Fibration of powdery materials

Non-destructive processing of powders into macroscopic materials with a wealth of structural and functional possibilities has immeasurable scientific significance and application value, yet remains a challenge using conventional processing techniques. Here we developed a universal fibration method, using two-dimensional cellulose as a mediator, to process diverse powdered materials into micro-/nanofibres, which provides structural support to the particles and preserves their own specialties and architectures. It is found that the self-shrinking force drives the two-dimensional cellulose and supported particles to pucker and roll into fibres, a gentle process that prevents agglomeration and structural damage of the powder particles. We demonstrate over 120 fibre samples involving various powder guests, including elements, compounds, organics and hybrids in different morphologies, densities and particle sizes. Customized fibres with an adjustable diameter and guest content can be easily constructed into high-performance macromaterials with various geometries, creating a library of building blocks for different fields of applications. Our fibration strategy provides a universal, powerful and non-destructive pathway bridging primary particles and macroapplications.

Electrospinning Nanofibers as Stretchable Sensors for Wearable Devices

Wearable devices attract great attention in intelligent medicine, electronic skin, artificial intelligence robots, and so on. However, boundedness of traditional sensors based on rigid materials unconstrained self-multilayer structure assembly and dense substrate in stretchability and permeability limits their applications. The network structure of the elastomeric nanofibers gives them excellent air permeability and stretchability. By introducing metal nanofillers, intrinsic conductive polymers, carbon materials, and other methods to construct conductive paths, stretchable conductors can be effectively prepared by elastomeric nanofibers, showing great potential in the field of flexible sensors. This perspective briefly introduces the representative preparations of conductive thermoplastic polyurethane, nylon, and hydrogel nanofibers by electrospinning and the application of integrated electronic devices in biological signal detection. The main challenge is to unify the stretchability and conductivity of the fiber structure.

Implantable anti-biofouling biosupercapacitor with high energy performance

Biofluidic open-type supercapacitors offer significant advantages over batteries in implantable electronics. However, poor energy storage in bioelectrolytes and performance degradation owing to electrode biofouling remain challenges and hamper their implementation. In this study, we present a flexible polydopamine (PDA)-infiltrated carbon nanotube (CNT) yarn (PDA/CNT) supercapacitor with high performance in biofluids, encapsulated by a hydrogel-barrier circular knit that provides anti-biofouling protection. Infiltration of the biopolymer PDA provide a hydrophilic coating to obtain a hydrophobic CNT electrode under aqueous conditions and an energy density 250-fold higher than that of the pristine CNT in the biofluid. The PDA/CNT supercapacitor exhibited remarkable energy performance in biological fluids in terms of the maximum areal capacitance (503.91 mF cm-2), energy density (274 μWh/cm2), and power density (25.52 mW cm-2). Moreover, it demonstrated negligible capacitance loss after 10,000 repeated charge/discharge cycles and bending tests. To prevent biofouling, the PDA/CNT electrode was encapsulated in an agarose-coated circular knit that allows free movement of the electrolyte. Notably, implanting an encapsulated PDA/CNT supercapacitor into the abdominal cavity of rat resulted in stable in vivo energy storage performance without biofouling for 21 d, and the charged supercapacitor was used successfully to power a light-emitting diode in vivo.

Unleashing the Potential of MXene-Based Flexible Materials for High-Performance Energy Storage Devices

Since the initial discovery of Ti3 C2 a decade ago, there has been a significant surge of interest in 2D MXenes and MXene-based composites. This can be attributed to the remarkable intrinsic properties exhibited by MXenes, including metallic conductivity, abundant functional groups, unique layered microstructure, and the ability to control interlayer spacing. These properties contribute to the exceptional electrical and mechanical performance of MXenes, rendering them highly suitable for implementation as candidate materials in flexible and wearable energy storage devices. Recently, a substantial number of novel research has been dedicated to exploring MXene-based flexible materials with diverse functionalities and specifically designed structures, aiming to enhance the efficiency of energy storage systems. In this review, a comprehensive overview of the synthesis and fabrication strategies employed in the development of these diverse MXene-based materials is provided. Furthermore, an in-depth analysis of the energy storage applications exhibited by these innovative flexible materials, encompassing supercapacitors, Li-ion batteries, Li-S batteries, and other potential avenues, is conducted. In addition to presenting the current state of the field, the challenges encountered in the implementation of MXene-based flexible materials are also highlighted and insights are provided into future research directions and prospects.

Oxidation-treated carbon nanotube yarns accelerate neurite outgrowth and induce axonal regeneration in peripheral nerve defect

Carbon nanotubes (CNTs) have the potential to promote peripheral nerve regeneration, although with limited capacity and foreign body reaction. This study investigated whether CNTs hydrophilized by oxidation can improve peripheral nerve regeneration and reduce foreign body reactions and inflammation. Three different artificial nerve conduit models were created using CNTs treated with ozone (O group), strong acid (SA group), and untreated (P group). They were implanted into a rat sciatic nerve defect model and evaluated after 8 and 16 weeks. At 16 weeks, the SA group showed significant recovery in functional and electrophysiological evaluations compared with the others. At 8 weeks, histological examination revealed a significant increase in the density of regenerated neurofilament and decreased foreign body giant cells in the SA group compared with the others. Oxidation-treated CNTs improved biocompatibility, induced nerve regeneration, and inhibited foreign-body reactions.

Recent Advances in Carbon Nanotube-Based Energy Harvesting Technologies

There has been enormous interest in technologies that generate electricity from ambient energy such as solar, thermal, and mechanical energy, due to their potential for providing sustainable solutions to the energy crisis. One driving force behind the search for new energy-harvesting technologies is the desire to power sensor networks and portable devices without batteries, such as self-powered wearable electronics, human health monitoring systems, and implantable wireless sensors. Various energy harvesting technologies have been demonstrated in recent years. Among them, electrochemical, hydroelectric, triboelectric, piezoelectric, and thermoelectric nanogenerators have been extensively studied because of their special physical properties, ease of application, and sometimes high obtainable efficiency. Multifunctional carbon nanotubes (CNTs) have attracted much interest in energy harvesting because of their exceptionally high gravimetric power outputs and recently obtained high energy conversion efficiencies. Further development of this field, however, still requires an in-depth understanding of harvesting mechanisms and boosting of the electrical outputs for wider applications. Here, various CNT-based energy harvesting technologies are comprehensively reviewed, focusing on working principles, typical examples, and future improvements. The last section discusses the existing challenges and future directions of CNT-based energy harvesters.

High-performance fiber-shaped Li-ion battery enabled by a surface-reinforced self-supporting electrode

Herein, we develop a surface-reinforced self-supporting fiber electrode via the simple-yet-reliable ink-extrusion technology to introduce a thin polymer layer at the electrode surface, which endows the fiber architecture with sufficient rigidity for the subsequent fiber cell assembly. Such fiber LiFePO₄//Li₄Ti₅O₁₂ full cells exhibit high linear capacity output (0.144 mA h cm^-1) and energy density (0.267 mW h cm^-1).

Densifiable Ink Extrusion for Roll-To-Roll Fiber Lithium-Ion Batteries with Ultra-High Linear and Volumetric Energy Densities

Conventional bulky and rigid planar architecting power systems are difficult to satisfy the growing demand for wearable applications. 1D fiber batteries bearing appealing features of miniaturization, adaptability, and weavability represent a promising solution, yet challenges remain pertaining to energy density and scalability. Herein, an ingenious densifiable functional ink is invented to fabricate scalable, flexible, and high-mass-loading fiber lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) by adopting a fast ink-extrusion technology. In the formulated ink, pyrrole-modified reduced graphene oxide is elaborately introduced and exerts multiple influences; it not only assembles carbon nanotubes and poly(vinylidene fluoride-co-hexafluoropropylene) to compose a sturdy, conductive, and agglomeration-free 3D network that realizes an ultra-high content (75 wt%) of the active materials and endows the electrode excellent flexibility but also serves as a capillary densification inducer, encouraging an extremely large linear mass loading (1.01 mg cm^-1 per fiber) and packing density (782.1 mg cm^-3 ). As a result, the assembled fiber LIBs deliver impressive linear and volumetric energy densities with superb mechanical compliance, demonstrating the best performance among all the reported extruded fiber batteries. This work highlights a highly effective and facile approach to fabricate high-performance fiber energy storage devices for future practical wearable applications.

Wearable and Washable MnO2-Zn Battery Packaged by Vacuum Sealing

Batteries are used in all types of electronic devices from conventional to advanced devices. Currently, batteries are evolving in the direction of extremely personalized yarn- or textile-structured textronic systems. However, the absence of a protective layer on such batteries is a critical limitation to their practical use. In this study, we developed a wearable and washable MnO₂-Zn textile battery that maintains its electrochemical capacity under various external environmental conditions through a vacuum-sealed packaging. The packaged textile battery was fabricated by vacuuming a polymer envelope containing the battery, followed by heat sealing with a vacuum packaging machine. The interior and exterior regions of the textile battery are completely separated by the packaging sheath to preclude leakage and intrusion of substances. The resulting packaged textile battery exhibits stable capacity retention performance under varying temperature and humidity; mechanical deformations due to bending, twisting, rubbing, and pressing; and several mechanical, chemical, and their combined washing cycles. On the basis of these demonstrations, we expect that our vacuum-packaged textile battery will offer new possibilities for practical and convenient use of textronics.

High-Performance Biscrolled Ni-Fe Yarn Battery with Outer Buffer Layer

The increasing demand for portable and wearable electronics has promoted the development of safe and flexible yarn-based batteries with outstanding electrochemical properties. However, achieving superior energy storage performance with a high active material (AM) load and long cycle life with this device format remains a challenge. In this study, a stable and rechargeable high-performance aqueous Ni-Fe yarn battery was constructed via biscrolling to embed AMs within helical carbon nanotube (CNT) yarn corridors. Owing to the high load of charge storage nanoparticles (NPs; above 97 wt%) and the outer neat CNT layer, the buffered biscrolled Ni-Fe yarn battery demonstrates excellent linear capacity (0.053 mAh/cm) and cycling stability (60.1% retention after 300 charge/discharge cycles) in an aqueous electrolyte. Moreover, our flexible yarn battery exhibits maximum energy/power densities of 422 mWh/cm³ and 7535 mW/cm³ based on the total volume of the cathode and anode, respectively, which exceed those reported for many flexible Ni-Fe batteries. Thus, biscrolled Ni-Fe yarn batteries are promising candidates for next-generation conformal energy solutions.

Hydrogel Nanosheets Confined 2D Rhombic Ice: A New Platform Enhancing Chondrogenesis

Nanoconfinement within flexible interfaces is a key step towards exploiting confinement effects in several biological and technological systems wherein flexible 2D materials are frequently utilized but are arduous to prepare. Hitherto unreported, the synthesis of 2D Hydrogel nanosheets (HNS) using a template- and catalyst-free process is developed representing a fertile ground for fundamental structure-property investigations. In due course of time, nucleating folds propagating along the edges trigger co-operative deformations of HNS generating regions of nanoconfinement within trapped water islands. These severely constricting surfaces force water molecules to pack within the nanoscale regime of HNS almost parallel to the surface bringing about phase transition into puckered rhombic ice with AA and AB Bernal stacking pattern, which was mostly restricted to Molecular dynamics (MD) studies so far. Interestingly, under high lateral pressure and spatial inhomogeneity within nanoscale confinement, bilayer rhombic ice structures were formed with an in-plane lattice spacing of 0.31 nm. In this work, a systematic exploration of rhombic ice formation within HNS has been delineated using High-resolution transmission electron microscopy (HRTEM), and its ultrathin morphology was examined using Atomic Force Microscopy (AFM). Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) images revealed high porosity while mechanical testing presented young's modulus of 155 kPa with ~84% deformation, whereas contact angle suggested high hydrophilicity. The combinations of nanosheets, porosity, nanoconfinement, hydrophilicity, and mechanical strength, motivated us to explore their application as a scaffold for cartilage regeneration, by inducing chondrogenesis of human Wharton Jelly derived mesenchymal stem cells (hWJ MSCs). HNS promoted the formation of cell aggregates giving higher number of spheroid formation and a marked expression of chondrogenic markers (ColI, ColII, ColX, ACAN and S-100), thereby providing some cues for guiding chondrogenic differentiation.

More Powerful Twistron Carbon Nanotube Yarn Mechanical Energy Harvesters

Stretching a coiled carbon nanotube (CNT) yarn can provide large, reversible electrochemical capacitance changes, which convert mechanical energy to electricity. Here, it is shown that the performance of these "twistron" harvesters can be increased by optimizing the alignment of precursor CNT forests, plastically stretching the precursor twisted yarn, applying much higher tensile loads during precoiling twist than for coiling, using electrothermal pulse annealing under tension, and incorporating reduced graphene oxide nanoplates. The peak output power for a 1 and a 30 Hz sinusoidal deformation are 0.73 and 3.19 kW kg-1 , respectively, which are 24- and 13-fold that of previous twistron harvesters at these respective frequencies. This performance at 30 Hz is over 12-fold that of other prior-art mechanical energy harvesters for frequencies between 0.1 and 600 Hz. The maximum energy conversion efficiency is 7.2-fold that for previous twistrons. Twistron anode and cathode yarn arrays are stretched 180° out-of-phase by locating them in the negative and positive compressibility directions of hinged wine-rack frames, thereby doubling the output voltage and reducing the input mechanical energy.

Recent Trends in Carbon Nanotube Electrodes for Flexible Supercapacitors: A Review of Smart Energy Storage Device Assembly and Performance

In order to upgrade existing electronic technology, we need simultaneously to advance power supply devices to match emerging requirements. Owing to the rapidly growing wearable and portable electronics markets, the demand to develop flexible energy storage devices is among the top priorities for humankind. Flexible supercapacitors (FSCs) have attracted tremendous attention, owing to their unrivaled electrochemical performances, long cyclability and mechanical flexibility. Carbon nanotubes (CNTs), long recognized for their mechanical toughness, with an elastic strain limit of up to 20%, are regarded as potential candidates for FSC electrodes. Along with excellent mechanical properties, high electrical conductivity, and large surface area, their assemblage adaptability from one-dimensional fibers to two-dimensional films to three-dimensional sponges makes CNTs attractive. In this review, we have summarized various assemblies of CNT structures, and their involvement in various device configurations of FSCs. Furthermore, to present a clear scenario of recent developments, we discuss the electrochemical performance of fabricated flexible devices of different CNT structures and their composites, including additional properties such as compressibility and stretchability. Additionally, the drawbacks and benefits of the study and further potential scopes are distinctly emphasized for future researchers.

Tensional twist-folding of sheets into multilayered scrolled yarns

Twisting sheets as a strategy to form functional yarns relies on millennia of human practice in making catguts and fabric wearables, but it still lacks overarching principles to guide their intricate architectures. We show that twisted hyperelastic sheets form multilayered self-scrolled yarns, through recursive folding and twist localization, that can be reconfigured and redeployed. We combine weakly nonlinear elasticity and origami to explain the observed ordered progression beyond the realm of perturbative models. Incorporating dominant stretching modes with folding kinematics, we explain the measured torque and energetics originating from geometric nonlinearities due to large displacements. Complementarily, we show that the resulting structures can be algorithmically generated using Schläfli symbols for star-shaped polygons. A geometric model is then introduced to explain the formation and structure of self-scrolled yarns. Our tensional twist-folding framework shows that origami can be harnessed to understand the transformation of stretchable sheets into self-assembled architectures with a simple twist.

Ti3C2Tx MXene: from dispersions to multifunctional architectures for diverse applications

The exciting combination of high electrical conductivity, high specific capacitance and colloidal stability of two-dimensional Ti₃C₂T_x MXene (referred to as MXene) has shown great potential in a wide range of applications including wearable electronics, energy storage, sensors, and electromagnetic interference shielding. To realize its full potential, recent literature has reported a variety of solution-based processing methodologies to develop MXenes into multifunctional architectures, such as fibres, films and aerogels. In response to these recent critical advances, this review provides a comprehensive analysis of the diverse solution-based processing methodologies currently being used for MXene-architecture fabrication. A critical evaluation of the processing challenges directly affecting macroscale material properties and ultimately, the performance of the resulting prototype devices is also provided. Opportunities arising from the observed and foreseen challenges regarding their use are discussed to provide avenues for new designs and realise practical use in high performance applications.

Advanced materials for personal thermal and moisture management of health care workers wearing PPE

In recent years, the development of personal protective equipment (PPE) for health care workers (HCWs) attracted enormous attention, especially during the pandemic of COVID-19. The semi-permeable protective clothing and the prolonged working hours make the thermal comfort a critical issue for HCWs. Although there are many commercially available personal cooling products for PPE systems, they are either heavy in weight or have limited durability. Besides, most of the existing solutions cannot relieve the perspiration efficiently within the insolation gowns. To avoid heat strain and ensure a longtime thermal comfort, new strategies that provide efficient personal thermal and moisture management without compromising health protection are required. This paper reviews the emerging materials for protective gown layers and advanced technologies for personal thermal and moisture management of PPE systems. These materials and strategies are examined in detail with respect to their fundamental working principles, thermal and mechanical properties, fabrication methods as well as advantages and limitations in their prospective applications, aiming at stimulating creative thinking and multidisciplinary collaboration to improve the thermal comfort of PPEs.

Carbon-nanotube yarns induce axonal regeneration in peripheral nerve defect

Carbon nanotubes (CNTs) are cylindrical nanostructures and have unique properties, including flexibility, electrical conductivity, and biocompatibility. We focused on CNTs fabricated with the carbon nanotube yarns (cYarn) as a possible substrate promoting peripheral nerve regeneration with these properties. We bridged a 15 mm rat sciatic nerve defect with five different densities of cYarn. Eight weeks after the surgery, the regenerated axons crossing the CNTs, electromyographical findings, and muscle weight ratio of the lower leg showed recovery of the nerve function by interfacing with cYarn. Furthermore, the sciatic nerve functional index (SFI) at 16 weeks showed improvement in gait function. A 2% CNT density tended to be the most effective for nerve regeneration as measured by both histological axonal regeneration and motor function. We confirmed that CNT yarn promotes peripheral nerve regeneration by using it as a scaffold for repairing nerve defects. Our results support the future clinical application of CNTs for bridging nerve defects as an off-the-shelf material.

Fibre electronics: towards scaled-up manufacturing of integrated e-textile systems

The quest for a close human interaction with electronic devices for healthcare, safety, energy and security has driven giant leaps in portable and wearable technologies in recent years. Electronic textiles (e-textiles) are emerging as key enablers of wearable devices. Unlike conventional heavy, rigid, and hard-to-wear gadgets, e-textiles can lead to lightweight, flexible, soft, and breathable devices, which can be worn like everyday clothes. A new generation of fibre-based electronics is emerging which can be made into wearable e-textiles. A suite of start-of-the-art functional materials have been used to develop novel fibre-based devices (FBDs), which have shown excellent potential in creating wearable e-textiles. Recent research in this area has led to the development of fibre-based electronic, optoelectronic, energy harvesting, energy storage, and sensing devices, which have also been integrated into multifunctional e-textile systems. Here we review the key technological advancements in FBDs and provide an updated critical evaluation of the status of the research in this field. Focusing on various aspects of materials development, device fabrication, fibre processing, textile integration, and scaled-up manufacturing we discuss current limitations and present an outlook on how to address the future development of this field. The critical analysis of key challenges and existing opportunities in fibre electronics aims to define a roadmap for future applications in this area.

Development and Applications of MXene-Based Functional Fibers

The increasing interest toward wearable and portable electronic devices calls for multifunctional materials and fibers/yarns capable of seamless integration with everyday textiles. To date, one particular gap inhibiting the development of such devices is the production of robust functional fibers with improved electronic conductivity and electrochemical energy storage capability. Recent efforts have been made to produce functional fibers with 2D carbides known as MXenes to address these demands. Ti₃C₂T_x MXene, in particular, is known for its metallic conductivity and high volumetric capacitance, and has shown promise for fibers and textile-based devices when used either as an additive, coating or the main fiber component. In this spotlight article, we highlight the recent exciting developments in our diverse efforts to fabricate MXene functionalized fibers, along with a critical evaluation of the challenges in processing, which directly affect macroscale material properties and the performance of the subsequent prototype devices. We also provide our assessment of observed and foreseen challenges of the current manufacturing methods and the opportunities arising from recent advances in the development of MXene fibers and paving future avenues for textile design and practical use in advanced applications.

Self-folding and self-scrolling mechanisms of edge-deformed graphene sheets: a molecular dynamics study

Graphene-based nanofolds (GNFs) are edge-connected 2D stacked monolayers that originate from single-layer graphene. Graphene-based nanoscrolls (GNSs) are nanomaterials with geometry resembling graphene layers rolled up into a spiral (papyrus-like) form. Both GNS and GNF structures induce significant changes in the mechanical and optoelectronic properties of single-layer graphene, aggregating new functionalities in carbon-based applications. Here, we carried out fully atomistic reactive (ReaxFF) molecular dynamics simulations to study the self-folding and self-scrolling mechanisms of edge-deformed graphene sheets. We adopted initial armchair edge-scrolled graphene (AESG(φ, θ)) structures with similar (or different) twist angles (φ, θ) in each edge, mimicking the initial configuration that was experimentally developed to form biscrolled sheets. The results showed that AESG(0, 2π) and AESG(2π, 2π) evolved to single-folded and two-folded fully stacked morphologies, respectively. As a general trend, for twist angles higher than 2π, the self-deformation process of AESG morphologies yields GNSs. Edge twist angles lower than π are not enough for triggering the self-deformation processes. In the AESG(0, 3π) and AESG(3π, 3π) cases, after a relaxation period, their morphology transition towards GNSs occurred rapidly. In the AESG(3π, 3π) dynamics, a metastable biscroll was formed by the interplay between the left- and right-sided partial scrolling while forming a unique GNS. At high-temperature perturbations, the edge folding and scrolling transitions to GNFs and GNSs occurred within an ultrafast time-period. Remarkably, the AESG(2π, 3π) evolved to a dual state that combines folded and scrolled structures in a temperature-independent process.

Nanomaterials-patterned flexible electrodes for wearable health monitoring: a review

ABSTRACT

Electrodes fabricated on a flexible substrate are a revolutionary development in wearable health monitoring due to their lightweight, breathability, comfort, and flexibility to conform to the curvilinear body shape. Different metallic thin-film and plastic-based substrates lack comfort for long-term monitoring applications. However, the insulating nature of different polymer, fiber, and textile substrates requires the deposition of conductive materials to render interactive functionality to substrates. Besides, the high porosity and flexibility of fiber and textile substrates pose a great challenge for the homogenous deposition of active materials. Printing is an excellent process to produce a flexible conductive textile electrode for wearable health monitoring applications due to its low cost and scalability. This article critically reviews the current state of the art of different textile architectures as a substrate for the deposition of conductive nanomaterials. Furthermore, recent progress in various printing processes of nanomaterials, challenges of printing nanomaterials on textiles, and their health monitoring applications are described systematically.

The Power of Fiber Twist

Nature's evolution over billions of years has led to the development of different kinds of twisted structures in a variety of biological species. Twisted fibers from nanoscale- to micrometer-scale diameter have been prepared by mimicking natural twisted structures. Mechanically inserting twist in a yarn is an efficient and important method, which generates internal stress, changes the macromolecular orientation, and increases compactness. Recently, twist insertion has been found to produce interesting fiber properties, including chemical, mechanical, electrical, and thermal properties. This Account summarizes recent progress in how twist insertion affects the chemical and physical properties of fibers and describes their applications in artificial spider silk, artificial muscles, refrigeration, and electricity generation.Twist and associated chirality widely arise in nature from molecules to nano- and microscale materials to macroscopic objects such as DNA, RNA, peptides, and chromosomes. Such twisted architectures play an important role in improving the mechanical properties and enabling biological functions. Inspired by the beauty and interesting properties of twisted structures, a wide range of artificial chiral materials with twisted or coiled structures have been prepared, from organic and inorganic nanorods, nanotubes, and nanobelts to macroscopic architectures and buildings.An efficient way to prepare twisted materials is by inserting twist in fibers or yarns, which is an ancient technique used to make yarns or ropes (Wang, R., et al. Science 2019, 366, 216-221. Mu, J., et al. Science 2019, 365, 150-155). During the twisting process, torque is generated in fibers or yarns, the structure of the polymer chains becomes helically oriented, and the fibers in a yarn become more compact. Therefore, the twisting of fibers and yarns can produce novel chemical, mechanical, electrical, and thermal properties (Dou, Y., et al. Nat. Commun. 2019, 10, 1-10. Kim, S. H., et al. Science 2017, 357, 773-778). This Account focuses on the novel properties generated by twist insertion. The mechanical stress and strain can be optimized in a yarn by twist insertion, and different types of fibers exhibit rather different mechanisms.In the first section, we will focus on recent progress in improving the mechanical properties of twisted fibers, including carbon nanotube yarns, single-filament fibers, and hydrogel fibers. Torque was generated by twist insertion in a fiber or a yarn, and the balance of internal torsional stress can be changed by causing a change in yarn volume. This will result in twist release and torsional and tensile actuations of the yarn, which will be described in the second section. Twisting a yarn generally makes it more compact, which will result in a mechanically induced change in capacitance, supercapacitance, and other useful electrochemical properties when a conducting yarn is in an electrolyte. Such processes were used to develop novel devices for twist-based electricity generation, called twistrons, which will be discussed in the third section. Twist insertion or release also changes the polymer chain orientation or crystal structure, resulting in changes in entropy. This is called the twistocaloric effect, which was used to develop a new cooling method, and will be discussed in the last section.

Application-Driven Carbon Nanotube Functional Materials

Carbon nanotube functional materials (CNTFMs) represent an important research field in transforming nanoscience and nanotechnology into practical applications, with potential impact in a wide realm of science, technology, and engineering. In this review, we combine the state-of-the-art research activities of CNTFMs with the application prospect, to highlight critical issues and identify future challenges. We focus on macroscopic long fibers, thin films, and bulk sponges which are typical CNTFMs in different dimensions with distinct characteristics, and also cover a variety of derived composite/hierarchical materials. Critical issues related to their structures, properties, and applications as robust conductive skeletons or high-performance flexible electrodes in mechanical and electronic devices, advanced energy conversion and storage systems, and environmental areas have been discussed specifically. Finally, possible solutions and directions are proposed for overcoming current obstacles and promoting future efforts in the field.

Electronic Textiles Fabricated with Graphene Oxide-Coated Commercial Textiles

Demand for wearable and portable electronic devices has increased, raising interest in electronic textiles (e-textiles). E-textiles have been produced using various materials including carbon nanotubes, graphene, and graphene oxide. Among the materials in this minireview, we introduce e-textiles fabricated with graphene oxide (GO) coating, using commercial textiles. GO-coated cotton, nylon, polyester, and silk are reported. The GO-coated commercial textiles were reduced chemically and thermally. The maximum e-textile conductivity of about 10 S/cm was achieved in GO-coated silk. We also introduce an e-textile made of uncoated silk. The silk-based e-textiles were obtained using a simple heat treatment with axial tension. The conductivity of the e-textiles was over 100 S/cm.

Aligned carbon nanotube fibers for fiber-shaped solar cells, supercapacitors and batteries

Aligned carbon nanotube (CNT) fibers have been considered as one of the ideal candidate electrodes for fiber-shaped energy harvesting and storage devices, due to their merits of flexibility, lightweight, desirable mechanical property, outstanding electrical conductivity as well as high specific surface area. Herein, the recent advancements on the aligned CNT fibers for energy harvesting and storage devices are reviewed. The synthesis, structure, and properties of aligned carbon nanotube fibers are briefly summarized. Then, their applications in fiber-shaped energy harvesting and storage devices (i.e., solar cells, supercapacitors, and batteries) are demonstrated. The remaining challenges are finally discussed to highlight the future research direction in the development of aligned CNT fibers for fiber-shaped energy devices.

Unipolar stroke, electroosmotic pump carbon nanotube yarn muscles

Success in making artificial muscles that are faster and more powerful and that provide larger strokes would expand their applications. Electrochemical carbon nanotube yarn muscles are of special interest because of their relatively high energy conversion efficiencies. However, they are bipolar, meaning that they do not monotonically expand or contract over the available potential range. This limits muscle stroke and work capacity. Here, we describe unipolar stroke carbon nanotube yarn muscles in which muscle stroke changes between extreme potentials are additive and muscle stroke substantially increases with increasing potential scan rate. The normal decrease in stroke with increasing scan rate is overwhelmed by a notable increase in effective ion size. Enhanced muscle strokes, contractile work-per-cycle, contractile power densities, and energy conversion efficiencies are obtained for unipolar muscles.

Force-Induced Formation of Twisted Chiral Ribbons

We demonstrate that an achiral stretching force transforms disk-shaped colloidal membranes composed of chiral rods into twisted ribbons with handedness opposite the preferred twist of the rods. Using an experimental technique that enforces torque-free boundary conditions we simultaneously measure the force-extension curve and the ribbon shape. An effective theory that accounts for the membrane bending energy and uses geometric properties of the edge to model the internal liquid crystalline degrees of freedom explains both the measured force-extension curve and the force-induced twisted shape.

Microstructure Design of Carbonaceous Fibers: A Promising Strategy toward High-Performance Weaveable/Wearable Supercapacitors

Fiber-based supercapacitors (FSCs) possess great potential as an ideal type of power source for future weaveable/wearable electronics and electronic-textiles. The performance of FSCs is, without doubt, primarily determined by the properties of fibrous electrodes. Carbonaceous fibers, e.g., commercial carbon fibers, newly developed graphene fibers, and carbon nanotube fibers, are deemed as promising materials for weaveable/wearable supercapacitors owing to their exotic properties including high tensile strength and robustness, excellent electrical conductivity, good flexibility, and environmental stability. Nevertheless, bare carbonaceous fiber normally exhibits low capacitance originating from electric double-layer capacitance, which remains unsatisfactory for efficiently powering wearable and portable devices. Numerous efforts have been devoted to tailoring fiber properties by hybridizing pseudocapacitive materials, and impressive progress has been achieved thus far. Herein, the microstructures of pristine carbonaceous fibers are introduced in detail, and the recent advances in rational nano/microstructure design of their hybrids, which provides the feasibility to achieve the synergistic interaction between conductive agents and pseudocapacitive nanomaterials but are normally overlooked, are comprehensively reviewed. Besides, the challenges in developing high-performance fibrous electrodes are also elaborately discussed.

Anomalous Negative Resistance Phenomena in Twisted Superconducting Nanowire Yarns

We report unusual absolute negative resistance phenomena in twisted superconducting yarns consisting of niobium-nitride (NbN) nanowires formed on a template of aligned carbon nanotube (CNT) sheets. In the vicinity of the superconducting critical temperature and critical current, the electrical resistance with a standard four-probe configuration exhibits negative values for many wire-shaped twisted yarns. This anomalous behavior at the superconducting transition stage is analyzed using a simplified circuit model, where the charge conduction is determined by the combination between the intra- and internanofiber transports inside the yarn. The superconducting transition of intrafibrillar transport along CNT-templated NbN nanowires was distinguished from that of an interfibrillar one, where the latter exhibits the ensemble property of superconducting weak links among adjacent NbN nanowires. Furthermore, the topological similarity between the sheet of an aligned array of nanowires and the yarn of twisted nanofibrils enables the occurrence of this anomaly. This study indicates that the quantitative network-based approach is effective for the analysis of anomalous charge conduction through nanowire-based anisotropic materials.

Sheath-run artificial muscles

Although guest-filled carbon nanotube yarns provide record performance as torsional and tensile artificial muscles, they are expensive, and only part of the muscle effectively contributes to actuation. We describe a muscle type that provides higher performance, in which the guest that drives actuation is a sheath on a twisted or coiled core that can be an inexpensive yarn. This change from guest-filled to sheath-run artificial muscles increases the maximum work capacity by factors of 1.70 to 2.15 for tensile muscles driven electrothermally or by vapor absorption. A sheath-run electrochemical muscle generates 1.98 watts per gram of average contractile power-40 times that for human muscle and 9.0 times that of the highest power alternative electrochemical muscle. Theory predicts the observed performance advantages of sheath-run muscles.

Understanding the Mechanical and Conductive Properties of Carbon Nanotube Fibers for Smart Electronics

The development of fiber-based smart electronics has provoked increasing demand for high-performance and multifunctional fiber materials. Carbon nanotube (CNT) fibers, the 1D macroassembly of CNTs, have extensively been utilized to construct wearable electronics due to their unique integration of high porosity/surface area, desirable mechanical/physical properties, and extraordinary structural flexibility, as well as their novel corrosion/oxidation resistivity. To take full advantage of CNT fibers, it is essential to understand their mechanical and conductive properties. Herein, the recent progress regarding the intrinsic structure-property relationship of CNT fibers, as well as the strategies of enhancing their mechanical and conductive properties are briefly summarized, providing helpful guidance for scouting ideally structured CNT fibers for specific flexible electronic applications.

An Overview of Fiber-Shaped Batteries with a Focus on Multifunctionality, Scalability, and Technical Difficulties

Flexible and wearable energy storage devices are receiving increasing attention with the ever-growing market of wearable electronics. Fiber-shaped batteries display a unique 1D architecture with the merits of superior flexibility, miniaturization potential, adaptability to deformation, and compatibility with the traditional textile industry, which are especially advantageous for wearable applications. In the recent research frontier in the field of fiber-shaped batteries, in addition to higher performance, advances in multifunctional, scalable, and integrable systems are also the main themes. However, many difficulties exist, including difficult encapsulation and installation of separators, high internal resistance, and poor durability. Herein, the design principles (e.g., electrode preparation and battery assembly) and device performance (e.g., electrochemical and mechanical properties) of fiber-shaped batteries, including lithium-based batteries, zinc-based batteries, and some other representative systems, are summarized, with a focus on multifunctional devices with environmental adaptability, stimuli-responsive properties, and scalability up to energy textiles, with the hope of enlightening future research directions. Finally, technical challenges in the realistic wearable application of these batteries are also discussed with the aim of providing possible solutions and new insights for further improvement.

A Route Toward Smart System Integration: From Fiber Design to Device Construction

Fiber is a symbol of human civilization, being ubiquitous but obscure in society over most of history. Fiber has been revived upon the advent of fiber-based electronic devices in the past two decades. This is due to its desirable lightweight, flexible, and conformable characteristics, which enable it to play a fundamental role in the electronic and information era. Numerous fiber-based electronic devices have sprung up in energy conversion, energy storage, sensing, actuation, etc. A possibility is thereby conceived that they can be integrated into smart systems compatible with the human body, consisting of biotic fiber-based organs and tissues, which possess similar but more advanced functions. However, the design of mono-/multifibers, the construction of fiber-based devices, and the integration of these smart systems represent great challenges in fundamental understanding and practical implementation. A systematic review of the current state of the art with respect to the design and fabrication of electronic fiber materials, construction of fiber-based devices, and integration of smart systems is presented. In addition, limitations of current fiber-based devices and perspectives are explored toward potential and promising smart integration.

Application Challenges in Fiber and Textile Electronics

Modern electronic devices are moving toward miniaturization and integration with an emerging focus on wearable electronics. Due to their close contact with the human body, wearable electronics have new requirements including low weight, small size, and flexibility. Conventional 3D and 2D electronic devices fail to efficiently meet these requirements due to their rigidity and bulkiness. Hence, a new family of 1D fiber-shaped electronic devices including energy-harvesting devices, energy-storage devices, light-emitting devices, and sensing devices has risen to the challenge due to their small diameter, lightweight, flexibility, and weavability into soft textile electronics. The application challenges faced by fiber and textile electronics from single fiber-shaped devices to continuously scalable fabrication, to encapsulation and testing, and to application mode exploration, are discussed. The evolutionary trends of fiber and textile electronics are then summarized. Finally, future directions required to boost their commercialization are highlighted.

Spun Carbon Nanotube Fibres and Films as an Alternative to Printed Electronic Components

Current studies of carbon nanotubes have enabled both new electronic applications and improvements to the performance of existing ones. Manufacturing of macroscopic electronic components with this material generally involves the use of printed electronic methods, which must use carbon nanotube (CNT) powders. However, in recent years, it has been shown that the use of ready-made self-standing macroscopic CNT assemblies could have considerable potential in the future development of electronic components. Two examples of these are spun carbon nanotube fibers and CNT films. The following paper considers whether these spun materials may replace printed electronic CNT elements in all applications. To enable the investigation of this question some practical experiments were undertaken. They included the formation of smart textile elements, flexible and transparent components, and structural electronic devices. By taking this approach it has been possible to show that CNT fibres and films are highly versatile materials that may improve the electrical and mechanical performance of many currently produced printed electronic elements. Additionally, the use of these spun materials may enable many new applications and functionalities particularly in the area of e-textiles. However, as with every new technology, it has its limitations, and these are also considered.

Transition metal dichalcogenide/multi-walled carbon nanotube-based fibers as flexible electrodes for electrocatalytic hydrogen evolution

Fabrication of binder-free, flexible, and weavable transition metal dichalcogenide nanosheet-based hybrid fibers for electrocatalytic hydrogen evolution.

Carbon nanotube and graphene fiber artificial muscles

Actuator materials capable of producing a rotational or tensile motion are rare and, yet, rotary systems are extensively utilized in mechanical systems like electric motors, pumps, turbines and compressors. Rotating elements of such machines can be rather complex and, therefore, difficult to miniaturize. Rotating action at the microscale, or even nanoscale, would benefit from the direct generation of torsion from an actuator material. Herein we discuss the advantages of using carbon nanotube (CNT) yarns and/or graphene (G) fibers as novel artificial muscles that have the ability to be driven by the electrochemical charging of helically wound multiwall carbon nanotubes or graphene fibers as well as elements in the ambient environment such as moisture to generate such rotational action. The torsional strain, torque, speed and lifetime have been evaluated under various electrochemical conditions to provide insight into the actuation mechanism and performance. Here the most recent advances in artificial muscles based on sheath-run artificial muscles (SRAMs) are reviewed. Finally, the rotating motion of the CNT yarn actuator and the humidity-responsive twisted graphene fibers have been coupled to a mixer for use in a prototype microfluidic system, moisture management and a humidity switch respectively.

Solution processed membrane-based wearable ZnO/graphene Schottky UV photodetectors with imaging application

Flexible and wearable electrical devices have attracted extensive research attention in recent years. In the device fabrication process, the low-cost and compatibility with industrialized mass production are of great importance. Herein, membrane-based flexible photodetectors (PDs) based on Polyvinylidene Fluoride filter membrane with the structure of Ag nanowires (NWs)/ZnO NWs/graphene were fabricated by a full-solution method. The built-in electric field due to the ZnO/graphene Schottky junction is in favor of the separation and transport of photo-generated carriers, leading to enhanced device performance. The I _light/I _dark ratio was as high as ∼10², which is far superior to that of the reported ZnO-based fiber-shaped PDs. The PDs with remarkable flexibility can be easily attached to the human body and even can work steadily under serious bending conditions. Particularly, the photocurrent can keep 95% of the maximum value after the PD was bent 1000 times. In addition to the wearable applications, the membrane-based PD arrays can also be applied for imaging application.

Highly Conductive Doped Hybrid Carbon Nanotube-Graphene Wires

The following paper explores the nature of electronic transport in a hybrid carbon nanotube-graphene conductive network. These networks may have a tremendous impact on the future formation of new electrical conductors, batteries, and supercapacitors, as well as many other electronic and electrical applications. The experiments described show that the deposition of graphene nanoflakes within a carbon nanotube network improves both its electrical conductivity and its current-carrying capacity. They also show that the effectiveness of doping is enhanced. To explain the effects observed in the hybrid carbon nanotube-graphene conductive network, a theoretical model was developed. The theory explains that graphenes are not merely effective conductive fillers of the carbon nanotube networks but also effective bridges that are able to introduce additional states at the Fermi level of carbon nanotubes.

The Rise of Fiber Electronics

As a new direction in applied chemistry, fiber electronics allow device configuration to evolve from three to two dimensions and then to one dimension. The reduction in dimension brings unique properties, such as ultraflexibility, tissue adaptability, and weavability, enabling their use in a variety of applications, particularly in various emerging fields related to implantable devices and wearable systems. The different types of fiber electrode materials are summarized based on the one-dimensional configuration and their distinctive interfaces, various devices, and promising applications. The remaining challenges and future directions are finally highlighted.

Artificial muscle with reversible and controllable deformation based on stiffness-variable carbon nanotube spring-like nanocomposite yarn

Carbon nanotube yarn actuators are in great demand for flexible devices or intelligent applications. Artificial muscles based on carbon nanotube yarn have achieved great progress over past decades. However, uncontrollable, small deformations and relatively slow deformation recovery are still great challenges for carbon nanotube yarn artificial muscles. Here we propose an artificial muscle based on a stiffness-variable carbon nanotube spring-like nanocomposite yarn. This nanocomposite yarn can be fabricated as artificial muscles by directly inflating epoxy resin on spring-like carbon nanotube yarn, and it shows a rapid response, and reversible and controllable deformation. The driving mechanism of the nanocomposite yarn artificial muscle is based on the change in the resin modulus controlled by Joule heat. This novel nanocomposite yarn artificial muscle can work at low voltages (≤0.8 V), and the whole reversible driving process is completed within 5 seconds (the deformation recovery process is about 2 seconds). The strain of the nanocomposite yarn artificial muscle is controlled by applied voltages, and the maximum strain can reach more than 12%. The novel nanocomposite yarn artificial muscle can produce output forces more than 20 times higher than human skeletal muscle. This CNT nanocomposite yarn artificial muscle with a spiral structure shows potential applications for actuators, sensors and micro robots.

Controllable Preparation of Ordered and Hierarchically Buckled Structures for Inflatable Tumor Ablation, Volumetric Strain Sensor, and Communication via Inflatable Antenna

Inflatable conducting devices providing improved properties and functionalities are needed for diverse applications. However, the difficult part in making high-performance inflatable devices is the enabling of two-dimensional (2D) buckles with controlled structures on inflatable catheters. Here, we report the fabrication of highly inflatable devices with controllable structures by wrapping the super-aligned carbon nanotube sheet (SACNS) on the pre-inflated catheter. The resulting structure exhibits unique 2D buckled structures including quasi-parallel buckles, crisscrossed buckles, and hierarchically buckled structures, which enables reversible structural changes of 7470% volumetric strain. The 2D SACNS buckled structures show stable electrical conductance and surface wettability during large strain inflation/deflation cycles. Inflatable devices including inflatable tumor ablation, capacitive volumetric strain sensor, and communication via inflatable radio frequency antenna based on these structures are demonstrated.

Mechanical properties of carbon nanotube fibers at extreme temperatures

Carbon nanotube (CNT) fibers are strong, flexible, and multifunctional, which makes them promising candidates for use at extreme temperatures. However, the current reported mechanical properties of CNT fibers were commonly obtained at room temperature. Here, we report the measurement of the mechanical properties of CNT fibers at temperatures ranging from -196 °C to 2400 °C. Compared with the room temperature strength and modulus, CNT fibers tested at 1000 °C and 2400 °C retained 82% and 54% of the strength, and 71% and 50% of the modulus, respectively, while 68% and 220% increases in the strength and modulus, respectively, were observed for CNT fibers tested at -196 °C. We attributed the decay in the mechanical properties at high temperatures to the weakening of individual nanotubes and intertube interactions, and the strength enhancement at low temperature to the increased activation energy to break the nanotubes. The present study provides the fundamental mechanical properties of CNT fibers at extreme temperatures, which could facilitate the applications of CNT fibers in aeronautics and astronautics where extreme temperature conditions commonly exist.

Carbon-Nanomaterial-Based Flexible Batteries for Wearable Electronics

Wearable electronics have received considerable attention in recent years. These devices have penetrated every aspect of our daily lives and stimulated interest in futuristic electronics. Thus, flexible batteries that can be bent or folded are desperately needed, and their electrochemical functions should be maintained stably under the deformation states, given the increasing demands for wearable electronics. Carbon nanomaterials, such as carbon nanotubes, graphene, and/or their composites, as flexible materials exhibit excellent properties that make them suitable for use in flexible batteries. Herein, the most recent progress on flexible batteries using carbon nanomaterials is discussed from the viewpoint of materials fabrication, structure design, and property optimization. Based on the current progress, the existing advantages, challenges, and prospects are outlined and highlighted.

Hybrid carbon nanostructured fibers: stepping stone for intelligent textile-based electronics

The journey of smart textile-based wearable technologies first started with the attachment of sensors to fabrics, followed by embedding sensors in apparels. Presently, garments themselves can be transformed into sensors, which demonstrates the tremendous growth in the field of smart textiles. Wearable applications demand flexible materials that can withstand deformation for their practical use on par with conventional textiles. To address this, we explore the potential reasons for the enhanced performance of wearable devices realized from the fabrication of carbon nanostructured fibers with the use of graphene, carbon nanotubes and other two-dimensional materials. This review presents a brief introduction on the fabrication strategies to form carbon-based fibers and the relationship between their properties and characteristics of the resulting materials. The likely mechanisms of fiber-based electronic and storage devices, focusing mainly on transistors, nano-generators, solar cells, supercapacitors, batteries, sensors and therapeutic devices are also presented. Finally, the future perspectives of this research field of flexible and wearable electronics are discussed. The present study supplements novel ideas not only for beginners aiming to work in this booming area, but also for researchers actively engaged in the field of fiber-based electronics, dealing with advanced electronics and wide range of functionalities integrated into textile fibers.