Plants send small RNAs in extracellular vesicles to fungal pathogen to silence virulence genes

Antimicrobial properties and preservation potential of Allium sativum L-derived extracellular vesicle-like particles for food applications

This study proposes an innovative approach to food preservation by leveraging extracellular vesicle-like particles derived from Garlic (ASL-EVLPs) as a natural and effective preservation agent. To address the limitations of chemical preservatives and sensory drawbacks of garlic, we systematically investigated the antibacterial mechanisms, stability, and sensory impact of ASL-EVLPs. The isolated ASL-EVLPs exhibited notable stability and biocompatibility. Antibacterial evaluations demonstrated significant inhibition of Escherichia coli (ATCC 25922) and Staphylococcus aureus (CMCC(B) 26003) through membrane disruption mechanisms. ASL-EVLPs effectively delayed spoilage and preserved sensory attributes in carrot juice, with in vivo safety confirmed. These findings position ASL-EVLPs as a dual-functional alternative, overcoming both microbial and sensory challenges in food preservation.

Pasteurization and lyophilization affect membrane proteins of pomegranate-derived nanovesicles reducing their functional properties and cellular uptake

Plant-derived nanovesicles (PDNVs) are promising therapeutic agents, valued for their bioactive compound content and as drug delivery systems. However, the effects of industrial food processing techniques on PDNVs remain underexplored. This study evaluated the impact of lyophilization and pasteurization on the properties and uptake efficiency of pomegranate-derived nanovesicles (PgNVs). PgNVs were isolated from pomegranate juice using tangential flow filtration and size exclusion chromatography. Treated PgNVs were analyzed via transmission electron microscopy, nanoparticle tracking analysis, and LC-MS/MS, assessing their functional properties and cellular uptake. High-purity PgNVs were obtained, although both treatments reduced their yield. Pre-treated PgNVs displayed diminished anti-inflammatory and wound-healing capacities, though antioxidant activity remained unaffected. Treated PgNVs also exhibited lower internalization by human macrophages compared to untreated PgNVs. Proteomic analyses revealed that the damage of membrane proteins, such as Tetraspanin-8, might be responsible for these effects. Our findings emphasize the need of optimizing processing to preserve PDNV therapeutic potential.

Enhanced Resistance to Pokkah Boeng Disease in Sugarcane Through Host-Induced Gene Silencing Targeting FsCYP51 in Fusarium sacchari

Pokkah boeng disease (PBD), a common and highly destructive disease of sugarcane, is mainly caused by Fusarium sacchari. Breeding sugarcane resistant to PBD is challenging due to the limited availability of immune or highly resistant germplasm resources. Host-induced gene silencing (HIGS) based on RNA interference (RNAi) is a promising disease-control method that offers strong disease-targeting ability with low environmental impact. This study found that silencing either three FsCYP51 genes (FsCYP51A, FsCYP51B and FsCYP51C) simultaneous or two of them (FsCYP51A and FsCYP51C) could inhibit the growth, development, and virulence of F. sacchari. Subsequently, we developed CYP51-HIGS transgenic sugarcane lines using gene-gun genetic transformation and obtained seven lines expressing dsFsCYP51. Both the results of laboratory inoculation assays and field trials indicated that all the seven transgenic lines had significant resistance to PBD. Moreover, in the field trials, the yield losses of transgenic sugarcane due to PBD were reduced compared with those of the control. This is the first report using the HIGS strategy to inhibit PBD infection in sugarcane. This breakthrough provides clear guidelines and practical approaches for the future breeding of sugarcane varieties with strong antifungal resistance.

Cross-kingdom RNAi induced by a beneficial endophytic fungus to its host requires transitivity and amplification of silencing signals

Cross-kingdom transfer of small RNA (sRNA) molecules has been identified as a means of communication between plants and interacting microorganisms, but the mechanistic details of this sRNA-based interaction remain elusive. We have previously shown that the beneficial root-colonizing fungus Fusarium solani strain K (FsK) translocates sRNAs to its host, Nicotiana benthamiana (Nb), leading to systemic silencing of a reporter gene. Here, we investigated the mechanistic details of the endophyte-induced systemic silencing using an RNAi sensor system. We inoculated three Nb GFP expressing lines with conidia of an FsK transformant containing a transgene that targets host GFP (FsK-hpGF). The efficiency of silencing mediated by FsK-hpGF was monitored both phenotypically under ultraviolet light as well as quantitatively by RT-qPCR. sRNA sequencing was performed to evaluate the production of sRNAs targeting host GFP. Finally, bisulfite sequencing was used to assess plant GFP methylation levels. We show that the translocated fungal sRNAs induced production of secondary sRNAs, mainly of 22-24-nt in size, with the conspicuous absence of 21-nt sRNAs. Importantly, systemic silencing could not be induced in an RNA-DEPENDENT RNA POLYMERASE 6 (RDR6) CRISPR/Cas knockout background, nor in an intron-containing target gene. Overall, our data show that endophyte-induced silencing in the host requires RDR6-mediated transitivity and amplification of silencing signals. Despite being based on an artificial RNAi sensor system, our observations may reflect a more generalized and so far unexplored facet of cross-kingdom RNAi, with RDR6-based transitivity influencing the way symbionts and pathogens elicit systemic phenotypes in their host plants.

Epigenetics in the modern era of crop improvements

Epigenetic mechanisms are integral to plant growth, development, and adaptation to environmental stimuli. Over the past two decades, our comprehension of these complex regulatory processes has expanded remarkably, producing a substantial body of knowledge on both locus-specific mechanisms and genome-wide regulatory patterns. Studies initially grounded in the model plant Arabidopsis have been broadened to encompass a diverse array of crop species, revealing the multifaceted roles of epigenetics in physiological and agronomic traits. With recent technological advancements, epigenetic regulations at the single-cell level and at the large-scale population level are emerging as new focuses. This review offers an in-depth synthesis of the diverse epigenetic regulations, detailing the catalytic machinery and regulatory functions. It delves into the intricate interplay among various epigenetic elements and their collective influence on the modulation of crop traits. Furthermore, it examines recent breakthroughs in technologies for epigenetic modifications and their integration into strategies for crop improvement. The review underscores the transformative potential of epigenetic strategies in bolstering crop performance, advocating for the development of efficient tools to fully exploit the agricultural benefits of epigenetic insights.

Synergistic strategies in tissue engineering: The role of exosomes and decellularized extracellular matrix hydrogels

Tissue engineering aims to mimic the natural microenvironment of biological structures by utilizing the distinctive characteristics of extracellular matrix (ECM) scaffolds. The combination of decellularized extracellular matrix hydrogels (dECMHs) with exosomes (EXs) represents an innovative therapeutic approach for tissue regeneration. These dECMHs, sourced from diverse tissues, provide biocompatible scaffolds that conform to irregular defect geometries, thereby addressing the limitations of conventional ECM scaffolds. EXs, which are nanovesicles secreted by virtually all cells, play crucial role in cell communication and tissue regeneration. However, their short half-life presents challenges for systemic administration. The incorporation of EXs into dECMHs enables localized and prolonged release, thereby enhancing their therapeutic merits. This review thoroughly explains the techniques for decellularization, the characteristics of dECM, as well as the preparation and applications of dECMHs in tissue engineering. It also explores the synergistic effects of EX-dECMH systems on cellular activities essential for tissue repair, including proliferation, differentiation, and neovascularization. The mechanisms of EX release from dECMHs and their applications in the regeneration of skin, intervertebral disc, cartilage, and nerve tissues are elucidated, highlighting the considerable potential of this integrated strategy to improve tissue engineering techniques. Furthermore, the synergistic effect of EX-dECMH systems in tissue healing is investigated. Finally, the limitations associated with the clinical application of EX, dECM, and dECMH as well as the future prospect are included.

Control of Fusarium graminearum Infection in Wheat by dsRNA-Based Spray-Induced Gene Silencing

Spray-induced gene silencing (SIGS) has become a new technology for pest and disease control in plants. This study synthesized three double-strand RNAs (dsRNAs) targeting Fusarium graminearum (F. graminearum), the major pathogen causing Fusarium head blight (FHB). Co-incubation showed weak uptake of dsRNA by F. graminearum, and some dsRNAs influence spore germination and hyphae growth. In contrast, exogenous dsRNA quickly and efficiently penetrates wheat leaves. Treatment of wheat leaves and detached wheat heads with these dsRNAs has a negative effect on the pathogenicity of F. graminearum. Foliar spraying of dsCHS3b or dsMGV1 decreased the amount of artificially inoculated F. graminearum, the incidence rate, and disease severity in the field. Under natural conditions, spraying dsRNAs significantly decreased the FHB disease index and deoxynivalenol content. Twice spray achieved more than 90% control of FHB. In conclusion, SIGS effectively prevents the infection of F. graminearum in wheat, providing a green way for FHB control.

Harnessing Mammalian- and Plant-Derived Exosomes for Drug Delivery: A Comparative Review

Exosomes, nanoscale vesicles involved in intercellular communication, have garnered significant attention for their potential in drug delivery and therapeutic applications. This review provides a comparative analysis of mammalian-derived exosomes, particularly milk-derived exosomes, and plant-derived exosome-like nanoparticles (PDENs). It explores their biogenesis, bioactivities, and functional similarities, including their roles in cellular communication, immune modulation, and disease therapy. While milk-derived exosomes exhibit promising biocompatibility and stability for targeted delivery, PDENs offer distinct advantages, such as scalability and inherent bioactivities, derived from their plant sources. Despite similarities in their structure and cargo, PDENs differ in lipid composition and protein profiles, reflecting plant-specific functions. Emerging research highlights the therapeutic potential of PDENs in managing inflammation, oxidative stress, and other diseases, emphasizing their utility as functional food components and nanocarriers. However, challenges related to their chemical stability and large-scale production require further investigation. This review underscores the need for advanced studies to fully harness the potential of these natural nanocarriers in drug-delivery systems and therapeutic interventions.

Engineered nanotransporters for efficient RNAi delivery in plant protection applications

RNA interference (RNAi) is increasingly used for plant protection against pathogens and pests. However, the traditional delivery method causes plant tissue damage, is affected by environmental factors, and faces difficulties in penetrating the barriers of cell walls and the limitations of plant species, ultimately leading to low delivery efficiency. With advances in nanotechnology, nanomaterials (NMs) have been identified as effective carriers for nucleic acid delivery because of their ability to operate independently of external mechanical forces, prevent degradation by bioenzymes, exhibit good biocompatibility, and offer high loading capacity. This review summarizes the application of NM-mediated RNAi against plant pathogens and pests, focusing on how different NMs break through the cell barriers of plants, pathogens, and pests according to their size, morphology, and charge characteristics. Furthermore, we discuss the advantages and improvement strategies of NMs as nucleic acid delivery carriers, alongside assessing their potential application for the management of plant pathogens and pests.

The roles of plant-derived nanovesicles in malignant tumours: A bibliometric analysis

Malignant tumours remain one of the most intractable health problems worldwide. Recently, plant-derived nanovesicles (PDNVs) have emerged as a promising tool in the treatment of malignant tumours, leveraging their high biosafety and potential mechanisms such as cancer-selective apoptosis induction and cell cycle arrest. This paper presents a systematic review of the research progress of nanovesicles in malignant tumours, with a focus on plant-derived vesicles (PDVs) and their potential applications in cancer treatment, based on bibliometric analysis. In this review, the research on PDNVs in malignant tumours was identified and analysed through various countries/institutions, authors, references and research hotspots. Furthermore, we summarized the diverse biological functions and applications of PDNVs sourced from various origins in malignant tumours, both when acting independently and as carriers. Lastly, we provide an outlook on the potential applications of PDNVs in malignant tumours. The purpose of this paper is to summarize the research progress of the role of PDNVs in malignant tumours, and to provide new ideas and clues for overcoming the difficulties of tumour treatment.

A fungal sRNA silences a host plant transcription factor to promote arbuscular mycorrhizal symbiosis

Cross-kingdom RNA interference (ckRNAi) is a mechanism of interspecies communication where small RNAs (sRNAs) are transported from one organism to another; these sRNAs silence target genes in trans by loading into host AGO proteins. In this work, we investigated the occurrence of ckRNAi in Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Symbiosis (AMS). We used an in silico prediction analysis to identify a sRNA (Rir2216) from the AM fungus Rhizophagus irregularis and its putative plant gene target, the Medicago truncatula MtWRKY69 transcription factor. Heterologous co-expression assays in Nicotiana benthamiana, 5' RACE reactions and AGO1-immunoprecipitation assays from mycorrhizal roots were used to characterize the Rir2216-MtWRKY69 interaction. We further analyzed MtWRKY69 expression profile and the contribution of constitutive and conditional MtWRKY69 expression to AMS. We show that Rir2216 is loaded into an AGO1 silencing complex from the host plant M. truncatula, leading to cleavage of a host target transcript encoding for the MtWRKY69 transcription factor. MtWRKY69 is specifically downregulated in arbusculated cells in mycorrhizal roots and increased levels of MtWRKY69 expression led to a reduced AM colonization level. Our results indicate that MtWRKY69 silencing, mediated by a fungal sRNA, is relevant for AMS; we thus present the first experimental evidence of fungus to plant ckRNAi in AMS.

The Valsa mali Effector VmSR1 Accelerates the Degradation of Tudor-SN2 to Suppress RNA Silencing and Plant Immunity

The apple Valsa canker caused by Valsa mali is one of the most destructive trunk diseases in apple production and disease management. Understanding the interaction between the pathogen and host is a critical foundation for developing durable disease control technologies. In this study, we showed that VmSR1 from V. mali can suppress the plant immune response and promote pathogen infection. VmSR1 associates with the Tudor staphylococcal nuclease 2 (TSN2) proteins in Malus domestica (apple), Arabidopsis thaliana and Nicotiana benthamiana, promotes degradation of TSN2 proteins, and suppresses the abundance of multiple miRNAs an Silencing of TSN2 significantly reduced the abundance of miRNAs and weakened the resistance of apple leaves to V. mali as well as N. benthamiana to Sclerotinia sclerotiorum. These findings expand the understanding of the function of effectors as RNA silencing suppressors during host-pathogen interactions and deepen the understanding of effectors regulating host immunity.

Fungal Argonaute proteins act in bidirectional cross-kingdom RNA interference during plant infection

Argonaute (AGO) proteins bind to small RNAs to induce RNA interference (RNAi), a conserved gene regulatory mechanism in animal, plant, and fungal kingdoms. Small RNAs of the fungal plant pathogen Botrytis cinerea were previously shown to translocate into plant cells and to bind to the host AGO, which induced cross-kingdom RNAi to promote infection. However, the role of pathogen AGOs during host infection stayed elusive. In this study, we revealed that members of fungal plant pathogen B. cinerea BcAGO family contribute to plant infection. BcAGO1 binds to both fungal and plant small RNAs during infection and acts in bidirectional cross-kingdom RNAi, from fungus to plant and vice versa. BcAGO2 also binds fungal and plant small RNAs but acts independent from BcAGO1 by regulating distinct genes. Nevertheless, BcAGO2 is important for infection, as it is required for effective pathogen small RNA delivery into host cells and fungal induced cross-kingdom RNAi. Providing these mechanistic insights of pathogen AGOs promises to improve RNAi-based crop protection strategies.

Extracellular vesicle-mediated plant miRNA trafficking regulates viral infection in insect vector

Extracellular vesicle (EV)-mediated small RNA trafficking plays an important role in intercellular and interspecies communication. Plant arboviruses keep homeostasis in insect vectors, thus ensuring vector survival and viral transmission. How plant EV-mediated cross-kingdom RNA interference participates in viral infection in insect vectors remains unknown. Here, we successfully isolate rice EVs and identify a batch of microRNAs (miRNAs) encapsulated in EVs. Two EV-enriched rice miRNAs, Osa-miR159a.1-1 and Osa-miR167a, are transported into midgut epithelial cells of small brown planthopper, which is a competent vector of rice stripe virus (RSV). Osa-miR159a.1-1 elevates the expression of a phospholipase C by enhancing its mRNA stability, inducing the downstream CSL expression to inhibit apoptosis for the benefit of RSV replication. On the other hand, Osa-miR167a directly binds RSV RdRp to suppress viral replication. This differential regulation of EV-mediated cross-kingdom RNA interference contributes to arbovirus homeostasis in insect vectors and the following efficient transmission.

Rice extracellular vesicles send defense proteins into fungus Rhizoctonia solani to reduce disease

The exchange of molecular information across kingdoms is crucial for the survival of both plants and their pathogens. Recent research has identified that plants transfer their small RNAs and microRNAs into fungal pathogens to suppress infection. However, whether and how plants send defense proteins into pathogens remains unknown. Here, we report that rice (Oryza sativa) plants package defense proteins into extracellular vesicles (EVs) and deliver them to the fungal pathogen Rhizoctonia solani. These EVs, enriched with host defense proteins, are internalized by the fungal cells. Reducing the transfer of host defense proteins via EVs results in increased disease susceptibility. Furthermore, the overexpression of host defense proteins in either rice plants or the fungal cells reduced the infection. Therefore, plants use EVs to send defense proteins into fungal pathogens, thereby combating infection. This mechanism represents a form of protein exchange between plants and pathogens, which contributes to reducing crop diseases.

Trans-Kingdom sRNA Silencing in Sclerotinia sclerotiorum for Crop Fungal Disease Management

Sclerotinia sclerotiorum is a globally widespread and vast destructive plant pathogenic fungus that causes significant yield losses in crops. Due to the lack of effective resistant germplasm resources, the control of diseases caused by S. sclerotiorum largely relies on chemical fungicides. However, excessive use of these chemicals not only causes environmental concerns but also leads to the increased development of resistance in S. sclerotiorum. In contrast, trans-kingdom sRNA silencing-based technologies, such as host-induced gene silencing (HIGS) and spray-induced gene silencing (SIGS), offer novel, effective, and environmentally friendly methods for the management of S. sclerotiorum infection. This review summarizes recent advances in the identification of S. sclerotiorum pathogenic genes, target gene selection, categories, and application of trans-kingdom RNA interference (RNAi) technologies targeting this pathogen. Although some challenges, including off-target effects and the efficiency of external sRNA uptake, exist, recent findings have proposed solutions for further improvement. Combined with the latest developments in CRISPR/Cas gene editing and other technologies, trans-kingdom RNAi has significant potential to become a crucial tool in the control of sclerotinia stem rot (SSR), mitigating the impact of S. sclerotiorum on crop production.

Transposon-Associated Small RNAs Involved in Plant Defense in Poplar

Utilizing high-throughput Illumina sequencing, we examined how small RNA (sRNA) profiles vary in Chinese white poplar (Populus tomentosa) across two pivotal infection stages by the rust fungus Melampsora larici-populina: the biotrophic growth phase (T02; 48 h post infection) and the urediniospore development and dispersal phase (T03; 168 h), both essential for plant colonization and prolonged biotrophic engagement. Far exceeding random expectations, siRNA clusters predominantly arose from transposon regions, with pseudogenes also contributing significantly, and infection-stage-specific variations were notably tied to these transposon-derived siRNAs. As the infection advanced, clusters of 24 nt siRNAs in transposon and intergenic regions exhibited pronounced abundance shifts. An analysis of targets indicated that Populus sRNAs potentially regulate 95% of Melampsora larici-populina genes, with pathogen effector genes showing heightened targeting by sRNAs during the biotrophic and urediniospore phases compared to controls, pointing to selective sRNA-target interactions. In contrast to conserved miRNAs across plant species, Populus-specific miRNAs displayed a markedly greater tendency to target NB-LRR genes. These observations collectively highlight the innovative roles of sRNAs in plant defense, their evolutionary roots, and their dynamic interplay with pathogen coevolution.

Trans-Kingdom RNA Dialogues: miRNA and milRNA Networks as Biotechnological Tools for Sustainable Crop Defense and Pathogen Control

MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are a class of non-coding RNAs approximately 20-24 nucleotides in length, which play a crucial role during gene regulation in plant-pathogen interaction. They negatively regulate the expression of target genes, primarily at the transcriptional or post-transcriptional level, through complementary base pairing with target gene sequences. Recent studies reveal that during pathogen infection, miRNAs produced by plants and miRNA-like RNAs (milRNAs) produced by fungi can regulate the expression of endogenous genes in their respective organisms and undergo trans-kingdom transfer. They can thereby negatively regulate the expression of target genes in recipient cells. These findings provide novel perspectives for deepening our understanding of the regulatory mechanisms underlying plant-pathogen interactions. Here, we summarize and discuss the roles of miRNAs and milRNAs in mediating plant-pathogen interactions via multiple pathways, providing new insights into the functions of these RNAs and their modes of action. Collectively, these insights lay a theoretical foundation for the targeted management of crop diseases.

Vesicular and non-vesicular extracellular small RNAs direct gene silencing in a plant-interacting bacterium

Extracellular plant small RNAs (sRNAs) and/or double-stranded RNA (dsRNA) precursors act as triggers of RNAi in interacting filamentous pathogens. However, whether any of these extracellular RNA species direct gene silencing in plant-interacting bacteria remains unknown. Here, we show that Arabidopsis transgenic plants expressing sRNAs directed against virulence factors of a Pseudomonas syringae strain, reduce its pathogenesis. This Antibacterial Gene Silencing (AGS) phenomenon is directed by Dicer-Like (DCL)-dependent antibacterial sRNAs, but not cognate dsRNA precursors. Three populations of active extracellular sRNAs were recovered in the apoplast of these transgenic plants. The first one is mainly non-vesicular and associated with proteins, whereas the second one is located inside Extracellular Vesicles (EVs). Intriguingly, the third population is unbound to proteins and in a dsRNA form, unraveling functional extracellular free sRNAs (efsRNAs). Both Arabidopsis transgene- and genome-derived efsRNAs were retrieved inside bacterial cells. Finally, we show that salicylic acid (SA) promotes AGS, and that a substantial set of endogenous efsRNAs exhibits predicted bacterial targets that are down-regulated by SA biogenesis and/or signaling during infection. This study thus unveils an unexpected AGS phenomenon, which may have wider implications in the understanding of how plants regulate microbial transcriptome, microbial community composition and genome evolution of associated bacteria.

A pipeline for validation of Serendipita indica effector-like sRNA suggests cross-kingdom communication in the symbiosis with Arabidopsis

Bidirectional communication between pathogenic microbes and their plant hosts via small RNA (sRNA)-mediated cross-kingdom RNAi (ckRNAi) is a key element for successful host colonization. Whether mutualistic fungi of the Serendipitaceae family, known for their extremely broad host range, use sRNAs to colonize plant roots is still under debate. To address this question, we developed a pipeline to validate the accumulation, translocation, and activity of fungal sRNAs in post-transcriptional silencing of Arabidopsis thaliana genes. Using stem-loop quantitative reverse transcription-PCR, we detected the expression of a specific set of Serendipita indica (Si) sRNAs, targeting host genes involved in cell wall organization, hormonal signalling regulation, immunity, and gene regulation. To confirm the gene silencing activity of these sRNAs in plant cells, SisRNAs were transiently expressed in protoplasts. Stem-loop PCR confirmed sRNA expression and accumulation, while qPCR validated post-transcriptional gene silencing of their predicted target genes. Furthermore, Arabidopsis ARGONAUTE 1 immunoprecipitation revealed the loading of fungal SisRNAs into the plant RNAi machinery, suggesting the translocation of SisRNA from the fungus into root cells. In conclusion, this study provides a blueprint for rapid selection and analysis of sRNA effectors and further supports the model of cross-kingdom communication in the Sebacinoid symbiosis.

Emerging Roles of Plant-Derived Extracellular Vesicles in Biotherapeutics: Advances, Applications, and Future Perspectives

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are nanoscale luminal vesicles, which play an important role in intercellular communication through surface signaling and molecular cargo delivery (proteins, lipids, nucleic acids, etc.). Recently, plant-derived extracellular vesicles (PDVs) containing multiple biological activities have received increasing attention due to their better biocompatibility and lower cytotoxicity in healthy tissues. In the biomedical field, PDVs are employed as cargo delivery vehicles, enabling diverse functionalities through engineering modification techniques. Nonetheless, there are certain issues with the study of PDVs, such as the lack of standardization in the identification and isolation criteria. This review provides a quick overview of the biogenesis, physicochemical properties, isolation techniques, and biomedical applications of PDVs in current studies, while critically analyzing the current challenges and opportunities. This paper is expected to provide some theoretical guidance for the development of PDVs and further biomedical applications.

Local trafficking and long-distance transport of small RNAs in plants

Canonical small RNAs in plants, including miRNAs and siRNAs, are key triggers of RNA interference and regulate nearly every major biological process in plants. To establish systemic silencing, small RNAs undergo both short-distance intracellular trafficking or intercellular communication and long-distance transport from one organ to another, even across parasites or pathogens. This enables the delivery of effector molecules throughout the plant, promoting the spread of gene silencing. Biologically, the spatiotemporal regulation of small RNAs results in gradient distributions within cells or along the direction of organogenesis. Furthermore, the spreading capacity of small RNAs, generated in somatic or nurse cells, can guide target gene silencing in germlines in plants. In this review, we summarize recent advances in understanding the regulation and the functional roles of local trafficking and long-distance transport of plant small RNAs in developmental polarity, the maintenance of cell identity, and with a particular focus, the mechanisms of small RNA movement and delivery between companion cells and gametes in plants. Additionally, we discuss the methods and challenges of monitoring small RNA transport in vivo through live imaging, as well as the potential applications of small RNA transport and delivery in the development of RNA-based pesticides.

Immunocyte phenotypes and childhood disease susceptibility: insights from bidirectional Mendelian randomization and implications for immunomodulatory therapies

Immune cells are essential for maintaining immune homeostasis during childhood and influence both growth and disease susceptibility. However, the causal relationships between immunocyte phenotypes and childhood diseases remain unclear. This study employed a two-sample Mendelian Randomization (MR) analysis to assess causal associations between 731 immunocyte phenotypes and four major childhood diseases: childhood obesity, childhood absence epilepsy, childhood asthma, and childhood allergies. Genome-wide association study (GWAS) data were used, and stringent instrumental variable (IV) selection and multiple sensitivity analyses, including MR-Egger, weighted median, and leave-one-out tests, were applied to validate the robustness of the results. Significant associations were identified between specific T cell, monocyte, and B cell phenotypes and childhood diseases. Notably, CD8bright T cells and CD19 + B cells were positively correlated with childhood obesity, while monocyte subtypes were strongly associated with asthma pathophysiology. Reverse MR analysis indicated no significant causal effects of childhood diseases on immune phenotypes, except for negative associations between childhood asthma and TCRgd AC, and childhood allergy and CD28 + CD45RA + CD4 + cells. These findings highlight the critical role of immune dysregulation in childhood disease etiology and suggest potential targets for immunomodulatory therapies. Understanding these immune-disease interactions may inform novel pharmacological interventions, particularly in immune-mediated disorders such as asthma and obesity. Further research into immune-targeted therapies could enhance treatment strategies for pediatric conditions associated with chronic inflammation and immune dysfunction.

Lipidomic analysis of plant-derived extracellular vesicles for guidance of potential anti-cancer therapy

Plant-derived extracellular vesicles (PEVs) have been regarded as a superior source for nanomedicine and drug delivery systems. Nevertheless, their clinical translation is hindered by the lack of clarity and even contradiction in their biomedical applications. Herein, we conducted a comprehensive compositional analysis of four commonly used PEVs to fully understand their functional lipid contents and assess their potential therapeutic applications. The lipidomic analysis revealed the presence of cytotoxic gingerols and shogaols in ginger-derived EVs (GEVs). Subsequent in vitro and in vivo investigations substantiated the remarkable tumor cell inhibitory and tumor growth suppression efficacy of GEVs. The transcriptomic analysis indicated that GEVs regulate the cell cycle and p53 signaling pathways, thereby inducing cancer cell apoptosis. The supplementary proteomic analysis suggested the potential protein markers in PEV research. These findings highlight the value of multi-omics analyses in elucidating the potential therapeutic effects of PEVs and in advancing the development of PEV-based therapies.

Golgi-associated retrograde protein (GARP) complex recruits retromer to trans-Golgi network for FgKex2 and FgSnc1 recycling, necessary for the development and pathogenicity of Fusarium graminearum

In eukaryotes, the retromer complex plays a crucial role in the sorting and retrograde transport of cargo proteins from endosomes to the trans-Golgi network (TGN). Despite its importance, the molecular details of this intracellular transport process remain unclear. Here, we have identified a Golgi-associated retrograde protein (GARP) complex as a mediator of vesicle transport that facilitates the recruitment of the retromer complex to the TGN to exert its functions. The GARP complex is mainly localized in the TGN where it interacts with the retromer complex. This interaction is evolutionarily conserved across species. Furthermore, we identified FgKex2 and FgSnc1 as cargo proteins in the GARP/retromer-mediated recycling pathway. Loss of GARP or retromer results in a complete missorting of FgKex2 and FgSnc1 into the vacuolar degradation pathway, which affects the growth, development, biogenesis of toxisomes and pathogenicity of Fusarium graminearum. In summary, we demonstrate for the first time that GARP promotes the recruitment of retromer from endosomes to the TGN, thereby establishing a GARP/retromer transport pathway that coordinates the recycling of cargo proteins FgKex2 and FgSnc1. This process is essential for maintaining sustained growth and development and significantly contributes to the pathogenicity of F. graminearum.

Characterizing extracellular vesicles of human fungal pathogens

Since their discovery in 2007, there has been growing awareness of the importance of fungal extracellular vesicles (EVs) for fungal physiology, host-pathogen interactions and virulence. Fungal EVs are nanostructures comprising bilayered membranes and molecules of various types that participate in several pathophysiological processes in fungal biology, including secretion, cellular communication, immunopathogenesis and drug resistance. However, many questions remain regarding the classification of EVs, their cellular origin, passage across the cell wall, experimental models for functional and compositional analyses, production in vitro and in vivo and biomarkers for EVs. Here, we discuss gaps in the literature of fungal EVs and identify key questions for the field. We present the history of fungal EV discovery, discuss five major unanswered questions in fungal EV biology and provide future perspectives for fungal EV research. We primarily focus our discussion on human fungal pathogens, but also extend it to include knowledge of other fungi, such as plant pathogens. With this Perspective we hope to stimulate new approaches and expand studies to understand the biology of fungal EVs.

Integrating RNA Interference and Nanotechnology: A Transformative Approach in Plant Protection

RNA interference (RNAi) has emerged as a potent mechanism for combating pathogenic fungi and oomycetes over the past decades. It offers a promising gene-silencing approach by targeting crucial genes involved in diseases caused by economically and scientifically significant fungal pathogens, such as Botrytis cinerea and Fusarium species. Simultaneously, nano-agro-products have gained attention as alternatives to traditional fungicides in plant protection strategies. However, the instability of naked RNA molecules outside the cellular environment presents a challenge, as they degrade rapidly, limiting their efficacy for prolonged disease control. Concerns regarding the toxicity of protective nanoparticles to non-target organisms have also arisen. Integrating RNAi with nano-agro-products, particularly nanocarriers, to form RNA-nano complexes has demonstrated significant potential, providing enhanced RNA stability, reduced toxicity, and extended disease control. This review explores the mechanisms of RNA-nano complexes-mediated plant protection, addressing RNA stability and nano-toxicity issues while examining the prospects of RNA-nano complex research in plant pathogen management.

The Silent Conversation: How Small RNAs Shape Plant-Microbe Relationships

This review highlights the emerging role of cross-kingdom RNA interference in plant-microbe interactions, particularly the transfer of sRNAs from microbes to plants and vice versa, emphasizing the importance of this mechanism in both mutualistic and pathogenic contexts. As plants adapted to terrestrial life, they formed symbiotic relationships with microbes, essential for nutrient uptake and defense. Emerging evidence underscores sRNAs, including small interfering RNAs (siRNAs) and microRNAs (miRNAs), as critical regulators of gene expression and immune responses in plant-microbe interactions. In mutualistic symbioses, such as mycorrhizal fungi and nitrogen-fixing bacteria associations, sRNAs are hypothesized to regulate nutrient exchange and symbiotic stability. In pathogenic scenarios, microbes utilize sRNAs to undermine plant defenses, while plants employ strategies like host-induced gene silencing (HIGS) to counteract these threats. We further explore the emerging role of extracellular vesicles (EVs) in sRNA transport, which is critical for facilitating interspecies communication in both pathogenic and mutualistic contexts. Although the potential of ckRNAi in mutualistic interactions is promising, the review highlights the need for further experimental validation to establish its true significance in these relationships. By synthesizing current research, this review highlights the intricate molecular dialogues mediated by sRNAs in plant-microbe interactions and identifies critical gaps, proposing future research directions aimed at harnessing these mechanisms for agricultural advancements.

Multifaceted Therapeutic Potential of Plant-Derived Exosomes: Immunomodulation, Anticancer, Anti-Aging, Anti-Melanogenesis, Detoxification, and Drug Delivery

Most eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells have the potential to secrete a group of structures/membrane-bound organelles, collectively referred to as extracellular vesicles (EVs), which offer several advantages to producer/receiver cells. This review provides an overview of EVs from plant sources with emphasis on their health-promoting potential and possible use as therapeutic agents. This review highlights the essential biological effects of plant-derived extracellular vesicles, including immune modulation, anticancer activities, protection against chemical toxicity and pathogens, as well as anti-aging, anti-melanogenesis, and anti-arthritic effects, along with ongoing clinical studies. Evidence revealed that plant-derived EVs' contents exert their beneficial properties through regulating important signaling pathways by transferring miRNAs and other components. Taken all together, the data proposed that plant-derived EVs can be utilized as nutritional compounds and therapeutic agents, such as drug carriers. However, this emerging research area requires further in vitro/in vivo studies and clinical trials to determine the exact underlying mechanisms of EVs' positive health effects in treating various diseases.

A small RNA effector conserved in herbivore insects suppresses host plant defense by cross-kingdom gene silencing

Herbivore insects deploy salivary effectors to manipulate the defense of their host plants. However, it remains unclear whether small RNAs from insects can function as effectors in regulating plant-insect interactions. Here, we report that a microRNA (miR29-b) found in the saliva of the phloem-feeding whitefly (Bemisia tabaci) can transfer into the host plant phloem during feeding and fine-tune the defense response of tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum) plants. We show that the salivary gland-enriched BtmiR29-b is produced by BtDicer 1 and released into tobacco cells via salivary exosomes. Once inside the plant cells, BtmiR29-b hijacks tobacco Argonaute 1 to silence the defense gene Bcl-2-associated athanogene 4 (NtBAG4). In tobacco, NtBAG4 acts as the positive regulator of phytohormones salicylic acid (SA) and jasmonic acid (JA), enhancing plant defense against whitefly attacks. Interestingly, we also found that miR29-b acts as a salivary effector in another Hemipteran insect, the aphid Myzus persicae, which inhibits tobacco resistance by degrading NtBAG4. Moreover, miR29-b is highly conserved in Hemiptera and across other insect orders such as Coleoptera, Hymenoptera, Orthoptera, and Blattaria. Computational analysis suggests that miR29-b may also target the evolutionarily conserved BAG4 gene in other plant species. We further provide evidence showing BtmiR29-b-mediated BAG4 cleavage and defense suppression in tomato (Solanum lycopersicum). Taken together, our work reveals that a conserved miR29-b effector from insects fine-tunes plant SA- and JA-mediated defense by cross-kingdom silencing of the host plant BAG4 gene, providing new insight into the defense and counter-defense mechanisms between herbivores and their host plants.

Spray-induced gene silencing to control plant pathogenic fungi: A step-by-step guide

RNA interference (RNAi)-based control technologies are gaining popularity as potential alternatives to synthetic fungicides in the ongoing effort to manage plant pathogenic fungi. Among these methods, spray-induced gene silencing (SIGS) emerges as particularly promising due to its convenience and feasibility for development. This approach is a new technology for plant disease management, in which double-stranded RNAs (dsRNAs) targeting essential or virulence genes are applied to plants or plant products and subsequently absorbed by plant pathogens, triggering a gene silencing effect and the inhibition of the infection process. Spray-induced gene silencing has demonstrated efficacy in laboratory settings against various fungal pathogens. However, as research progressed from the laboratory to the greenhouse and field environments, novel challenges arose, such as ensuring the stability of dsRNAs and their effective delivery to fungal targets. Here, we provide a practical guide to SIGS for the control of plant pathogenic fungi. This guide outlines the essential steps and considerations needed for designing and assessing dsRNA molecules. It also addresses key challenges inherent to SIGS, including delivery and stability of dsRNA molecules, and how nanoencapsulation of dsRNAs can aid in overcoming these obstacles. Additionally, the guide underscores existing knowledge gaps that warrant further research and aims to provide assistance to researchers, especially those new to the field, encouraging the advancement of SIGS for the control of a broad range of fungal pathogens.

Plant-derived extracellular vesicles: a synergetic combination of a drug delivery system and a source of natural bioactive compounds

Exosomes are extracellular nanovesicles secreted by all cell types and have been studied to understand and treat many human diseases. Exosomes are involved in numerous physiological and pathological processes, intercellular communication, and the transfer of substances. Over the years, several studies have explored mammalian-derived exosomes for therapeutic and diagnostic uses. Only recently have plant-derived extracellular vesicles (EVs) attracted attention for their ability to overcome many defects associated with using mammalian-derived extracellular vesicles, such as safety and scale-up issues. The ease of large-scale production, low toxicity, low immunogenicity, efficient cellular uptake, high biocompatibility, and high stability of these nanovesicles make them attractive for drug delivery systems. In addition, their native contents of proteins, miRNAs and secondary metabolites could be exploited for pharmaceutical applications in combination with other drugs. The present review intends to provide adequate tools for studying and developing drug delivery systems based on plant-derived EVs. Therefore, indications concerning extraction methods, characterisation, and drug loading will be offered. Their biological composition and content will also be reported. Finally, the current applications of these systems as nanocarriers for pharmacologically active substances will be shown.

Harnessing exogenous membrane vesicles for studying Fusarium circinatum and its biofilm communities

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are tiny messengers that convey bioactive molecules from donor to recipient cells, leading to changes in their physiology and function. We investigated the role of EVs in shaping growth and the biofilm biology of the tree pathogen Fusarium circinatum and its interaction with the susceptible host, Pinus patula. Vesicles were collected from fungal planktonic and biofilm cultures and from pine seedling needles and roots. The physical properties of these vesicles were analysed using nanoparticle tracking analysis and transmission electron microscopy, which revealed a diverse range of sizes and shapes, respectively. Furthermore, uptake of vesicles by conidia was conducted. The results demonstrated that F. circinatum EVs significantly but variably affected spore viability during the early phase (2-4 h) although they enhanced fungal biofilm integrity. In contrast, P. patula EVs greatly inhibited hyphal formation and biofilm biomass, but failed to inhibit matrix production in the fungal biofilm. Our results therefore show that conidial germination is essential for late fungal development including hyphal and biofilm formation while matrix production is a counter measure against harsh environmental conditions including the effects of plant-derived EVs.

MicroRNA gatekeepers: Orchestrating rhizospheric dynamics

The rhizosphere plays a crucial role in plant growth and resilience to biotic and abiotic stresses, highlighting the complex communication between plants and their dynamic rhizosphere environment. Plants produce a wide range of signaling molecules that facilitate communication with various rhizosphere factors, yet our understanding of these mechanisms remains elusive. In addition to protein-coding genes, increasing evidence underscores the critical role of microRNAs (miRNAs), a class of non-coding single-stranded RNA molecules, in regulating plant growth, development, and responses to rhizosphere stresses under diverse biotic and abiotic factors. In this review, we explore the crosstalk between miRNAs and their target mRNAs, which influence the development of key plant structures shaped by the belowground environment. Moving forward, more focused studies are needed to clarify the functions and expression patterns of miRNAs, to uncover the common regulatory mechanisms that mediate plant tolerance to rhizosphere dynamics. Beyond that, we propose that using artificial miRNAs and manipulating the expression of miRNAs and their targets through overexpression or knockout/knockdown approaches could effectively investigate their roles in plant responses to rhizosphere stresses, offering significant potential for advancing crop engineering.

Spray-induced gene silencing for crop protection: recent advances and emerging trends

The RNA-based spray-induced gene silencing (SIGS) technology represents an ecologically sustainable approach to crop protection and pathogen management. Following the recent approval of Ledprona as the first sprayable double-stranded RNA (dsRNA) biopesticide by the EPA at the end of 2023, SIGS has emerged as a focal point in both academic and industrial sectors. This review analyzes recent advances and emerging trends in SIGS. The application of SIGS for crop protection, including the control of insects, fungal pathogens, and viruses, is briefly summarized. Distinguishing this review from others, we delve into practical aspects of the technology, such as the selection and screening of target genes, large-scale production methods, and delivery systems, highlighting major advancements in these areas and also addressing the remaining questions and issues, particularly concerning safety concerns and controlling harmful weeds. Finally, this review emphasizes the emerging trends in SIGS technology, particularly its integration with nanotechnology and other methodologies. Collectively, the rapid progress in SIGS studies is poised to accelerate the maturation and application of this technology.

Impact of Nutrient Stress on Plant Disease Resistance

Plants are constantly exposed to abiotic and biotic stresses that seriously affect crop yield and quality. A coordinated regulation of plant responses to combined abiotic/biotic stresses requires crosstalk between signaling pathways initiated by each stressor. Interconnected signaling pathways further finetune plant stress responses and allow the plant to respond to such stresses effectively. The plant nutritional status might influence disease resistance by strengthening or weakening plant immune responses, as well as through modulation of the pathogenicity program in the pathogen. Here, we discuss advances in our understanding of interactions between nutrient stress, deficiency or excess, and immune signaling pathways in the context of current agricultural practices. The introduction of chemical fertilizers and pesticides was a major component of the Green Revolution initiated in the 1960s that greatly boosted crop production. However, the massive application of agrochemicals also has adverse consequences on the environment and animal/human health. Therefore, an in-depth understanding of the connections between stress caused by overfertilization (or low bioavailability of nutrients) and immune responses is a timely and novel field of research with important implications for disease control in crop species. Optimizing nutrient management practices tailored to specific environmental conditions will be crucial in maximizing crop production using environmentally friendly systems.

Proteomic Landscape of Pattern Triggered Immunity in the Arabidopsis Leaf Apoplast

The apoplast is a critical interface in plant-pathogen interactions particularly in the context of pattern-triggered immunity (PTI), which is initiated by recognition of microbe-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs). Our study characterizes the proteomic profile of the Arabidopsis apoplast during PTI induced by flg22, a 22 amino acid bacterial flagellin epitope, to elucidate the output of PTI. Apoplastic washing fluid (AWF) was extracted with minimal cytoplasmic contamination for LC-MS/MS analysis. We observed consistent identification of PTI enriched and depleted peptides across replicates with limited correlation between total protein abundance and transcript abundance. We observed topological bias in peptide recovery of receptor-like kinases with peptides predominantly recovered from their ectodomains. Notably, tetraspanin 8, an exosome marker, was enriched in PTI samples. We additionally confirmed increased concentrations of exosomes during PTI. This study enhances our understanding of the proteomic changes in the apoplast during plant immune responses and lays the groundwork for future investigations into the molecular mechanisms of plant defense under recognition of pathogen molecular patterns.

Proteasomes accumulate in the plant apoplast where they participate in microbe-associated molecular pattern (MAMP)-triggered pathogen defense

Akin to mammalian extracellular fluids, the plant apoplastic fluid (APF) contains a unique collection of proteins, RNAs, and vesicles that drive many physiological processes ranging from cell wall assembly to defense against environmental challenges. Using an improved method to enrich for the Arabidopsis APF, we better define its composition and discover that the APF harbors active proteasomes though microscopic detection, proteasome-specific activity and immunological assays, and mass spectrometry showing selective enrichment of the core protease. Functional analysis of extracellular (ex)-proteasomes reveals that they help promote basal pathogen defense through proteolytic release of microbe-associated molecular patterns (MAMPs) such as flg22 from bacterial flagellin that induce protective reactive-oxygen-species (ROS) bursts. Flagellin-triggered ROS is also strongly suppressed by the enigmatic Pseudomonas syringae virulence effector syringolin-A that blocks ex-proteasome activity. Collectively, we provide a deep catalog of apoplast proteins and evidence that ex-proteasomes participate in the evolving arms race between pathogens and their plant hosts.

Carrier-free nanoparticles-new strategy of improving druggability of natural products

There are abundant natural products resources and extensive clinical use experience in China. However, the active components of natural products generally have problems such as poor water solubility and low bioavailability, which limit their druggability. Carrier-free nanoparticles, such as nanocrystals, self-assembled nanoparticles, and extracellular vesicles derived from both animal and plant sources, have great application potential in improving the safety and efficacy of drugs due to their simple and flexible preparation methods, high drug loading capacity and delivery efficiency, as well as long half-life in blood circulation. It has been widely used in biomedical fields such as anti-tumor, anti-bacterial, anti-inflammatory and anti-oxidation. Therefore, based on the natural products that have been used in clinic, this review focuses on the advantages of carrier-free nanoparticles in delivering active compounds, in order to improve the delivery process of natural products in vivo and improve their draggability.

Nanodelivery of nucleic acids for plant genetic engineering

Genetic engineering in plants serves as a crucial method for enhancing crop quality, yield, and climate resilience through the manipulation of genetic circuits. A novel genetic transformation approach utilizing nanocarriers as a sound plant genetic engineering technique enables the delivery of DNAs or RNAs into the plant cells. Significant advances have recently been made on the nanotechnology-based delivery of nucleic acids in plants. In this review, several nanoparticle-mediated DNA and RNA delivery systems are discussed respectively, involving latest progresses and drawbacks of these approaches used in plant genetic engineering. We also underscores the current challenges that must be addressed in the implementation of nanoparticles-based strategies for plant gene delivery. Furthermore and more importantly, plant-derived exosome-like nanoparticles that facilitate nucleic acids transfer between organisms was initially proposed as a novel and promising nanodelivery platform for the CRISPR/Cas9 genome editing toolkit in plants. We believe that this review will be beneficial for an effective exploration of nucleic acid nanodelivery to aid the plant genetic engineering in modern agriculture.

Plant-derived exosome-like nanoparticles in tissue repair and regeneration

This article reviews plant-derived exosome-like nanoparticles (ELNs), and highlights their potential in regenerative medicine. Various extraction techniques, including ultracentrifugation and ultrafiltration, and their impact on ELN purity and yield were discussed. Characterization methods such as microscopy and particle analysis are found to play crucial roles in defining ELN properties. This review is focused on exploring the therapeutic potential of ELNs in tissue repair, immune regulation, and antioxidant activities. Further research and optimization methods for extraction of ELNs to realize clinical potential applications are necessary.

Genetic engineering, including genome editing, for enhancing broad-spectrum disease resistance in crops

Plant diseases, caused by a wide range of pathogens, severely reduce crop yield and quality, posing a significant threat to global food security. Developing broad-spectrum resistance (BSR) in crops is a key strategy for controlling crop diseases and ensuring sustainable crop production. Cloning disease-resistance (R) genes and understanding their underlying molecular mechanisms provide new genetic resources and strategies for crop breeding. Novel genetic engineering and genome editing tools have accelerated the study and engineering of BSR genes in crops, which is the primary focus of this review. We first summarize recent advances in understanding the plant immune system, followed by an examination of the molecular mechanisms underlying BSR in crops. Finally, we highlight diverse strategies employed to achieve BSR, including gene stacking to combine multiple R genes, multiplexed genome editing of susceptibility genes and promoter regions of executor R genes, editing cis-regulatory elements to fine-tune gene expression, RNA interference, saturation mutagenesis, and precise genomic insertions. The genetic studies and engineering of BSR are accelerating the breeding of disease-resistant cultivars, contributing to crop improvement and enhancing global food security.

Intergenerational transport of double-stranded RNA in C. elegans can limit heritable epigenetic changes

RNAs in circulation carry sequence-specific regulatory information between cells in plant, animal, and host-pathogen systems. Such RNA can cross generational boundaries, as evidenced by somatic double-stranded RNA (dsRNA) in the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans silencing genes of matching sequence in progeny. Here we dissect the intergenerational path taken by dsRNA from parental circulation and discover that cytosolic import through the dsRNA importer SID-1 in the parental germline and/or developing progeny varies with developmental time and dsRNA substrates. Loss of SID-1 enhances initiation of heritable RNA silencing within the germline and causes changes in the expression of the sid-1-dependent gene sdg-1 that last for more than 100 generations after restoration of SID-1. The SDG-1 protein is enriched in perinuclear germ granules required for heritable RNA silencing but is expressed from a retrotransposon targeted by such silencing. This auto-inhibitory loop suggests how retrotransposons could persist by hosting genes that regulate their own silencing.

Brain-targeting drug delivery systems: The state of the art in treatment of glioblastoma

Glioblastoma (GBM) is the most prevalent primary malignant brain tumor, characterized by a high mortality rate and a poor prognosis. The blood-brain barrier (BBB) and the blood-tumor barrier (BTB) present significant obstacles to the efficacy of tumor-targeted pharmacotherapy, thereby impeding the therapeutic potential of numerous candidate drugs. Targeting delivery of adequate doses of drug across the BBB to treat GBM has become a prominent research area in recent years. This emphasis has driven the exploration and evaluation of diverse technologies for GBM pharmacotherapy, with some already undergoing clinical trials. This review provides a thorough overview of recent advancements and challenges in targeted drug delivery for GBM treatment. It specifically emphasizes systemic drug administration strategies to assess their potential and limitations in GBM treatment. Furthermore, this review highlights promising future research directions in the development of intelligent drug delivery systems aimed at overcoming current challenges and enhancing therapeutic efficacy against GBM. These advancements not only support foundational research on targeted drug delivery systems for GBM but also offer methodological approaches for future clinical applications.

Establishment of an experimental system to analyse extracellular vesicles during apoplastic fungal pathogenesis

Phoma stem canker disease of oilseed rape (Brassica napus) is caused by the extracellular fungal pathogen Leptosphaeria maculans. Although this pathogen resides exclusively in apoplastic spaces surrounding plant cells, the significance of extracellular vesicles (EVs) has not been assessed. Here, we show a method to collect apoplastic fluids (AFs) from infected leaves or cotyledons for collection of EVs during the process of host colonisation. The 15,000 × g supernatants of AFs were shown to contain ribulose-bisphosphate carboxylase (RuBisCO) at 7 days post-inoculation with L. maculans, a protein that was absent from unchallenged cotyledons. RuBisCO release coincided with the switch from biotrophy to necrotrophy, suggesting the involvement of host cell death. However, RuBisCO release did not differ between compatible and incompatible interactions, suggesting necrotrophic host cell death might not be the only process involved. EVs were also collected from axenic fungal cultures and characterised for their particle size distribution using nanoparticle tracking analysis and transmission electron microscopy. The protein composition of EV-enriched fractions was analysed using SDS-PAGE and proteomics. Enrichment analysis of gene ontology terms provided evidence for involvement of glucan and chitin metabolism as well as catalase and peptidase activities. Most of the proteins identified have previously been found in EV studies and/or EV databases, and for most of the proteins evidence was found for an involvement in pathogenicity/virulence.

Fungal impacts on Earth's ecosystems

Over the past billion years, the fungal kingdom has diversified to more than two million species, with over 95% still undescribed. Beyond the well-known macroscopic mushrooms and microscopic yeast, fungi are heterotrophs that feed on almost any organic carbon, recycling nutrients through the decay of dead plants and animals and sequestering carbon into Earth's ecosystems. Human-directed applications of fungi extend from leavened bread, alcoholic beverages and biofuels to pharmaceuticals, including antibiotics and psychoactive compounds. Conversely, fungal infections pose risks to ecosystems ranging from crops to wildlife to humans; these risks are driven, in part, by human and animal movement, and might be accelerating with climate change. Genomic surveys are expanding our knowledge of the true biodiversity of the fungal kingdom, and genome-editing tools make it possible to imagine harnessing these organisms to fuel the bioeconomy. Here, we examine the fungal threats facing civilization and investigate opportunities to use fungi to combat these threats.

Messenger and message: Uncovering the roles, rhythm and regulation of extracellular vesicles in plant biotic interactions

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are membrane-delimited nanoparticles found in every kingdom of life and are known to mediate cell-cell communication in animal systems through the trafficking of proteins and nucleic acids. Research into plant and microbial EVs suggests that these have similar transport capacity, and moreover are able to mediate signalling not only within an organism but also between organisms, acting between plants and their microbial partners in cross-kingdom signalling. Here, we review recent research exploring the roles of these EVs, both plant and microbial, highlighting emerging trends of functional conservation between species and across kingdoms, complemented by the heterogeneity of EV subpopulations at the organism level that places EVs as powerful regulatory mechanisms in plant biotic interactions.