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Warwick C, Steedman C. Wildlife-pet markets in a one-health context. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ONE HEALTH 2021. [DOI: 10.14202/ijoh.2021.42-64] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Background and Aim: Wildlife markets are centers of trade involving live animals and their derivatives from wild-caught and captive-bred non-domesticated animals, including for the culinary, fashion, traditional medicine, curio, and pet sectors. These markets occur in Southeast Asia, India, North America, Latin America, Europe, Africa, and elsewhere. This study aims to address a diversity of related issues that have a one-health bearing while focusing on wildlife markets in relation to the pet trade. Across relevant regions and countries, all major animal classes are traded at wildlife-pet markets. Wildlife markets, in general, are considered distinct from so-called "wet markets" at which domesticated animals, fish, and other "seafood" are offered only for consumption. Several aspects of wildlife markets have attracted scientific and popular scrutiny, including animal welfare concerns, species conservation threats, legality, ecological alteration, introduction of invasive alien species, presence of undescribed species, and public and agricultural animal health issues.
Materials and Methods: Onsite inspections were conducted for markets in the United States, Spain, Germany, The Netherlands, and the UK, as well as observational research of visual imagery of market conditions, and we compared these conditions with evidence-based standards for animal welfare and public health management.
Results: Wildlife markets globally shared common similar structures and practices including the presence of sick, injured, or stressed animals; mixing of animals of uncertain origin and health state; and no specific or any hygiene protocols, with issues of animal welfare, public health and safety, agricultural animal health, and other one-health concerns being inherently involved.
Conclusion: We conclude that wildlife markets are incompatible with responsible standards and practices, and we recommend that such events are banned globally to ameliorate inherent major problems.
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Anderson TK, Chang J, Arendsee ZW, Venkatesh D, Souza CK, Kimble JB, Lewis NS, Davis CT, Vincent AL. Swine Influenza A Viruses and the Tangled Relationship with Humans. Cold Spring Harb Perspect Med 2021; 11:cshperspect.a038737. [PMID: 31988203 PMCID: PMC7919397 DOI: 10.1101/cshperspect.a038737] [Citation(s) in RCA: 75] [Impact Index Per Article: 25.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Influenza A viruses (IAVs) are the causative agents of one of the most important viral respiratory diseases in pigs and humans. Human and swine IAV are prone to interspecies transmission, leading to regular incursions from human to pig and vice versa. This bidirectional transmission of IAV has heavily influenced the evolutionary history of IAV in both species. Transmission of distinct human seasonal lineages to pigs, followed by sustained within-host transmission and rapid adaptation and evolution, represent a considerable challenge for pig health and production. Consequently, although only subtypes of H1N1, H1N2, and H3N2 are endemic in swine around the world, extensive diversity can be found in the hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA) genes, as well as the remaining six genes. We review the complicated global epidemiology of IAV in swine and the inextricably entangled implications for public health and influenza pandemic planning.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tavis K. Anderson
- Virus and Prion Research Unit, National Animal Disease Center, USDA-ARS, Ames, Iowa 50010, USA
| | - Jennifer Chang
- Virus and Prion Research Unit, National Animal Disease Center, USDA-ARS, Ames, Iowa 50010, USA
| | - Zebulun W. Arendsee
- Virus and Prion Research Unit, National Animal Disease Center, USDA-ARS, Ames, Iowa 50010, USA
| | - Divya Venkatesh
- Department of Pathology and Population Sciences, Royal Veterinary College, University of London, Hertfordshire AL9 7TA, United Kingdom
| | - Carine K. Souza
- Virus and Prion Research Unit, National Animal Disease Center, USDA-ARS, Ames, Iowa 50010, USA
| | - J. Brian Kimble
- Virus and Prion Research Unit, National Animal Disease Center, USDA-ARS, Ames, Iowa 50010, USA
| | - Nicola S. Lewis
- Department of Pathology and Population Sciences, Royal Veterinary College, University of London, Hertfordshire AL9 7TA, United Kingdom
| | - C. Todd Davis
- Influenza Division, National Center for Immunization and Respiratory Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia 30333, USA
| | - Amy L. Vincent
- Virus and Prion Research Unit, National Animal Disease Center, USDA-ARS, Ames, Iowa 50010, USA
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Abstract
Influenza A viruses (IAVs) of the Orthomyxoviridae virus family cause one of the most important respiratory diseases in pigs and humans. Repeated outbreaks and rapid spread of genetically and antigenically distinct IAVs represent a considerable challenge for animal production and public health. Bidirection transmission of IAV between pigs and people has altered the evolutionary dynamics of IAV, and a "One Health" approach is required to ameliorate morbidity and mortality in both hosts and improve control strategies. Although only subtypes of H1N1, H1N2, and H3N2 are endemic in swine around the world, considerable diversity can be found not only in the hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA) genes but in the remaining six genes as well. Human and swine IAVs have demonstrated a particular propensity for interspecies transmission, leading to regular and sometimes sustained incursions from man to pig and vice versa. The diversity of IAVs in swine remains a critical challenge in the diagnosis and control of this important pathogen for swine health and in turn contributes to a significant public health risk.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amy L Vincent
- Virus and Prion Research Unit, National Animal Disease Center, USDA-ARS, Ames, IA, USA.
| | - Tavis K Anderson
- Virus and Prion Research Unit, National Animal Disease Center, USDA-ARS, Ames, IA, USA
| | - Kelly M Lager
- Virus and Prion Research Unit, National Animal Disease Center, USDA-ARS, Ames, IA, USA
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Bravo-Vasquez N, Karlsson EA, Jimenez-Bluhm P, Meliopoulos V, Kaplan B, Marvin S, Cortez V, Freiden P, Beck MA, Hamilton-West C, Schultz-Cherry S. Swine Influenza Virus (H1N2) Characterization and Transmission in Ferrets, Chile. Emerg Infect Dis 2017; 23:241-251. [PMID: 28098524 PMCID: PMC5324791 DOI: 10.3201/eid2302.161374] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Phylogenetic analysis of the influenza hemagglutinin gene (HA) has suggested that commercial pigs in Chile harbor unique human seasonal H1-like influenza viruses, but further information, including characterization of these viruses, was unavailable. We isolated influenza virus (H1N2) from a swine in a backyard production farm in Central Chile and demonstrated that the HA gene was identical to that in a previous report. Its HA and neuraminidase genes were most similar to human H1 and N2 viruses from the early 1990s and internal segments were similar to influenza A(H1N1)pdm09 virus. The virus replicated efficiently in vitro and in vivo and transmitted in ferrets by respiratory droplet. Antigenically, it was distinct from other swine viruses. Hemagglutination inhibition analysis suggested that antibody titers to the swine Chilean H1N2 virus were decreased in persons born after 1990. Further studies are needed to characterize the potential risk to humans, as well as the ecology of influenza in swine in South America.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Pedro Jimenez-Bluhm
- University of Chile, Santiago, Chile (N. Bravo-Vasquez, C. Hamilton-West)
- St. Jude Children’s Research Hospital, Memphis, Tennessee, USA (E.A. Karlsson, P. Jimenez-Bluhm, V. Meliopoulos, B. Kaplan, S. Marvin, V. Cortez, P. Freiden, S. Schultz-Cherry)
- University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, USA (M.A. Beck)
| | - Victoria Meliopoulos
- University of Chile, Santiago, Chile (N. Bravo-Vasquez, C. Hamilton-West)
- St. Jude Children’s Research Hospital, Memphis, Tennessee, USA (E.A. Karlsson, P. Jimenez-Bluhm, V. Meliopoulos, B. Kaplan, S. Marvin, V. Cortez, P. Freiden, S. Schultz-Cherry)
- University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, USA (M.A. Beck)
| | - Bryan Kaplan
- University of Chile, Santiago, Chile (N. Bravo-Vasquez, C. Hamilton-West)
- St. Jude Children’s Research Hospital, Memphis, Tennessee, USA (E.A. Karlsson, P. Jimenez-Bluhm, V. Meliopoulos, B. Kaplan, S. Marvin, V. Cortez, P. Freiden, S. Schultz-Cherry)
- University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, USA (M.A. Beck)
| | - Shauna Marvin
- University of Chile, Santiago, Chile (N. Bravo-Vasquez, C. Hamilton-West)
- St. Jude Children’s Research Hospital, Memphis, Tennessee, USA (E.A. Karlsson, P. Jimenez-Bluhm, V. Meliopoulos, B. Kaplan, S. Marvin, V. Cortez, P. Freiden, S. Schultz-Cherry)
- University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, USA (M.A. Beck)
| | - Valerie Cortez
- University of Chile, Santiago, Chile (N. Bravo-Vasquez, C. Hamilton-West)
- St. Jude Children’s Research Hospital, Memphis, Tennessee, USA (E.A. Karlsson, P. Jimenez-Bluhm, V. Meliopoulos, B. Kaplan, S. Marvin, V. Cortez, P. Freiden, S. Schultz-Cherry)
- University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, USA (M.A. Beck)
| | - Pamela Freiden
- University of Chile, Santiago, Chile (N. Bravo-Vasquez, C. Hamilton-West)
- St. Jude Children’s Research Hospital, Memphis, Tennessee, USA (E.A. Karlsson, P. Jimenez-Bluhm, V. Meliopoulos, B. Kaplan, S. Marvin, V. Cortez, P. Freiden, S. Schultz-Cherry)
- University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, USA (M.A. Beck)
| | - Melinda A. Beck
- University of Chile, Santiago, Chile (N. Bravo-Vasquez, C. Hamilton-West)
- St. Jude Children’s Research Hospital, Memphis, Tennessee, USA (E.A. Karlsson, P. Jimenez-Bluhm, V. Meliopoulos, B. Kaplan, S. Marvin, V. Cortez, P. Freiden, S. Schultz-Cherry)
- University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, USA (M.A. Beck)
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Bliss N, Nelson SW, Nolting JM, Bowman AS. Prevalence of Influenza A Virus in Exhibition Swine during Arrival at Agricultural Fairs. Zoonoses Public Health 2016; 63:477-85. [PMID: 26750204 DOI: 10.1111/zph.12252] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/14/2015] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
The exhibition swine at agricultural fairs provides a critical human-swine interface that allows for the bidirectional transmission of influenza A virus (IAV). Previous IAV surveillance at the end of fairs has resulted in frequent detection of IAV-infected swine; little is known, however, about the frequency with which swine arrive at fairs already infected with IAV. We investigated the IAV prevalence among exhibition swine entering fairs to better understand the epidemiology of IAV in this unique human-swine interface. In 2014, snout wipes were collected from 3547 swine during the first day of nine agricultural exhibitions in Indiana and Ohio. Samples were screened for IAV using rRT-PCR and positive samples were inoculated into cultured cells for virus isolation. The overall IAV prevalence detected among swine arriving at exhibitions was 5.3% (188/3547) via rRT-PCR and 1.5% (53/3547) via virus isolation, with IAV being detected and recovered from swine at 5 of the 9 exhibitions. Within the fairs with IAV-positive swine, the individual exhibition IAV prevalence ranged from 0.2% (1/523) to 34.4% (144/419) using rRT-PCR and 0.2% (1/523) to 10.3% (43/419) with virus isolation. Single IAV subtypes were detected at three of the fairs but subtype diversity was detected among the pigs at two fairs as both H1N1 and H3N2 were recovered from incoming swine. At two of the exhibitions, a temporal relationship was observed between the order of the individual swine in sampling and the associated IAV rRT-PCR results, indicating the fomite transmission of IAV through common contact surfaces may occur. With the knowledge that a small proportion of swine arrive at fairs shedding IAV, resources should be directed towards preventive strategies focused on limiting transmission during fairs to protect swine and humans during exhibitions.
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Affiliation(s)
- N Bliss
- Department of Veterinary Preventive Medicine, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, USA
| | - S W Nelson
- Department of Veterinary Preventive Medicine, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, USA
| | - J M Nolting
- Department of Veterinary Preventive Medicine, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, USA
| | - A S Bowman
- Department of Veterinary Preventive Medicine, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, USA
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Choi MJ, Torremorell M, Bender JB, Smith K, Boxrud D, Ertl JR, Yang M, Suwannakarn K, Her D, Nguyen J, Uyeki TM, Levine M, Lindstrom S, Katz JM, Jhung M, Vetter S, Wong KK, Sreevatsan S, Lynfield R. Live Animal Markets in Minnesota: A Potential Source for Emergence of Novel Influenza A Viruses and Interspecies Transmission. Clin Infect Dis 2015. [PMID: 26223994 DOI: 10.1093/cid/civ618] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Live animal markets have been implicated in transmission of influenza A viruses (IAVs) from animals to people. We sought to characterize IAVs at 2 live animal markets in Minnesota to assess potential routes of occupational exposure and risk for interspecies transmission. METHODS We implemented surveillance for IAVs among employees, swine, and environment (air and surfaces) during a 12-week period (October 2012-January 2013) at 2 markets epidemiologically associated with persons with swine-origin IAV (variant) infections. Real-time reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (rRT-PCR), viral culture, and whole-genome sequencing were performed on respiratory and environmental specimens, and serology on sera from employees at beginning and end of surveillance. RESULTS Nasal swabs from 11 of 17 (65%) employees tested positive for IAVs by rRT-PCR; 7 employees tested positive on multiple occasions and 1 employee reported influenza-like illness. Eleven of 15 (73%) employees had baseline hemagglutination inhibition antibody titers ≥40 to swine-origin IAVs, but only 1 demonstrated a 4-fold titer increase to both swine-origin and pandemic A/Mexico/4108/2009 IAVs. IAVs were isolated from swine (72/84), air (30/45), and pen railings (5/21). Whole-genome sequencing of 122 IAVs isolated from swine and environmental specimens revealed multiple strains and subtype codetections. Multiple gene segment exchanges among and within subtypes were observed, resulting in new genetic constellations and reassortant viruses. Genetic sequence similarities of 99%-100% among IAVs of 1 market customer and swine indicated interspecies transmission. CONCLUSIONS At markets where swine and persons are in close contact, swine-origin IAVs are prevalent and potentially provide conditions for novel IAV emergence.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mary J Choi
- Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia
| | - Montserrat Torremorell
- University of Minnesota College of Veterinary Medicine, Minnesota Center of Excellence for Influenza Research and Surveillance
| | - Jeff B Bender
- University of Minnesota College of Veterinary Medicine, Minnesota Center of Excellence for Influenza Research and Surveillance
| | | | | | - Jon R Ertl
- University of Minnesota College of Veterinary Medicine, Minnesota Center of Excellence for Influenza Research and Surveillance
| | - My Yang
- University of Minnesota College of Veterinary Medicine, Minnesota Center of Excellence for Influenza Research and Surveillance
| | - Kamol Suwannakarn
- University of Minnesota College of Veterinary Medicine, Minnesota Center of Excellence for Influenza Research and Surveillance
| | | | | | - Timothy M Uyeki
- Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia
| | - Min Levine
- Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia
| | | | | | - Michael Jhung
- Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia
| | | | - Karen K Wong
- Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia
| | - Srinand Sreevatsan
- University of Minnesota College of Veterinary Medicine, Minnesota Center of Excellence for Influenza Research and Surveillance
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Bowman AS, Nolting JM, Workman JD, Cooper M, Fisher AE, Marsh B, Forshey T. The Inability to Screen Exhibition Swine for Influenza A Virus Using Body Temperature. Zoonoses Public Health 2015; 63:34-9. [PMID: 25884907 DOI: 10.1111/zph.12201] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/24/2015] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Agricultural fairs create an unconventional animal-human interface that has been associated with swine-to-human transmission of influenza A virus (IAV) in recent years. Early detection of IAV-infected pigs at agricultural fairs would allow veterinarians to better protect swine and human health during these swine exhibitions. This study assessed the use of swine body temperature measurement, recorded by infrared and rectal thermometers, as a practical method to detect IAV-infected swine at agricultural fairs. In our first objective, infrared thermometers were used to record the body surface temperature of 1,092 pigs at the time of IAV nasal swab collection at the end of the exhibition period of 55 agricultural fairs. IAV was recovered from 212 (19.4%) pigs, and the difference in mean infrared body temperature measurement of IAV-positive and IAV-negative pigs was 0.83°C. In a second objective, snout wipes were collected from 1,948 pigs immediately prior to the unloading of the animals at a single large swine exhibition. Concurrent to the snout wipe collection, owners took the rectal temperatures of his/her pigs. In this case, 47 (2.4%) pigs tested positive for IAV before they entered the swine barn. The mean rectal temperatures differed by only 0.19°C between IAV-positive and IAV-negative pigs. The low prevalence of IAV among the pigs upon entry to the fair in the second objective provides evidence that limiting intraspecies spread of IAV during the fairs will likely have significant impacts on the zoonotic transmission. However, in both objectives, the high degree of similarity in the body temperature measurements between the IAV-positive and IAV-negative pigs made it impossible to set a diagnostically meaningful cut point to differentiate IAV status of the individual animals. Unfortunately, body temperature measurement cannot be used to accurately screen exhibition swine for IAV.
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Affiliation(s)
- A S Bowman
- Department of Veterinary Preventive Medicine, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, USA
| | - J M Nolting
- Department of Veterinary Preventive Medicine, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, USA
| | - J D Workman
- Department of Veterinary Preventive Medicine, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, USA.,Ohio State University Extension, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, USA
| | - M Cooper
- Indiana State Board of Animal Health, Indianapolis, IN, USA
| | - A E Fisher
- Indiana 4-H Youth Development, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, USA
| | - B Marsh
- Indiana State Board of Animal Health, Indianapolis, IN, USA
| | - T Forshey
- Ohio Department of Agriculture, Reynoldsburg, OH, USA
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