-I and AGP, but not XG, are associated to the building of the peculiar mechanical properties of tension wood. Hardwood trees produce tension wood (TW) with specific mechanical properties to cope with environmental cues. Poplar TW fibers have an additional cell wall layer, the G-layer responsible for TW mechanical properties. We investigated, in two poplar hybrid species, the molecules potentially involved in the building of TW mechanical properties. First, we evaluated the distribution of the different classes of non-cellulosic polysaccharides during xylem fiber differentiation, using immunolocalization. In parallel, G-layers were isolated and their polysaccharide composition determined. These complementary approaches provided information on the occurrence of non-cellulosic polysaccharides during G-fiber differentiation. We found no evidence of the presence of xyloglucan (XG) in poplar G-layers, whereas arabinogalactan proteins (AGP) and rhamnogalacturonan type I pectins (RG-I) were abundant, with an apparent progressive loss of RG-I side chains during G-layer maturation. Similarly, the intensity of immunolabeling signals specific for glucomannans and glucuronoxylans varies during G-layer maturation. RG-I and AGP are best candidate matrix components to be responsible for TW mechanical properties.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Carole Assor
- BIA, INRA, 44316, Nantes, France
- IATE, INRA, 34060, Montpellier, France
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17
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O'Donoghue EM, Somerfield SD, Deroles SC, Sutherland PW, Hallett IC, Erridge ZA, Brummell DA, Hunter DA. Simultaneous knock-down of six β-galactosidase genes in petunia petals prevents loss of pectic galactan but decreases petal strength. PLANT PHYSIOLOGY AND BIOCHEMISTRY : PPB 2017; 113:208-221. [PMID: 28254702 DOI: 10.1016/j.plaphy.2017.02.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2016] [Accepted: 02/05/2017] [Indexed: 05/02/2023]
Abstract
Galactose (Gal) is incorporated into cell wall polysaccharides as flowers open, but then is lost because of β-galactosidase activity as flowers mature and wilt. The significance of this for flower physiology resides in the role of galactan-containing polysaccharides in the cell wall, which is still largely unresolved. To investigate this, transcript accumulation of six cell wall-associated β-galactosidases was simultaneously knocked down in 'Mitchell' petunia (Petunia axillaris x (P. axillaris x P. hybrida)) flower petals. The multi-PhBGAL RNAi construct targeted three bud- and three senescence-associated β-galactosidase genes. The petals of the most down-regulated line (GA19) were significantly disrupted in galactose turnover during flower opening, and at the onset of senescence had retained 86% of their galactose compared with 20% in the controls. The Gal content of Na2CO3-soluble cell wall extracts and the highly insoluble polysaccharides associated with cellulose were particularly affected. Immunodetection with the antibody LM5 showed that much of the cell wall Gal in GA19 was retained as galactan, presumably the side-chains of rhamnogalacturonan-I. The flowers of GA19, despite having retained substantially more galactan, were no different from controls in their internal cell arrangement, dimensions, weight or timing of opening and senescence. However, the GA19 petals had less petal integrity (as judged by force required to cause petal fracture) after opening and showed a greater decline in this integrity with time than controls, raising the possibility that galactan loss is a mechanism for helping to maintain petal tissue cohesion after flower opening.
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Affiliation(s)
- Erin M O'Donoghue
- The New Zealand Institute for Plant & Food Research Limited, Food Industry Science Centre, Palmerston North, 4442, New Zealand.
| | - Sheryl D Somerfield
- The New Zealand Institute for Plant & Food Research Limited, Food Industry Science Centre, Palmerston North, 4442, New Zealand
| | - Simon C Deroles
- The New Zealand Institute for Plant & Food Research Limited, Food Industry Science Centre, Palmerston North, 4442, New Zealand
| | - Paul W Sutherland
- The New Zealand Institute for Plant & Food Research Limited, Mount Albert Research Centre, Auckland, 1142, New Zealand
| | - Ian C Hallett
- The New Zealand Institute for Plant & Food Research Limited, Mount Albert Research Centre, Auckland, 1142, New Zealand
| | - Zoë A Erridge
- The New Zealand Institute for Plant & Food Research Limited, Food Industry Science Centre, Palmerston North, 4442, New Zealand
| | - David A Brummell
- The New Zealand Institute for Plant & Food Research Limited, Food Industry Science Centre, Palmerston North, 4442, New Zealand
| | - Donald A Hunter
- The New Zealand Institute for Plant & Food Research Limited, Food Industry Science Centre, Palmerston North, 4442, New Zealand
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18
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Guillon F, Moïse A, Quemener B, Bouchet B, Devaux MF, Alvarado C, Lahaye M. Remodeling of pectin and hemicelluloses in tomato pericarp during fruit growth. PLANT SCIENCE : AN INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL PLANT BIOLOGY 2017; 257:48-62. [PMID: 28224918 DOI: 10.1016/j.plantsci.2017.01.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/12/2016] [Revised: 01/09/2017] [Accepted: 01/16/2017] [Indexed: 05/06/2023]
Abstract
Tomato fruit texture depends on histology and cell wall architecture, both under genetic and developmental controls. If ripening related cell wall modifications have been well documented with regard to softening, little is known about cell wall construction during early fruit development. Identification of key events and their kinetics with regard to tissue architecture and cell wall development can provide new insights on early phases of texture elaboration. In this study, changes in pectin and hemicellulose chemical characteristics and location were investigated in the pericarp tissue of tomato (Solanum lycopersicon var Levovil) at four stages of development (7, 14 and 21day after anthesis (DPA) and mature green stages). Analysis of cell wall composition and polysaccharide structure revealed that both are continuously modified during fruit development. At early stages, the relative high rhamnose content in cell walls indicates a high synthesis of rhamnogalacturonan I next to homogalacturonan. Fine tuning of rhamnogalacturonan I side chains appears to occur from the cell expansion phase until prior to the mature green stage. Cell wall polysaccharide remodelling also concerns xyloglucans and (galacto)glucomannans, the major hemicelluloses in tomato cell walls. In situ localization of cell wall polysaccharides in pericarp tissue revealed non-ramified RG-I rich pectin and XyG at cellular junctions and in the middle lamella of young fruit. Blocks of non-methyl esterified homogalacturonan are detected as soon as 14 DPA in the mesocarp and remained restricted to cell corner and middle lamella whatever the stages. These results point to new questions about the role of pectin RGI and XyG in cell adhesion and its maintenance during cell expansion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fabienne Guillon
- INRA, UR1268 Biopolymères, Interactions et Assemblages, BP 71627, F-44316 Nantes, France
| | - Adeline Moïse
- INRA, UR1268 Biopolymères, Interactions et Assemblages, BP 71627, F-44316 Nantes, France
| | - Bernard Quemener
- INRA, UR1268 Biopolymères, Interactions et Assemblages, BP 71627, F-44316 Nantes, France
| | - Brigitte Bouchet
- INRA, UR1268 Biopolymères, Interactions et Assemblages, BP 71627, F-44316 Nantes, France
| | - Marie-Françoise Devaux
- INRA, UR1268 Biopolymères, Interactions et Assemblages, BP 71627, F-44316 Nantes, France
| | - Camille Alvarado
- INRA, UR1268 Biopolymères, Interactions et Assemblages, BP 71627, F-44316 Nantes, France
| | - Marc Lahaye
- INRA, UR1268 Biopolymères, Interactions et Assemblages, BP 71627, F-44316 Nantes, France.
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19
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Yakubov GE, Bonilla MR, Chen H, Doblin MS, Bacic A, Gidley MJ, Stokes JR. Mapping nano-scale mechanical heterogeneity of primary plant cell walls. JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL BOTANY 2016; 67:2799-816. [PMID: 26988718 PMCID: PMC4861025 DOI: 10.1093/jxb/erw117] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/18/2023]
Abstract
Nanoindentation experiments are performed using an atomic force microscope (AFM) to quantify the spatial distribution of mechanical properties of plant cell walls at nanometre length scales. At any specific location on the cell wall, a complex (non-linear) force-indentation response occurs that can be deconvoluted using a unique multiregime analysis (MRA). This allows an unambiguous evaluation of the local transverse elastic modulus of the wall. Nanomechanical measurements on suspension-cultured cells (SCCs), derived from Italian ryegrass (Lolium multiflorum) starchy endosperm, show three characteristic modes of deformation and a spatial distribution of elastic moduli across the surface. 'Soft' and 'hard' domains are found across length scales between 0.1 µm and 3 µm, which is well above a typical pore size of the polysaccharide mesh. The generality and wider applicability of this mechanical heterogeneity is verified through in planta characterization on leaf epidermal cells of Arabidopsis thaliana and L. multiflorum The outcomes of this research provide a basis for uncovering and quantifying the relationships between local wall composition, architecture, cell growth, and/or morphogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gleb E Yakubov
- Australian Research Council Centre of Excellence in Plant Cell Walls School of Chemical Engineering, The University of Queensland, Queensland, Australia
| | - Mauricio R Bonilla
- Australian Research Council Centre of Excellence in Plant Cell Walls School of Chemical Engineering, The University of Queensland, Queensland, Australia
| | - Huaying Chen
- Australian Institute for Bioengineering and Nanotechnology, The University of Queensland, Queensland, Australia
| | - Monika S Doblin
- Australian Research Council Centre of Excellence in Plant Cell Walls School of BioSciences, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC 3010, Australia
| | - Antony Bacic
- Australian Research Council Centre of Excellence in Plant Cell Walls School of BioSciences, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC 3010, Australia
| | - Michael J Gidley
- Australian Research Council Centre of Excellence in Plant Cell Walls Centre for Nutrition and Food Sciences, Queensland Alliance for Agriculture and Food Innovation, The University of Queensland, Queensland, Australia
| | - Jason R Stokes
- Australian Research Council Centre of Excellence in Plant Cell Walls School of Chemical Engineering, The University of Queensland, Queensland, Australia
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21
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Fourquin C, Beauzamy L, Chamot S, Creff A, Goodrich J, Boudaoud A, Ingram G. Mechanical stress mediated by both endosperm softening and embryo growth underlies endosperm elimination in Arabidopsis seeds. Development 2016; 143:3300-5. [DOI: 10.1242/dev.137224] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/07/2016] [Accepted: 05/24/2016] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
Abstract
Seed development in angiosperms demands the tightly co-ordinated development of three genetically distinct structures. The embryo is surrounded by the endosperm, which is in turn enclosed within the maternally derived seed coat. In Arabidopsis final seed size is determined by early expansion of the coenocytic endosperm, which then cellularizes and subsequently undergoes developmental Programmed Cell Death, breaking down as the embryo grows. Endosperm breakdown requires the endosperm-specific basic Helix Loop Helix transcription factor ZHOUPI. However, to date the mechanism underlying the Arabidopsis endosperm breakdown process has not been elucidated. Here we provide evidence that ZHOUPI does not induce the developmental Programmed Cell Death of the endosperm directly. Instead ZHOUPI indirectly triggers cell death by regulating the expression of cell wall modifying enzymes, thus altering the physical properties of the endosperm to condition a mechanical environment permitting the compression of the cellularized endosperm by the developing embryo.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chloé Fourquin
- Laboratoire Reproduction et Développement des Plantes, Univ Lyon, ENS de Lyon, UCB Lyon 1, CNRS, INRA, F-69342, Lyon, France
| | - Léna Beauzamy
- Laboratoire Reproduction et Développement des Plantes, Univ Lyon, ENS de Lyon, UCB Lyon 1, CNRS, INRA, F-69342, Lyon, France
| | - Sophy Chamot
- Laboratoire Reproduction et Développement des Plantes, Univ Lyon, ENS de Lyon, UCB Lyon 1, CNRS, INRA, F-69342, Lyon, France
| | - Audrey Creff
- Laboratoire Reproduction et Développement des Plantes, Univ Lyon, ENS de Lyon, UCB Lyon 1, CNRS, INRA, F-69342, Lyon, France
| | - Justin Goodrich
- University of Edinburgh, Institute of Molecular Plant Sciences, Daniel Rutherford Building, Edinburgh, EH9 3BF, UK
| | - Arezki Boudaoud
- Laboratoire Reproduction et Développement des Plantes, Univ Lyon, ENS de Lyon, UCB Lyon 1, CNRS, INRA, F-69342, Lyon, France
| | - Gwyneth Ingram
- Laboratoire Reproduction et Développement des Plantes, Univ Lyon, ENS de Lyon, UCB Lyon 1, CNRS, INRA, F-69342, Lyon, France
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22
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Buffetto F, Cornuault V, Rydahl MG, Ropartz D, Alvarado C, Echasserieau V, Le Gall S, Bouchet B, Tranquet O, Verhertbruggen Y, Willats WGT, Knox JP, Ralet MC, Guillon F. The Deconstruction of Pectic Rhamnogalacturonan I Unmasks the Occurrence of a Novel Arabinogalactan Oligosaccharide Epitope. PLANT & CELL PHYSIOLOGY 2015; 56:2181-96. [PMID: 26384432 DOI: 10.1093/pcp/pcv128] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/22/2015] [Accepted: 09/02/2015] [Indexed: 05/18/2023]
Abstract
Rhamnogalacturonan I (RGI) is a pectic polysaccharide composed of a backbone of alternating rhamnose and galacturonic acid residues with side chains containing galactose and/or arabinose residues. The structure of these side chains and the degree of substitution of rhamnose residues are extremely variable and depend on species, organs, cell types and developmental stages. Deciphering RGI function requires extending the current set of monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) directed to this polymer. Here, we describe the generation of a new mAb that recognizes a heterogeneous subdomain of RGI. The mAb, INRA-AGI-1, was produced by immunization of mice with RGI oligosaccharides isolated from potato tubers. These oligomers consisted of highly branched RGI backbones substituted with short side chains. INRA-AGI-1 bound specifically to RGI isolated from galactan-rich cell walls and displayed no binding to other pectic domains. In order to identify its RGI-related epitope, potato RGI oligosaccharides were fractionated by anion-exchange chromatography. Antibody recognition was assessed for each chromatographic fraction. INRA-AGI-1 recognizes a linear chain of (1→4)-linked galactose and (1→5)-linked arabinose residues. By combining the use of INRA-AGI-1 with LM5, LM6 and INRA-RU1 mAbs and enzymatic pre-treatments, evidence is presented of spatial differences in RGI motif distribution within individual cell walls of potato tubers and carrot roots. These observations raise questions about the biosynthesis and assembly of pectin structural domains and their integration and remodeling in cell walls.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fanny Buffetto
- INRA, UR1268 Biopolymères Interactions Assemblages, 44300 Nantes, France Present address: Institute for Wine Biotechnology, Department of Viticulture and Oenology, Faculty of AgriSciences, Stellenbosch University, Matieland 7602, South Africa
| | - Valérie Cornuault
- Centre for Plant Sciences, Faculty of Biological Sciences University of Leeds, Leeds LS2 9JT, UK
| | - Maja Gro Rydahl
- Department of Plant and Environmental Sciences, University of Copenhagen, 1871 Frederiksberg, Denmark
| | - David Ropartz
- INRA, UR1268 Biopolymères Interactions Assemblages, 44300 Nantes, France
| | - Camille Alvarado
- INRA, UR1268 Biopolymères Interactions Assemblages, 44300 Nantes, France
| | | | - Sophie Le Gall
- INRA, UR1268 Biopolymères Interactions Assemblages, 44300 Nantes, France
| | - Brigitte Bouchet
- INRA, UR1268 Biopolymères Interactions Assemblages, 44300 Nantes, France
| | - Olivier Tranquet
- INRA, UR1268 Biopolymères Interactions Assemblages, 44300 Nantes, France
| | | | - William G T Willats
- Department of Plant and Environmental Sciences, University of Copenhagen, 1871 Frederiksberg, Denmark
| | - J Paul Knox
- Centre for Plant Sciences, Faculty of Biological Sciences University of Leeds, Leeds LS2 9JT, UK
| | | | - Fabienne Guillon
- INRA, UR1268 Biopolymères Interactions Assemblages, 44300 Nantes, France
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23
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Torode TA, Marcus SE, Jam M, Tonon T, Blackburn RS, Hervé C, Knox JP. Monoclonal antibodies directed to fucoidan preparations from brown algae. PLoS One 2015; 10:e0118366. [PMID: 25692870 PMCID: PMC4333822 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0118366] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/08/2014] [Accepted: 01/15/2015] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Cell walls of the brown algae contain a diverse range of polysaccharides with useful bioactivities. The precise structures of the sulfated fucan/fucoidan group of polysaccharides and their roles in generating cell wall architectures and cell properties are not known in detail. Four rat monoclonal antibodies, BAM1 to BAM4, directed to sulfated fucan preparations, have been generated and used to dissect the heterogeneity of brown algal cell wall polysaccharides. BAM1 and BAM4, respectively, bind to a non-sulfated epitope and a sulfated epitope present in the sulfated fucan preparations. BAM2 and BAM3 identified additional distinct epitopes present in the fucoidan preparations. All four epitopes, not yet fully characterised, occur widely within the major brown algal taxonomic groups and show divergent distribution patterns in tissues. The analysis of cell wall extractions and fluorescence imaging reveal differences in the occurrence of the BAM1 to BAM4 epitopes in various tissues of Fucus vesiculosus. In Ectocarpus subulatus, a species closely related to the brown algal model Ectocarpus siliculosus, the BAM4 sulfated epitope was modulated in relation to salinity levels. This new set of monoclonal antibodies will be useful for the dissection of the highly complex and yet poorly resolved sulfated polysaccharides in the brown algae in relation to their ecological and economic significance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas A. Torode
- Centre for Plant Sciences, Faculty of Biological Sciences, University of Leeds, Leeds, United Kingdom
| | - Susan E. Marcus
- Centre for Plant Sciences, Faculty of Biological Sciences, University of Leeds, Leeds, United Kingdom
| | - Murielle Jam
- Sorbonne Universités, UPMC Univ Paris 06, UMR 8227, Integrative Biology of Marine Models, Station Biologique de Roscoff, CS 90074, Roscoff, France
- CNRS, UMR 8227, Integrative Biology of Marine Models, Station Biologique de Roscoff, CS 90074, Roscoff, France
| | - Thierry Tonon
- Sorbonne Universités, UPMC Univ Paris 06, UMR 8227, Integrative Biology of Marine Models, Station Biologique de Roscoff, CS 90074, Roscoff, France
- CNRS, UMR 8227, Integrative Biology of Marine Models, Station Biologique de Roscoff, CS 90074, Roscoff, France
| | - Richard S. Blackburn
- Sustainable Materials Research Group, Centre for Technical Textiles, University of Leeds, Leeds, United Kingdom
| | - Cécile Hervé
- Sorbonne Universités, UPMC Univ Paris 06, UMR 8227, Integrative Biology of Marine Models, Station Biologique de Roscoff, CS 90074, Roscoff, France
- CNRS, UMR 8227, Integrative Biology of Marine Models, Station Biologique de Roscoff, CS 90074, Roscoff, France
| | - J. Paul Knox
- Centre for Plant Sciences, Faculty of Biological Sciences, University of Leeds, Leeds, United Kingdom
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Moore JP, Fangel JU, Willats WGT, Vivier MA. Pectic-β(1,4)-galactan, extensin and arabinogalactan-protein epitopes differentiate ripening stages in wine and table grape cell walls. ANNALS OF BOTANY 2014; 114:1279-94. [PMID: 24812249 PMCID: PMC4195550 DOI: 10.1093/aob/mcu053] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/14/2013] [Accepted: 02/26/2014] [Indexed: 05/18/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND AIMS Cell wall changes in ripening grapes (Vitis vinifera) have been shown to involve re-modelling of pectin, xyloglucan and cellulose networks. Newer experimental techniques, such as molecular probes specific for cell wall epitopes, have yet to be extensively used in grape studies. Limited general information is available on the cell wall properties that contribute to texture differences between wine and table grapes. This study evaluates whether profiling tools can detect cell wall changes in ripening grapes from commercial vineyards. METHODS Standard sugar analysis and infra-red spectroscopy were used to examine the ripening stages (green, véraison and ripe) in grapes collected from Cabernet Sauvignon and Crimson Seedless vineyards. Comprehensive microarray polymer profiling (CoMPP) analysis was performed on cyclohexanediaminetetraacetic acid (CDTA) and NaOH extracts of alcohol-insoluble residue sourced from each stage using sets of cell wall probes (mAbs and CBMs), and the datasets were analysed using multivariate software. KEY RESULTS The datasets obtained confirmed previous studies on cell wall changes known to occur during grape ripening. Probes for homogalacturonan (e.g. LM19) were enriched in the CDTA fractions of Crimson Seedless relative to Cabernet Sauvignon grapes. Probes for pectic-β-(1,4)-galactan (mAb LM5), extensin (mAb LM1) and arabinogalactan proteins (AGPs, mAb LM2) were strongly correlated with ripening. From green stage to véraison, a progressive reduction in pectic-β-(1,4)-galactan epitopes, present in both pectin-rich (CDTA) and hemicellulose-rich (NaOH) polymers, was observed. Ripening changes in AGP and extensin epitope abundance also were found during and after véraison. CONCLUSIONS Combinations of cell wall probes are able to define distinct ripening phases in grapes. Pectic-β-(1,4)-galactan epitopes decreased in abundance from green stage to véraison berries. From véraison there was an increase in abundance of significant extensin and AGP epitopes, which correlates with cell expansion events. This study provides new ripening biomarkers and changes that can be placed in the context of grape berry development.
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Affiliation(s)
- John P Moore
- Institute for Wine Biotechnology, Department of Viticulture and Oenology, Faculty of AgriSciences, Stellenbosch University, Matieland 7602, South Africa
| | - Jonatan U Fangel
- Department of Plant and Environmental Sciences, Faculty of Science, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen DK-1001, Denmark
| | - William G T Willats
- Department of Plant and Environmental Sciences, Faculty of Science, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen DK-1001, Denmark
| | - Melané A Vivier
- Institute for Wine Biotechnology, Department of Viticulture and Oenology, Faculty of AgriSciences, Stellenbosch University, Matieland 7602, South Africa
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25
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Cornuault V, Manfield IW, Ralet MC, Knox JP. Epitope detection chromatography: a method to dissect the structural heterogeneity and inter-connections of plant cell-wall matrix glycans. THE PLANT JOURNAL : FOR CELL AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2014; 78:715-22. [PMID: 24621270 DOI: 10.1111/tpj.12504] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/13/2013] [Revised: 02/21/2014] [Accepted: 03/03/2014] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
Plant cell walls are complex, multi-macromolecular assemblies of glycans and other molecules and their compositions and molecular architectures vary extensively. Even though the chemistry of cell-wall glycans is now well understood, it remains a challenge to understand the diversity of glycan configurations and interactions in muro, and how these relate to changes in the biological and mechanical properties of cell walls. Here we describe in detail a method called epitope detection chromatography analysis of cell-wall matrix glycan sub-populations and inter-connections. The method combines chromatographic separations with use of glycan-directed monoclonal antibodies as detection tools. The high discrimination capacity and high sensitivity for the detection of glycan structural features (epitopes) provided by use of established monoclonal antibodies allows the study of oligosaccharide motifs on sets of cell-wall glycans in small amounts of plant materials such as a single organ of Arabidopsis thaliana without the need for extensive purification procedures. We describe the use of epitope detection chromatography to assess the heterogeneity of xyloglucan and pectic rhamnogalacturonan I sub-populations and their modulation in A. thaliana organs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Valérie Cornuault
- Faculty of Biological Sciences, Centre for Plant Sciences, University of Leeds, Leeds, LS2 9JT, UK
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26
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The wheat grain contains pectic domains exhibiting specific spatial and development-associated distribution. PLoS One 2014; 9:e89620. [PMID: 24586916 PMCID: PMC3931795 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0089620] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/16/2013] [Accepted: 01/22/2014] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Cell walls are complex structures surrounding plant cells with a composition that varies among species and even within a species between organs, cell types and development stages. For years, cell walls in wheat grains were described as simple walls consisting mostly of arabinoxylans and mixed-linked beta glucans. Proteomic and transcriptomic studies identified enzyme families involved in the synthesis of many more cell wall polysaccharides in the wheat grains. Here we describe the discovery of pectic domains in wheat grain using monoclonal antibodies and enzymatic treatment to degrade the major cell wall polymers. Distinct spatial distributions were observed for rhamnogalacturonan I present in the endosperm and mostly in the aleurone layer and homogalacturonan especially found in the outer layers, and tight developmental regulations were unveiled. We also uncovered a massive deposition of homogalacturonan via large vesicular bodies in the seed coat (testa) beneath a thick cuticle during development. Our findings raise questions about the function of pectin in wheat grain.
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27
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Cornuault V, Knox J. Sandwich Enzyme-linked Immunosorbent Assay (ELISA) Analysis of Plant Cell Wall Glycan Connections. Bio Protoc 2014. [DOI: 10.21769/bioprotoc.1106] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/02/2022] Open
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