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Lass-Flörl C, Kanj SS, Govender NP, Thompson GR, Ostrosky-Zeichner L, Govrins MA. Invasive candidiasis. Nat Rev Dis Primers 2024; 10:20. [PMID: 38514673 DOI: 10.1038/s41572-024-00503-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 02/15/2024] [Indexed: 03/23/2024]
Abstract
Invasive candidiasis is an important fungal disease caused by Candida albicans and, increasingly, non-albicans Candida pathogens. Invasive Candida infections originate most frequently from endogenous human reservoirs and are triggered by impaired host defences. Signs and symptoms of invasive candidiasis are non-specific; candidaemia is the most diagnosed manifestation, with disseminated candidiasis affecting single or multiple organs. Diagnosis poses many challenges, and conventional culture techniques are frequently supplemented by non-culture-based assays. The attributable mortality from candidaemia and disseminated infections is ~30%. Fluconazole resistance is a concern for Nakaseomyces glabratus, Candida parapsilosis, and Candida auris and less so in Candida tropicalis infection; acquired echinocandin resistance remains uncommon. The epidemiology of invasive candidiasis varies in different geographical areas and within various patient populations. Risk factors include intensive care unit stay, central venous catheter use, broad-spectrum antibiotics use, abdominal surgery and immune suppression. Early antifungal treatment and central venous catheter removal form the cornerstones to decrease mortality. The landscape of novel therapeutics is growing; however, the application of new drugs requires careful selection of eligible patients as the spectrum of activity is limited to a few fungal species. Unanswered questions and knowledge gaps define future research priorities and a personalized approach to diagnosis and treatment of invasive candidiasis is of paramount importance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cornelia Lass-Flörl
- Institute of Hygiene and Medical Microbiology, ECMM Excellence Centres of Medical Mycology, Medical University of Innsbruck, Innsbruck, Austria.
| | - Souha S Kanj
- Infectious Diseases Division, and Center for Infectious Diseases Research, American University of Beirut Medical Center, Beirut, Lebanon
| | - Nelesh P Govender
- Faculty of Health Sciences, University of the Witwatersrand and National Institute for Communicable Diseases, Johannesburg, South Africa
- MRC Centre for Medical Mycology, University of Exeter, Exeter, UK
| | - George R Thompson
- UC Davis Health Medical Center, Division of Infectious Diseases, Sacramento, CA, USA
| | | | - Miriam Alisa Govrins
- Institute of Hygiene and Medical Microbiology, ECMM Excellence Centres of Medical Mycology, Medical University of Innsbruck, Innsbruck, Austria
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Guimarães de Matos G, Barroso de Figueiredo AM, Diniz Gonçalves PH, Luiz de Lima Silva L, Bastista AC, Borges CL, Maria de Almeida Soares C, Joosten LAB, Ribeiro-Dias F. Paracoccidioidesbrasiliensis induces IL-32 and is controlled by IL-15/IL-32/vitamin D pathway in vitro. Microb Pathog 2021; 154:104864. [PMID: 33771629 DOI: 10.1016/j.micpath.2021.104864] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/29/2020] [Revised: 02/19/2021] [Accepted: 03/05/2021] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Paracoccidioidomycosis (PCM) is a systemic fungal disease caused by Paracoccidioides spp., whose clinical outcome depends on immune response. Interleukin 32 (IL-32) is a cytokine present in inflammatory and infectious diseases, including bacterial, virus and protozoan infections. Its role in fungal disease remains unclear. The axis IL-15, IL-32 and vitamin D leads to microbicidal capacity against intracellular pathogens. Thus, the aims of this study were to investigate the production of IL-32 during Paracoccidioides spp. infection and whether this cytokine and IL-15 can increase P. brasiliensis control in a vitamin D dependent manner. IL-32 was highly detected in oral lesions from patients with PCM. In addition, high production of this cytokine was intracellularly detected in peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) from healthy donors after exposure to particulated P. brasiliensis antigens (PbAg). The IL-32γ isoform was predominantly expressed, but there was mRNA alternative splicing for IL-32α isoform. The induction of IL-32 was dependent on Dectin-1 receptor. Infection of PBMCs with P. brasiliensis yeasts did not significantly induce IL-32 production even after activation with exogenous IFN-γ or IL-15 treatments. Although IL-15 was a potent inducer of IL-32 production, treatment with this cytokine did not increase the fungal control unless vitamin D was present in high levels. In this case, both IL-15 and IL-32 increased fungicidal activity of PBMCs. Together, data showed that IL-32 is present in lesions of PCM, PbAg induces IL-32, and the axis of IL-15/IL-32/vitamin D can contribute to control fungal infection. The data suggest that exposure to molecules from P. brasiliensis, as β-glucans, is needed to induce IL-32 production since only heat-killed and sonicated P. brasiliensis yeasts were able to increase IL-32, which was blocked by anti-Dectin-1 antibodies. This is the first description about IL-15/IL-32/vitamin D pathway role in P. brasiliensis infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Grazzielle Guimarães de Matos
- Laboratório de Imunidade Natural (LIN), Instituto de Patologia Tropical e Saúde Pública, Universidade Federal de Goiás, Goiânia, Goiás, Brazil
| | - Ana Marina Barroso de Figueiredo
- Laboratório de Imunidade Natural (LIN), Instituto de Patologia Tropical e Saúde Pública, Universidade Federal de Goiás, Goiânia, Goiás, Brazil
| | - Pedro Hugo Diniz Gonçalves
- Laboratório de Imunidade Natural (LIN), Instituto de Patologia Tropical e Saúde Pública, Universidade Federal de Goiás, Goiânia, Goiás, Brazil
| | - Lucas Luiz de Lima Silva
- Laboratório de Imunidade Natural (LIN), Instituto de Patologia Tropical e Saúde Pública, Universidade Federal de Goiás, Goiânia, Goiás, Brazil
| | | | - Clayton Luiz Borges
- Laboratório de Biologia Molecular, Instituto de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade Federal de Goiás (UFG), Goiânia, Goiás, Brazil
| | - Célia Maria de Almeida Soares
- Laboratório de Biologia Molecular, Instituto de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade Federal de Goiás (UFG), Goiânia, Goiás, Brazil
| | - Leo A B Joosten
- Department of Internal Medicine and Radboud Center of Infectious Diseases (RCI), Radboud University Medical Center, Nijmegen, the Netherlands
| | - Fátima Ribeiro-Dias
- Laboratório de Imunidade Natural (LIN), Instituto de Patologia Tropical e Saúde Pública, Universidade Federal de Goiás, Goiânia, Goiás, Brazil.
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The Host Immune Response to Scedosporium/ Lomentospora. J Fungi (Basel) 2021; 7:jof7020075. [PMID: 33499053 PMCID: PMC7912657 DOI: 10.3390/jof7020075] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2020] [Revised: 01/15/2021] [Accepted: 01/19/2021] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Infections caused by the opportunistic pathogens Scedosporium/Lomentospora are on the rise. This causes problems in the clinic due to the difficulty in diagnosing and treating them. This review collates information published on immune response against these fungi, since an understanding of the mechanisms involved is of great interest in developing more effective strategies against them. Scedosporium/Lomentospora cell wall components, including peptidorhamnomannans (PRMs), α-glucans and glucosylceramides, are important immune response activators following their recognition by TLR2, TLR4 and Dectin-1 and through receptors that are yet unknown. After recognition, cytokine synthesis and antifungal activity of different phagocytes and epithelial cells is species-specific, highlighting the poor response by microglial cells against L. prolificans. Moreover, a great number of Scedosporium/Lomentospora antigens have been identified, most notably catalase, PRM and Hsp70 for their potential medical applicability. Against host immune response, these fungi contain evasion mechanisms, inducing host non-protective response, masking fungal molecular patterns, destructing host defense proteins and decreasing oxidative killing. In conclusion, although many advances have been made, many aspects remain to be elucidated and more research is necessary to shed light on the immune response to Scedosporium/Lomentospora.
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DeVallance E, Li Y, Jurczak MJ, Cifuentes-Pagano E, Pagano PJ. The Role of NADPH Oxidases in the Etiology of Obesity and Metabolic Syndrome: Contribution of Individual Isoforms and Cell Biology. Antioxid Redox Signal 2019; 31:687-709. [PMID: 31250671 PMCID: PMC6909742 DOI: 10.1089/ars.2018.7674] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Significance: Highly prevalent in Western cultures, obesity, metabolic syndrome, and diabetes increase the risk of cardiovascular morbidity and mortality and cost health care systems billions of dollars annually. At the cellular level, obesity, metabolic syndrome, and diabetes are associated with increased production of reactive oxygen species (ROS). Increased levels of ROS production in key organ systems such as adipose tissue, skeletal muscle, and the vasculature cause disruption of tissue homeostasis, leading to increased morbidity and risk of mortality. More specifically, growing evidence implicates the nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate oxidase (NOX) enzymes in these pathologies through impairment of insulin signaling, inflammation, and vascular dysfunction. The NOX family of enzymes is a major driver of redox signaling through its production of superoxide anion, hydrogen peroxide, and attendant downstream metabolites acting on redox-sensitive signaling molecules. Recent Advances: The primary goal of this review is to highlight recent advances and survey our present understanding of cell-specific NOX enzyme contributions to metabolic diseases. Critical Issues: However, due to the short half-lives of individual ROS and/or cellular defense systems, radii of ROS diffusion are commonly short, often restricting redox signaling and oxidant stress to localized events. Thus, special emphasis should be placed on cell type and subcellular location of NOX enzymes to better understand their role in the pathophysiology of metabolic diseases. Future Directions: We discuss the targeting of NOX enzymes as potential therapy and bring to light potential emerging areas of NOX research, microparticles and epigenetics, in the context of metabolic disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Evan DeVallance
- Department of Pharmacology and Chemical Biology, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania.,Pittsburgh Heart, Lung and Blood, Vascular Medicine Institute, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
| | - Yao Li
- Department of Pharmacology and Chemical Biology, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania.,Pittsburgh Heart, Lung and Blood, Vascular Medicine Institute, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
| | - Michael J Jurczak
- Division of Endocrinology and Metabolism, Department of Medicine, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania.,Center for Metabolism and Mitochondrial Medicine, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
| | - Eugenia Cifuentes-Pagano
- Department of Pharmacology and Chemical Biology, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania.,Pittsburgh Heart, Lung and Blood, Vascular Medicine Institute, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
| | - Patrick J Pagano
- Department of Pharmacology and Chemical Biology, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania.,Pittsburgh Heart, Lung and Blood, Vascular Medicine Institute, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
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Soni B, Singh S. Cytokine Milieu in Infectious Disease: A Sword or a Boon? J Interferon Cytokine Res 2019; 40:24-32. [PMID: 31553263 DOI: 10.1089/jir.2019.0089] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Cytokines have a myriad role in an infectious disease, whether being pathogenic, bacterial, or viral. All proinflammatory and anti-inflammatory cytokine biological function are dependent on its concentration, followed by combination with the other cytokines and the stage of the disease. Plasticity in switching off from one phenotype to the other of these regulatory mediators in congruence with the traditional concept of inhibitory and stimulatory effects on immune system is dealt with. This review highlights the dual functionality of some of these cytokines and cytokine-based immunotherapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bhavnita Soni
- Department of Pathogenesis and Cellular Response, National Centre for Cell Science, Pune, India
| | - Shailza Singh
- Department of Pathogenesis and Cellular Response, National Centre for Cell Science, Pune, India
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6
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Inflammatory Ly6C high Monocytes Protect against Candidiasis through IL-15-Driven NK Cell/Neutrophil Activation. Immunity 2017. [PMID: 28636955 DOI: 10.1016/j.immuni.2017.05.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Neutrophils play a crucial role in defense against systemic candidiasis, a disease associated with a high mortality rate in patients receiving immunosuppressive therapy, although the early immune mechanisms that boost the candidacidal activity of neutrophils remain to be defined in depth. Here, we used a murine model of systemic candidiasis to explore the role of inflammatory Ly6Chigh monocytes in NK cell-mediated neutrophil activation during the innate immune response against C. albicans. We found that efficient anti-Candida immunity required a collaborative response between the spleen and kidney, which relied on type I interferon-dependent IL-15 production by spleen inflammatory Ly6Chigh monocytes to drive efficient activation and GM-CSF release by spleen NK cells; this in turn was necessary to boost the Candida killing potential of kidney neutrophils. Our findings unveil a role for IL-15 as a critical mediator in defense against systemic candidiasis and hold promise for the design of IL-15-based antifungal immunotherapies.
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Ravikumar S, Win MS, Chai LYA. Optimizing Outcomes in Immunocompromised Hosts: Understanding the Role of Immunotherapy in Invasive Fungal Diseases. Front Microbiol 2015; 6:1322. [PMID: 26635780 PMCID: PMC4660869 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2015.01322] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2015] [Accepted: 11/10/2015] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
A major global concern is the emergence and spread of systemic life-threatening fungal infections in critically ill patients. The increase in invasive fungal infections, caused most commonly by Candida and Aspergillus species, occurs in patients with impaired defenses due to a number of reasons such as underlying disease, the use of chemotherapeutic and immunosuppressive agents, broad-spectrum antibiotics, prosthetic devices and grafts, burns, neutropenia and HIV infection. The high morbidity and mortality associated with these infections is compounded by the limited therapeutic options and the emergence of drug resistant fungi. Hence, creative approaches to bridge the significant gap in antifungal drug development needs to be explored. Here, we review the potential anti-fungal targets for patient-centered therapies and immune-enhancing strategies for the prevention and treatment of invasive fungal diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sharada Ravikumar
- Division of Infectious Diseases, University Medicine Cluster, National University Health System , Singapore, Singapore ; Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore , Singapore, Singapore
| | - Mar Soe Win
- Division of Infectious Diseases, University Medicine Cluster, National University Health System , Singapore, Singapore ; Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore , Singapore, Singapore
| | - Louis Yi Ann Chai
- Division of Infectious Diseases, University Medicine Cluster, National University Health System , Singapore, Singapore ; Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore , Singapore, Singapore
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8
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Broux B, Mizee MR, Vanheusden M, van der Pol S, van Horssen J, Van Wijmeersch B, Somers V, de Vries HE, Stinissen P, Hellings N. IL-15 Amplifies the Pathogenic Properties of CD4+CD28−T Cells in Multiple Sclerosis. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2015; 194:2099-109. [DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.1401547] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
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Abstract
A small subset of celiac disease (CD) patients becomes refractory to a gluten-free diet with persistent malabsorption and intestinal villous atrophy. Diagnosis of this condition defined as refractory celiac disease (RCD) is made after exclusion of other small bowel diseases with villous atrophy. RCD has been subdivided into two subgroups according to the normal or abnormal phenotype of intraepithelial lymphocytes. Whereas normal RCD is hardly distinguishable from active CD, abnormal RCD has a severe clinical presentation and a very poor prognosis. We precisely describe below the different types of RCD and propose diagnostic and therapeutic guidelines for its clinical management.
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Affiliation(s)
- Georgia Malamut
- Université Paris Descartes-Sorbonne Paris Centre, Paris, France
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10
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Németh T, Tóth A, Hamari Z, Falus A, Éder K, Vágvölgyi C, Guimaraes AJ, Nosanchuk JD, Gácser A. Transcriptome profile of the murine macrophage cell response to Candida parapsilosis. Fungal Genet Biol 2014; 65:48-56. [PMID: 24530442 DOI: 10.1016/j.fgb.2014.01.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/22/2013] [Revised: 01/17/2014] [Accepted: 01/29/2014] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Candida parapsilosis is a human fungal pathogen with increasing global significance. Understanding how macrophages respond to C. parapsilosis at the molecular level will facilitate the development of novel therapeutic paradigms. The complex response of murine macrophages to infection with C. parapsilosis was investigated at the level of gene expression using an Agilent mouse microarray. We identified 155 and 511 differentially regulated genes at 3 and 8h post-infection, respectively. Most of the upregulated genes encoded molecules involved in immune response and inflammation, transcription, signaling, apoptosis, cell cycle, electron transport and cell adhesion. Typical of the classically activated macrophages, there was significant upregulation of genes coordinating the production of inflammatory cytokines such as TNF, IL-1 and IL-15. Further, we used both primary murine macrophages and macrophages differentiated from human peripheral mononuclear cells to confirm the upregulation of the TNF-receptor family member TNFRSF9 that is associated with Th1 T-helper cell responses. Additionally, the microarray data indicate significant differences between the response to C. parapsilosis infection and that of C. albicans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tibor Németh
- Department of Microbiology, University of Szeged, Közép fasor 52, H-6726 Szeged, Hungary
| | - Adél Tóth
- Department of Microbiology, University of Szeged, Közép fasor 52, H-6726 Szeged, Hungary
| | - Zsuzsanna Hamari
- Department of Microbiology, University of Szeged, Közép fasor 52, H-6726 Szeged, Hungary
| | - András Falus
- Department of Genetics, Cell- and Immunobiology, Semmelweis University, Nagyvárad tér 4, 1089 Budapest, Hungary
| | - Katalin Éder
- Department of Genetics, Cell- and Immunobiology, Semmelweis University, Nagyvárad tér 4, 1089 Budapest, Hungary
| | - Csaba Vágvölgyi
- Department of Microbiology, University of Szeged, Közép fasor 52, H-6726 Szeged, Hungary
| | - Allan J Guimaraes
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, 1300 Morris Park Ave, New York, NY 10461, USA
| | - Joshua D Nosanchuk
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, 1300 Morris Park Ave, New York, NY 10461, USA
| | - Attila Gácser
- Department of Microbiology, University of Szeged, Közép fasor 52, H-6726 Szeged, Hungary.
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Kayser O, Masihi KN, Kiderlen AF. Natural products and synthetic compounds as immunomodulators. Expert Rev Anti Infect Ther 2014; 1:319-35. [PMID: 15482127 DOI: 10.1586/14787210.1.2.319] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Research on immunomodulation by natural products or synthetic derivatives is of key interest for anti-infective therapy for a number of reasons. Many plant remedies well-known in traditional medicine or refined natural products in clinical use exert their anti-infective effects not only (if at all) by directly affecting the pathogen. At least part of their effect is indirect, by stimulating natural and adaptive defense mechanisms of the host. These findings have now given many empirical therapies a rationale, scientific basis and thereby a means for 'intelligent' improvement. In discovering the molecular mechanisms by which known remedies exert their effects, chosen elements further down the 'chain of command' might be synthesized and applied directly for more rapid and selective cure, omitting unwanted side effects. The direct use of recombinant cytokines, often in combination with antibiotics, is one consequence of this rationale.
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Affiliation(s)
- Oliver Kayser
- Freie Universität Berlin, Institute of Pharmacy, Berlin, Germany
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12
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Linares CEB, Giacomelli SR, Altenhofen D, Alves SH, Morsch VM, Schetinger MRC. Fluconazole and amphotericin-B resistance are associated with increased catalase and superoxide dismutase activity in Candida albicans and Candida dubliniensis. Rev Soc Bras Med Trop 2013; 46:752-8. [DOI: 10.1590/0037-8682-0190-2013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/19/2013] [Accepted: 11/26/2013] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
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13
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Bae JS, Shim SH, Hwang SD, Kim JW, Park DW, Park CI. Molecular cloning and expression analysis of interleukin (IL)-15 and IL-15 receptor α from rock bream, Oplegnathus fasciatus. FISH & SHELLFISH IMMUNOLOGY 2013; 35:1209-1215. [PMID: 23911652 DOI: 10.1016/j.fsi.2013.07.038] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/24/2013] [Revised: 07/19/2013] [Accepted: 07/24/2013] [Indexed: 06/02/2023]
Abstract
Mammalian interleukin (IL)-15 plays an important role in the activation of CD8(+) T cells and natural killer (NK) cells along with its receptor α (IL-15Rα). To understand the potential roles of IL-15 and IL-15Rα in fish, we identified IL-15 and IL-15Rα cDNA from rock bream (Oplegnathus fasciatus) and investigated their gene expression profiles after bacterial and viral infection. Coding regions of rock bream (Rb) IL-15 and RbIL-15Rα cDNAs were 534 and 402 bp encoding 177 and 133 amino acid residues, respectively. The sushi domain of IL-15Rα was highly conserved between rock bream and other species. Unlike other IL-15Rαs, RbIL-15Rα does not have a transmembrane region. Gene expression of RbIL-15 and RbIL-15Rα was widely expressed in different tissues of healthy fish, especially immune-related tissues. RbIL-15 and RbIL-15Rα were highly induced in the kidney and spleen after infection with Edwardsiella tarda, Streptococcus iniae and red seabream iridovirus. Gene expression patterns of RbIL-15 and RbIL-15Rα were similar in the kidney and spleen after pathogen infection. However, these genes were differentially induced in the liver after pathogen infection. These results suggest that the different responses of RbIL-15 and RbIL-15Rα to pathogen infection may be induced by different tissues or cell types.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jin-Sol Bae
- Department of Marine Biology & Aquaculture, College of Marine Science, Gyeongsang National University, 445, Inpyong-dong, Tongyeong, Gyeongnam 650-160, Republic of Korea
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14
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Novel Regulatory Mechanisms of Pathogenicity and Virulence to Combat MDR in Candida albicans. Int J Microbiol 2013; 2013:240209. [PMID: 24163696 PMCID: PMC3791847 DOI: 10.1155/2013/240209] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2013] [Revised: 08/15/2013] [Accepted: 08/15/2013] [Indexed: 01/19/2023] Open
Abstract
Continuous deployment of antifungals in treating infections caused by dimorphic opportunistic pathogen Candida albicans has led to the emergence of drug resistance resulting in cross-resistance to many unrelated drugs, a phenomenon termed multidrug resistance (MDR). Despite the current understanding of major factors which contribute to MDR mechanisms, there are many lines of evidence suggesting that it is a complex interplay of multiple factors which may be contributed by still unknown mechanisms. Coincidentally with the increased usage of antifungal drugs, the number of reports for antifungal drug resistance has also increased which further highlights the need for understanding novel molecular mechanisms which can be explored to combat MDR, namely, ROS, iron, hypoxia, lipids, morphogenesis, and transcriptional and signaling networks. Considering the worrying evolution of MDR and significance of C. albicans being the most prevalent human fungal pathogen, this review summarizes these new regulatory mechanisms which could be exploited to prevent MDR development in C. albicans as established from recent studies.
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15
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Pikman R, Ben-Ami R. Immune modulators as adjuncts for the prevention and treatment of invasive fungal infections. Immunotherapy 2013; 4:1869-82. [PMID: 23240754 DOI: 10.2217/imt.12.127] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Invasive fungal diseases are increasingly important opportunistic infections that are intimately linked to immune-suppression in the context of cytotoxic treatment of neoplastic diseases, stem cell and solid-organ transplantation, and primary immune deficiencies. Mortality rates remain high despite the availability of novel antifungals that are both safe and highly active in vitro, suggesting that clinical outcomes may be improved through modulation of host immunity. Ongoing advances in our knowledge of fungal-host interactions facilitate rational design of novel immunotherapeutics. Thus, antifungal immunotherapy now includes age-old interventions such as granulocyte and immunoglobulin transfusions, as well as promising experimental techniques such as antifungal vaccines and adoptive immunotherapy. To realize the potential of these rapidly evolving technologies, transition from the bench to clinical-phase studies must occur at a more rapid pace.
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Affiliation(s)
- Regina Pikman
- Infectious Diseases Unit, Tel Aviv Sourasky Medical Center & Sackler School of Medicine, 6 Weizman, Tel Aviv 64239, Israel
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16
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Abstract
A small subset of patients with celiac disease become refractory to a gluten-free diet, with persistent or recurrent symptoms of malabsorption and intestinal villous atrophy. This condition, defined as refractory celiac disease (RCD), is diagnosed after other small bowel diseases with villous atrophy are excluded. RCD is subdivided into 2 subgroups: type I RCD and type II RCD (RCDII). This latter condition is considered a low-grade intraepithelial lymphoma and has a poor prognosis. This article reviews the clinical and pathologic features of RCD and recent pathogenic findings in RCDII, offering a model to study how inflammation can drive T-cell lymphomagenesis.
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Burlandy-Soares LC, Mamoni RL, Lyra L, Schreiber AZ, Blotta MHSL. Expression of activation and cytotoxic molecules by peripheral blood lymphocytes of patients with paracoccidioidomycosis. Med Mycol 2010; 48:843-52. [PMID: 20163282 DOI: 10.3109/13693780903581665] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
In a previous study, we reported an increased number of T CD8(+) cells in the bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL) of patients with pulmonary paracoccidioidomycosis, suggesting a role for these cells in the local immune response. The aims of this study were to verify, by flow cytometry, the activation state, as well as the production of cytotoxic molecules by peripheral blood lymphocytes (CD8(+) and CD4(+)). Specimens were obtained from patients with paracoccidioidomycosis (PCM), individuals with PCM-infection, i.e., healthy individuals with demonstrated strong cellular response against the fungus (PI) and controls, with studies conducted both ex-vivo and in vitro, after stimulation with Paracoccidioides brasiliensis yeast cells. The ex-vivo analysis demonstrated that PCM patients presented a lower frequency of granzyme A, B and perforin-positive cells, as compared to individuals with PCM infection (PI). P. brasiliensis stimulation led to a discrete increase in CD69(+) cells and a reduction in cytotoxic granule expression in all groups. The addition of IL-15 induced an increase in the frequency of CD69(+) cells only in PI individuals and controls. The effect of IL-15 on granzyme A and B expression was low, but a higher frequency of CD8(+) perforin(+) was detected in PI individuals than in patients with active PCM. IL-15Ralpha expression was lower in CD4(+) T cells from patients, in relation to the PI group. Furthermore, low levels of granulysin were detected in sera from PCM patients, but a tendency for an increase in these levels was observed after antifungal therapy. Taken together, these results indicate that lymphocytes from PCM patients are poorly activated, express low levels of IL-15Ralpha and produce basal levels of cytotoxic granules. These findings may account for the defective cytotoxic activity in patients and, consequently, a low capacity to kill the fungus.
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Affiliation(s)
- L C Burlandy-Soares
- Department of Clinical Pathology, Faculty of Medical Sciences, State University of Campinas, São Paulo, SP, Brazil
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Bannwart CF, Martins RAR, Nakaira-Takahashi É, Dias-Melício LA, Soares ÂMVC, Peraçoli MTS. Interleukin-15 augments oxidative metabolism and fungicidal activity of human monocytes against Paracoccidioides brasiliensis. Mem Inst Oswaldo Cruz 2010; 105:866-72. [DOI: 10.1590/s0074-02762010000700005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/09/2010] [Accepted: 06/15/2010] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
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19
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Oh J, Fung E, Schlecht U, Davis RW, Giaever G, St. Onge RP, Deutschbauer A, Nislow C. Gene annotation and drug target discovery in Candida albicans with a tagged transposon mutant collection. PLoS Pathog 2010; 6:e1001140. [PMID: 20949076 PMCID: PMC2951378 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1001140] [Citation(s) in RCA: 80] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/24/2010] [Accepted: 09/08/2010] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Candida albicans is the most common human fungal pathogen, causing infections that can be lethal in immunocompromised patients. Although Saccharomyces cerevisiae has been used as a model for C. albicans, it lacks C. albicans' diverse morphogenic forms and is primarily non-pathogenic. Comprehensive genetic analyses that have been instrumental for determining gene function in S. cerevisiae are hampered in C. albicans, due in part to limited resources to systematically assay phenotypes of loss-of-function alleles. Here, we constructed and screened a library of 3633 tagged heterozygous transposon disruption mutants, using them in a competitive growth assay to examine nutrient- and drug-dependent haploinsufficiency. We identified 269 genes that were haploinsufficient in four growth conditions, the majority of which were condition-specific. These screens identified two new genes necessary for filamentous growth as well as ten genes that function in essential processes. We also screened 57 chemically diverse compounds that more potently inhibited growth of C. albicans versus S. cerevisiae. For four of these compounds, we examined the genetic basis of this differential inhibition. Notably, Sec7p was identified as the target of brefeldin A in C. albicans screens, while S. cerevisiae screens with this compound failed to identify this target. We also uncovered a new C. albicans-specific target, Tfp1p, for the synthetic compound 0136-0228. These results highlight the value of haploinsufficiency screens directly in this pathogen for gene annotation and drug target identification. Candida albicans is a normal inhabitant in our bodies, yet it can become pathogenic and cause infections that range from the superficial in healthy individuals to deadly in the immunocompromised. Comprehensive genetic analysis of C. albicans to identify mechanisms of virulence and new treatment strategies has been hampered by limited, publically accessible genomic resources. By combining the principles of Saccharomyces cerevisiae strain tagging with transposon mutagenesis to generate individually tagged mutants, we created the first entirely public resource that allows simultaneous measurement of strain fitness of ∼60% of the genome in a wide range of experimental treatments. By identifying genes that confer a fitness or growth defect when reduced in copy number, we uncovered genes whose protein products represent potential antifungal targets. Moreover, screening this strain collection with chemical compounds allowed us to identify anticandidal chemicals while concurrently gaining insight into their cellular mechanism of action. This resource, combined with straightforward screening methodology, provides powerful tools to generate hypotheses for functional annotation of the genome, and our results highlight the value of direct versus model-based pathogen studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julia Oh
- Department of Genetics, Stanford University, Palo Alto, California, United States of America
- Stanford Genome Technology Center, Palo Alto, California, United States of America
| | - Eula Fung
- Stanford Genome Technology Center, Palo Alto, California, United States of America
| | - Ulrich Schlecht
- Stanford Genome Technology Center, Palo Alto, California, United States of America
| | - Ronald W. Davis
- Department of Genetics, Stanford University, Palo Alto, California, United States of America
- Stanford Genome Technology Center, Palo Alto, California, United States of America
| | - Guri Giaever
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
- Banting and Best Department of Medical Research and Department of Molecular Genetics, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
- Donnelley Center for Cellular and Biomolecular Research, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Robert P. St. Onge
- Stanford Genome Technology Center, Palo Alto, California, United States of America
| | - Adam Deutschbauer
- Physical Biosciences Division, Lawrence Berkeley National Lab, Berkeley, California, United States of America
- Virtual Institute for Microbial Stress and Survival, Lawrence Berkeley National Lab, Berkeley, California, United States of America
| | - Corey Nislow
- Banting and Best Department of Medical Research and Department of Molecular Genetics, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
- Donnelley Center for Cellular and Biomolecular Research, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
- * E-mail:
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Krutzik SR, Hewison M, Liu PT, Robles JA, Stenger S, Adams JS, Modlin RL. IL-15 links TLR2/1-induced macrophage differentiation to the vitamin D-dependent antimicrobial pathway. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2008; 181:7115-20. [PMID: 18981132 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.181.10.7115] [Citation(s) in RCA: 177] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/17/2023]
Abstract
An essential function of the innate immune system is to directly trigger antimicrobial mechanisms to defend against invading pathogens. In humans, one such pathway involves activation by TLR2/1L leading to the vitamin D-dependent induction of antimicrobial peptides. In this study, we found that TLR2/1-induced IL-15 was required for induction of CYP27b1, the VDR and the downstream antimicrobial peptide cathelicidin. Although both IL-15 and IL-4 triggered macrophage differentiation, only IL-15 was sufficient by itself to induce CYP27b1 and subsequent bioconversion of 25-hydroxyvitamin D3 (25D3) into bioactive 1,25D3, leading to VDR activation and induction of cathelicidin. Finally, IL-15-differentiated macrophages could be triggered by 25D3 to induce an antimicrobial activity against intracellular Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Therefore, IL-15 links TLR2/1-induced macrophage differentiation to the vitamin D-dependent antimicrobial pathway.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stephan R Krutzik
- Division of Dermatology, David Geffen School of Medicine at University of California Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA
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21
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Interleukin-15 increases Paracoccidioides brasiliensis killing by human neutrophils. Cytokine 2008; 41:48-53. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cyto.2007.10.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/20/2007] [Revised: 09/19/2007] [Accepted: 10/25/2007] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
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22
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Bulfone-Paus S, Bulanova E, Budagian V, Paus R. The interleukin-15/interleukin-15 receptor system as a model for juxtacrine and reverse signaling. Bioessays 2006; 28:362-77. [PMID: 16547946 DOI: 10.1002/bies.20380] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
Interleukin-15 (IL-15) is a pleiotropic cytokine of the 4 alpha-helix bundle family, which binds to a receptor complex that displays common elements with the IL-2 receptor and a unique high-affinity alpha chain. This review focuses on juxtacrine and reverse signaling levels in the IL-15/IL-15R system. Specifically, we discuss how agonistic stimulation of membrane-bound IL-15 induces phosphorylation of members of the MAP kinase family and of focal adhesion kinase (FAK), thereby upregulating processes including cytokine secretion, cell adhesion and migration. In addition, we explore IL-15 trans-presentation and intracellular signaling, and define promising molecular targets for future pharmacological intervention in infectious diseases and immunological disorders. These frontiers in IL-15/IL-15Ralpha research serve as highly instructive examples for key concepts, unsolved problems and therapeutic opportunities in juxtacrine and reverse signaling in general.
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Affiliation(s)
- Silvia Bulfone-Paus
- Department of Immunology and Cell Biology, Research Center Borstel, Germany.
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23
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Segal BH, Walsh TJ. Current Approaches to Diagnosis and Treatment of Invasive Aspergillosis. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2006; 173:707-17. [PMID: 16387806 DOI: 10.1164/rccm.200505-727so] [Citation(s) in RCA: 207] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Filamentous fungi (moulds) are ubiquitous soil inhabitants whose conidia are inhaled into the respiratory tract, where they may cause life-threatening infections. Among these infections is invasive aspergillosis, which is a major cause of morbidity and mortality in the severely immunocompromised. Risk factors for invasive aspergillosis include prolonged and severe neutropenia, hematopoietic stem cell and solid organ transplantation, advanced AIDS, and chronic granulomatous disease. Invasive aspergillosis most commonly involves the sinopulmonary tract reflecting inhalation as the principal portal of entry. Chest computed tomography scans and new non-culture-based assays such as antigen detection and polymerase chain reaction may facilitate the early diagnosis of invasive aspergillosis, but have limitations. Reflecting an important unmet need, there has been a significant expansion in the antifungal armamentarium. The second-generation triazole, voriconazole, was superior to conventional amphotericin B as primary therapy for invasive aspergillosis, and is the new standard of care for this infection. There is significant interest in combination antifungal therapy pairing an echinocandin with either an azole or amphotericin B formulation as therapy for invasive aspergillosis. In addition, there has been an increased understanding of the immunology of Aspergillus infection, paving the way to novel immune augmentation strategies in animal models that merit evaluation in phase I clinic trials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brahm H Segal
- Department of Medicine, SUNY at Buffalo, Roswell Park Cancer Institute, Elm and Carlton Streets, Buffalo, NY 14263, USA.
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24
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Segal BH, Kwon-Chung J, Walsh TJ, Klein BS, Battiwalla M, Almyroudis NG, Holland SM, Romani L. Immunotherapy for fungal infections. Clin Infect Dis 2006; 42:507-15. [PMID: 16421795 DOI: 10.1086/499811] [Citation(s) in RCA: 78] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/24/2005] [Accepted: 10/17/2005] [Indexed: 01/15/2023] Open
Abstract
Opportunistic fungal infections are major causes of morbidity and mortality among immunocompromised individuals. Fungi have evolved complex and coordinated mechanisms to survive in the environment and in the mammalian host. Fungi must adapt to "stressors" in the host (including scarcity of nutrients, pH, and reactive oxygen and nitrogen intermediates) in addition to evading host immunity. Knowledge of the immunopathogenesis of fungal infections has paved the way to promising strategies for immunotherapy. These include strategies that increase phagocyte number, activate innate host defense pathways in phagocytes and dendritic cells, and stimulate antigen-specific immunity (e.g., vaccines). Immunotherapy must be tailored to specific immunocompromised states. Challenges exist in bringing promising immunotherapies from the laboratory to clinical trials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brahm H Segal
- Department of Medicine, Roswell Park Cancer Institute, Buffalo, NY 14263, USA.
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25
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de Groot PWJ, de Boer AD, Cunningham J, Dekker HL, de Jong L, Hellingwerf KJ, de Koster C, Klis FM. Proteomic analysis of Candida albicans cell walls reveals covalently bound carbohydrate-active enzymes and adhesins. EUKARYOTIC CELL 2005; 3:955-65. [PMID: 15302828 PMCID: PMC500891 DOI: 10.1128/ec.3.4.955-965.2004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 220] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Covalently linked cell wall proteins (CWPs) of the dimorphic fungus Candida albicans are implicated in virulence. We have carried out a comprehensive proteomic analysis of the covalently linked CWPs in exponential-phase yeast cells. Proteins were liberated from sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS)-extracted cell walls and analyzed using immunological and advanced protein sequencing (liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry [LC/MS/MS]) methods. HF-pyridine and NaOH were used to chemically release glycosylphosphatidylinositol-dependent proteins (GPI proteins) and mild alkali-sensitive proteins, respectively. In addition, to release both classes of CWPs simultaneously, cell walls were digested enzymatically with a recombinant beta-1,3-glucanase. Using LC/MS/MS, we identified 14 proteins, of which only 1 protein, Cht2p, has been previously identified in cell wall extracts by using protein sequencing methods. The 14 identified CWPs include 12 GPI proteins and 2 mild alkali-sensitive proteins. Nonsecretory proteins were absent in our cell wall preparations. The proteins identified included several functional categories: (i) five CWPs are predicted carbohydrate-active enzymes (Cht2p, Crh11p, Pga4p, Phr1p, and Scw1p); (ii) Als1p and Als4p are believed to be adhesion proteins. In addition, Pga24p shows similarity to the flocculins of baker's yeast. (iii) Sod4p/Pga2p is a putative superoxide dismutase and is possibly involved in counteracting host defense reactions. The precise roles of the other CWPs (Ecm33.3p, Pir1p, Pga29p, Rbt5p, and Ssr1p) are unknown. These results indicate that a substantial number of the covalently linked CWPs of C. albicans are actively involved in cell wall remodeling and expansion and in host-pathogen interactions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Piet W J de Groot
- Swammerdam Institute for Life Sciences, University of Amsterdam, Nieuwe Achtergracht 166, 1018 WV Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
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26
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Abstract
The very poor outcome of invasive fungal infections (IFI) in patients with haematological malignancies or recipients of haematopoietic stem cell transplantation is largely attributed to their compromised host defence mechanisms. The restoration or augmentation of immune responses in these patients is now considered as one of the cornerstones of effective antifungal therapy. Major advances in the field of experimental immunology have provided insight on the important regulatory role of cytokines in both innate and adaptive immunity to fungal pathogens. Preclinical studies have convincingly demonstrated that immunomodulation with cytokines can enhance the antifungal activity of neutrophils and monocytes/macrophages as well as upregulate protective T-helper type 1 adaptive immune responses. Evidence on the clinical use of cytokines in immunocompromised hosts with IFI is, however, still scant and inconclusive. The present review summarizes experimental and clinical data on the role of cytokines in the immune response to fungal pathogens and on their potential use for prevention or treatment of fungal infections. Implications for future research are also briefly discussed.
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27
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Winn RM, Gil-Lamaignere C, Roilides E, Simitsopoulou M, Lyman CA, Maloukou A, Walsh TJ. Effects of interleukin-15 on antifungal responses of human polymorphonuclear leukocytes against Fusarium spp. and Scedosporium spp. Cytokine 2005; 31:1-8. [PMID: 15935692 DOI: 10.1016/j.cyto.2004.07.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/08/2004] [Revised: 07/18/2004] [Accepted: 07/18/2004] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
Fusarium spp. and Scedosporium spp. have emerged as important fungal pathogens that are frequently resistant to antifungal compounds. We investigated the effects of human interleukin-15 (IL-15) on human polymorphonuclear leukocyte (PMNL) activity against Fusarium solani and Fusarium oxysporum as well as Scedosporium prolificans and Scedosporium apiospermum. IL-15 (100 ng/ml) significantly enhanced PMNL-induced hyphal damage of both Fusarium spp. and S. prolificans after incubation for 22 h (P < 0.01) but not S. apiospermum. In addition, IL-15 enhanced PMNL oxidative respiratory burst evaluated as superoxide anion production in response to S. prolificans but not to the other fungi after 2 h incubation. IL-15 increased interleukin-8 (IL-8) release from PMNLs challenged with hyphae of F. solani and S. prolificans (P< or = 0.04). Release of tumor necrosis factor-alpha was not affected. The species-dependent enhancement of hyphal damage and induction of IL-8 release suggest that IL-15 plays an important role in the immunomodulation of host response to these emerging fungal pathogens.
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Affiliation(s)
- Richard M Winn
- 3rd Department of Pediatrics, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Hippokration Hospital, GR-54642 Thessaloniki, Greece
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28
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Kim HS, Choi EH, Khan J, Roilides E, Francesconi A, Kasai M, Sein T, Schaufele RL, Sakurai K, Son CG, Greer BT, Chanock S, Lyman CA, Walsh TJ. Expression of genes encoding innate host defense molecules in normal human monocytes in response to Candida albicans. Infect Immun 2005; 73:3714-24. [PMID: 15908401 PMCID: PMC1111842 DOI: 10.1128/iai.73.6.3714-3724.2005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 64] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/21/2023] Open
Abstract
Little is known about the regulation and coordinated expression of genes involved in the innate host response to Candida albicans. We therefore examined the kinetic profile of gene expression of innate host defense molecules in normal human monocytes infected with C. albicans using microarray technology. Freshly isolated peripheral blood monocytes from five healthy donors were incubated with C. albicans for 0 to 18 h in parallel with time-matched uninfected control cells. RNA from monocytes was extracted and amplified for microarray analysis, using a 42,421-gene cDNA chip. Expression of genes encoding proinflammatory cytokines, including tumor necrosis factor alpha, interleukin 1 (IL-1), IL-6, and leukemia inhibitory factor, was markedly enhanced during the first 6 h and coincided with an increase in phagocytosis. Expression of these genes returned to near baseline by 18 h. Genes encoding chemokines, including IL-8; macrophage inflammatory proteins 1, 3, and 4; and monocyte chemoattractant protein 1, also were strongly up-regulated, with peak expression at 4 to 6 h, as were genes encoding chemokine receptors CCR1, CCR5, CCR7, and CXCR5. Expression of genes whose products may protect monocyte viability, such as BCL2-related protein, metallothioneins, CD71, and SOCS3, was up-regulated at 4 to 6 h and remained elevated throughout the 18-h time course. On the other hand, expression of genes encoding T-cell-regulatory molecules (e.g., IL-12, gamma interferon, and transforming growth factor beta) was not significantly affected during the 18-h incubation. Moreover, genes encoding IL-15, the IL-13 receptor (IL-13Ra1), and CD14 were suppressed during the 18-h exposure to C. albicans. Thus, C. albicans is a potent inducer of a dynamic cascade of expression of genes whose products are related to the recruitment, activation, and protection of neutrophils and monocytes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hee Sup Kim
- Immunocompromised Host Section, Pediatric Oncology Branch, National Cancer Institute/NIH, Room 1-5740, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
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29
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Liu G, Zhai Q, Schaffner D, Bradburne C, Wu A, Hayford A, Popov S, Grene E, Bailey C, Alibek K. IL-15 induces IFN-beta and iNOS gene expression, and antiviral activity of murine macrophage RAW 264.7 cells. Immunol Lett 2004; 91:171-8. [PMID: 15019287 DOI: 10.1016/j.imlet.2003.11.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/10/2003] [Revised: 11/20/2003] [Accepted: 11/27/2003] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
Abstract
The effects of interleukine-15 (IL-15) on macrophage activation and antiviral activity have been investigated in this study. We have provided evidence that IL-15 stimulates murine macrophage RAW 264.7 cells to release nitric oxide (NO) and inhibit vaccinia virus (VV) replication in bystander human 293 cells in a dose-dependent manner. The IL-15-induced antiviral activity was partially mediated by NO, as blocking NO production by NO synthase (iNOS) inhibitor NG-monomethyl-L-arginine acetate (L-NMA) partially restored the virus replication. Interferon-gamma (IFN-gamma) was not detectable by ELISA in the cell supernatant of IL-15-activated macrophages or in the co-cultures of macrophages and infected bystander cells. Neutralizing anti-IFN-gamma, anti-IFN-gamma receptor R2, anti-TNF-alpha, or anti-IL-12 antibodies had no effect on NO production or antiviral activity. In contrast, neutralizing anti-IFN-alpha/beta antibody completely restored the VV replication and reduced the NO level to one third of that in the control. Elevated mRNA levels of IFN-beta and iNOS genes were detected in IL-15-activated RAW 264.7 cells by RT-PCR. Our data suggest that IL-15 is capable of inducing IFN-beta, which could participate in NO-mediated antiviral effect.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ge Liu
- Advanced Biosystems Inc., George Mason University, 10900 University Boulevard, MSN 1A8, Manassas, VA 20110, USA.
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30
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Neely GG, Epelman S, Ma LL, Colarusso P, Howlett CJ, Amankwah EK, McIntyre AC, Robbins SM, Mody CH. Monocyte surface-bound IL-15 can function as an activating receptor and participate in reverse signaling. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2004; 172:4225-34. [PMID: 15034035 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.172.7.4225] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
IL-15 is a short chain, four-alpha helix cytokine that shares some biological function with IL-2. One striking difference between IL-2 and IL-15 is the ability of monocytes to express IL-15 on their cell surface after activation. In the current study we have investigated the ability of human monocyte cell surface IL-15 to participate in reverse signaling. Cross-linking anti-IL-15 Abs were used as a surrogate ligand for surface IL-15 engagement. Ligation of cell surface-expressed IL-15 induced monocyte adhesion that required the activity of small m.w. GTPases. Reverse signals through surface IL-15 activated the Rho-GTPase Rac3. In addition, engagement of cell surface IL-15 was found to activate a number of signaling pathways, including both extracellular signal-regulated kinase 1/2 and p38, and resulted in the secretion of IL-8. IL-8 production required mitogen-activated protein kinase activity. Thus, the current study has established that cell surface IL-15 is more than just a ligand; it can function as a receptor and participate in reverse signaling that results in cellular adhesion and production of inflammatory cytokines.
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Affiliation(s)
- Graham G Neely
- Department of Medical Sciences, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada
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31
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Tran P, Ahmad R, Xu J, Ahmad A, Menezes J. Host's innate immune response to fungal and bacterial agents in vitro: up-regulation of interleukin-15 gene expression resulting in enhanced natural killer cell activity. Immunology 2003; 109:263-70. [PMID: 12757622 PMCID: PMC1782963 DOI: 10.1046/j.1365-2567.2003.01659.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Natural killer (NK) cells play an important role in the first line of defence against viral infections. We have shown earlier that exposure of human peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC) to viruses results in rapid up-regulation of NK cell activity via interleukin-15 (IL-15) induction, and that this mechanism curtails viral infection in vitro. By using Candida albicans, Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus, we now show here that exposure of PBMC to fungi and bacteria also results in an immediate increase of NK cytotoxicity. Reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction and Western blot analyses as well as the use of antibodies against different cytokines revealed that IL-15 induction played a predominant role in this NK activation. These results indicate that IL-15 is also involved in the innate immune response against fungal and bacterial agents.
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Affiliation(s)
- Phay Tran
- Department of Microbiology & Immunology, and Pediatric Research Center, University of Montreal and Sainte-Justine Hospital, Montreal, Canada
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32
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Polak A. Antifungal therapy--state of the art at the beginning of the 21st century. PROGRESS IN DRUG RESEARCH. FORTSCHRITTE DER ARZNEIMITTELFORSCHUNG. PROGRES DES RECHERCHES PHARMACEUTIQUES 2003; Spec No:59-190. [PMID: 12675476 DOI: 10.1007/978-3-0348-7974-3_4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/11/2023]
Abstract
The most relevant information on the present state of the art of antifungal chemotherapy is reviewed in this chapter. For dermatomycoses a variety of topical antifungals are available, and safe and efficacious systemic treatment, especially with the fungicidal drug terbinafine, is possible. The duration of treatment can be drastically reduced. Substantial progress in the armamentarium of drugs for invasive fungal infections has been made, and a new class of antifungals, echinocandins, is now in clinical use. The following drugs in oral and/or intravenous formulations are available: the broad spectrum polyene amphotericin B with its new "clothes"; the sterol biosynthesis inhibitors fluconazole, itraconazole, and voriconazole; the glucan synthase inhibitor caspofungin; and the combination partner flucytosine. New therapy schedules have been studied; combination therapy has found a significant place in the treatment of severely compromised patients, and the field of prevention and empiric therapy is fast moving. Guidelines exist nowadays for the treatment of various fungal diseases and maintenance therapy. New approaches interfering with host defenses or pathogenicity of fungal cells are being investigated, and molecular biologists are looking for new targets studying the genomics of pathogenic fungi.
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34
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Roilides E, Lyman CA, Panagopoulou P, Chanock S. Immunomodulation of invasive fungal infections. Infect Dis Clin North Am 2003; 17:193-219. [PMID: 12751266 DOI: 10.1016/s0891-5520(02)00070-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Genetic and acquired (disease- or therapy- related) host immune factors increase the risk for IFIs. In addition to antifungal drug therapy, modulation of host defenses by the use of HGFs and IFN-gamma has been supported by extensive in vitro and in vivo preclinical data. Clinical studies on the prevention or the adjunctive therapy of IFIs in combination with antifungal agents are limited, however, and do not allow specific recommendations for their cost-effective use in most of the immunodeficient settings. There is an urgent need to push forward with well-structured, randomized clinical trials to determine optimal dose, duration, and timing for different combinations of immunotherapy and antifungal agents in high-risk patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emmanuel Roilides
- Third Department of Pediatrics, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Hippokration Hospital, Konstantinoupoleos 49, GR-54642 Thessaloniki, Greece.
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35
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Kobayashi D, Kondo K, Uehara N, Otokozawa S, Tsuji N, Yagihashi A, Watanabe N. Endogenous reactive oxygen species is an important mediator of miconazole antifungal effect. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2002; 46:3113-7. [PMID: 12234832 PMCID: PMC128784 DOI: 10.1128/aac.46.10.3113-3117.2002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 241] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
We investigated the significance of endogenous reactive oxygen species (ROS) produced by fungi treated with miconazole. ROS production in Candida albicans was measured by a real-time fluorogenic assay. The level of ROS production was increased by miconazole at the MIC (0.125 micro g/ml) and was enhanced further in a dose-dependent manner, with a fourfold increase detected when miconazole was used at 12.5 micro g/ml. This increase in the level of ROS production was completely inhibited by pyrrolidinedithiocarbamate (PDTC), an antioxidant, at 10 micro M. In a colony formation assay, the decrease in cell viability associated with miconazole treatment was significantly prevented by addition of PDTC. Moreover, the level of ROS production by 10 clinical isolates of Candida species was inversely correlated with the miconazole MIC (r = -0.8818; P < 0.01). These results indicate that ROS production is important to the antifungal activity of miconazole.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daisuke Kobayashi
- Department of Clinical Laboratory Medicine. Division of Laboratory Diagnosis, Sapporo Medical University School of Medicine, Japan
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36
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Roilides E, Lamaignere CG, Farmaki E. Cytokines in immunodeficient patients with invasive fungal infections: an emerging therapy. Int J Infect Dis 2002; 6:154-63. [PMID: 12718828 DOI: 10.1016/s1201-9712(02)90104-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Immune response is the major contributor to host defense against opportunistic fungal infections such as candidiasis, aspergillosis and other rare infections. A number of cytokines have been developed and studied in vitro for activity against fungal pathogens. The most studied among them in relation to fungal infections are granulocyte colony-stimulating factor (G-CSF), granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF), macrophage colony-stimulating factor (M-CSF) and interferon-gamma (IFN-gamma). The fields where these cytokines have been predominantly studied or where they may need more study are primary immunodeficiencies of the phagocytic cells, neonatal age, human immunodeficiency virus infection and cancer-related conditions such as neutropenia and hemopoietic cell transplantation. In this review, the in vitro, experimental animal and clinical data of cytokines are summarized in relation to invasive candidiasis, aspergillosis and emerging fungal infections. Cytokine administration to patients together with antifungal agents, as well as transfusion of cytokine-upgraded phagocytes, are promising immunotherapeutic modalities for further research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emmanuel Roilides
- 3rd Department of Pediatrics, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Hippokration Hospital, Thessaloniki, Greece.
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37
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Niedbala W, Wei X, Liew FY. IL-15 induces type 1 and type 2 CD4+ and CD8+ T cells proliferation but is unable to drive cytokine production in the absence of TCR activation or IL-12 / IL-4 stimulation in vitro. Eur J Immunol 2002; 32:341-7. [PMID: 11807773 DOI: 10.1002/1521-4141(200202)32:2<341::aid-immu341>3.0.co;2-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
Abstract
Interleukin 15 (IL-15) is a pleiotropic cytokine produced principally by monocytes and affects both innate and acquired immunity. It has been shown that IL-15 is essential for the proliferation and maintenance of CD8+ memory cells but has little or no effect on naive CD8+ cells or CD4+ T cells. We report here, using an in vitro culture system of antigen-specific OVA TCR transgenic T cells as well as normal mouse T cell activated with anti-CD3 antibody that IL-15, at high concentrations, induced proliferation of both naive and memory CD4+ and CD8+ cells. IL-15 also enhanced the differentiation of type 1 (IFN-gamma-producing) and type 2 (IL-5-producing) CD4+ and CD8+ T cells under IL-12 and IL-4 driving conditions, respectively. However, IL-15 alone was not efficient in stimulating cytokine production of these cells in the absence of T cell subset driving cytokines (IL-12 or IL-4) and / or simultaneous TCR activation. Together, these results demonstrate that IL-15, at high dose, is a pan-T cell growth factor. The apparent requirement of IL-15 for the maintenance of memory CD8+ cell in vivo may reflect the exceptionally restricted nature of this subpopulation of cells for IL-15. The inability of IL-15 alone to stimulate cytokine synthesis also suggests that IL-15 on its own does not drive antigen-specific T cells to exhaustion. The levels of these cells are maintained by IL-15 and they are only mobilized to carry out effector functions when subsequently confronted with specific pathogens.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wanda Niedbala
- Department of Immunology and Bacteriology, University of Glasgow, Glasgow G11 6NT, Scotland, GB
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38
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Lamarre C, LeMay JD, Deslauriers N, Bourbonnais Y. Candida albicans expresses an unusual cytoplasmic manganese-containing superoxide dismutase (SOD3 gene product) upon the entry and during the stationary phase. J Biol Chem 2001; 276:43784-91. [PMID: 11562375 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m108095200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 99] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
We report here that in addition to a cytoplasmic copper-zinc-containing superoxide dismutase (SOD) and a mitochondrial manganese-containing SOD, Candida albicans expresses a third SOD gene (SOD3). The deduced amino acid sequence contains all of the motifs found in previously characterized manganese-containing SODs, except the presence of a mitochondrial transit peptide. Recombinant Sod3p expressed and purified from Escherichia coli is a homotetramer with a subunit mass of 25.4 kDa. Mass absorption spectrometry detected the presence of both iron and manganese in purified Sod3p but, as determined by metal replacement experiments, the enzyme displays activity only when bound to manganese. Overexpression of SOD3 was shown to rescue the hypersensitivity to redox cycling agents of a Saccharomyces cerevisiae mutant lacking the cytoplasmic copper-zinc-containing SOD. Northern blot analyses showed that the transcription of SOD3 is induced neither by the transition from the yeast to the mycelial form of C. albicans nor by drug-induced oxidative stress. In continuous cultures, the expression of SOD3 was strongly stimulated upon the entry and during the stationary phase, concomitantly with the repression of SOD1. We conclude that Sod3p is an atypical cytosolic manganese-containing superoxide dismutase that is involved in the protection of C. albicans against reactive oxygen species during the stationary phase.
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Affiliation(s)
- C Lamarre
- Département de Biochimie et Microbiologie, Université Laval, Québec G1K 7P4, Canada
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39
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Abstract
Evidence from several in vitro and animal model studies suggests a modulatory role of haemopoietic, T(H)1 and T(H)2 cytokines in host defence against fungi, and highlights their potential utility as adjunctive therapy for management of systemic mycoses (SM). However, there are limited clinical data to support the use of cytokines in prevention and treatment of SM. Thus, at present no adjunctive treatment is justified for routine use in all patients. Potential application of these immunomodulatory agents include the use of granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor or macrophage colony-stimulating factor in the management of mycoses in neutropenic patients with myelogenous leukaemia or bone marrow transplantation. Interferon-gamma may have a useful role against aspergillosis in patients with chronic granulomatous disease. Granulocyte colony-stimulating factor-elicited white blood cell transfusions may be life saving to patients with refractory SM. Better understanding of synergy between cytokines and specific antifungals may provide powerful tools for managing these serious infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- E Farmaki
- 3rd Department of Paediatrics, University of Thessaloniki, Hippokration Hospital, Konstantinoupoleos 49, GR-546 42 Thessaloniki, Greece
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40
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Mattei F, Schiavoni G, Belardelli F, Tough DF. IL-15 is expressed by dendritic cells in response to type I IFN, double-stranded RNA, or lipopolysaccharide and promotes dendritic cell activation. JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY (BALTIMORE, MD. : 1950) 2001; 167:1179-87. [PMID: 11466332 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.167.3.1179] [Citation(s) in RCA: 332] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Cytokines that are induced by infection may contribute to the initiation of immune responses through their ability to stimulate dendritic cells (DCs). In this paper, we have addressed the role of IL-15 in DC activation, investigating its expression by DCs in response to three different signals of infection and examining its ability to stimulate DCs. We report that the expression of both IL-15 and the IL-15 receptor alpha-chain are increased in splenic DCs from mice inoculated with dsRNA (poly(I:C)), LPS, or IFN-alphabeta, and in purified murine splenic DCs treated with IFN-alphabeta in vitro. Furthermore, IL-15 itself was able to activate DCs, as in vivo or in vitro exposure of splenic DCs to IL-15 resulted in an up-regulation of costimulatory molecules, markedly increased production of IFN-gamma by DC and an enhanced ability of DCs to stimulate Ag-specific CD8(+) T cell proliferation. The magnitude of all of the IL-15-induced changes in DCs was reduced in mice deficient for the IFN-alphabeta receptor, suggesting a role for IFN-alphabeta in the stimulation of DCs by IL-15. These results identify IL-15 as a stimulatory cytokine for DCs with the potential for autocrine activity and link its effects to expression of IFN-alphabeta.
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MESH Headings
- Adjuvants, Immunologic/administration & dosage
- Animals
- Cells, Cultured
- Dendritic Cells/immunology
- Dendritic Cells/metabolism
- Immunophenotyping
- Injections, Intravenous
- Interferon Type I/administration & dosage
- Interferon-gamma/metabolism
- Interleukin-15/administration & dosage
- Interleukin-15/biosynthesis
- Interleukin-15/genetics
- Lipopolysaccharides/administration & dosage
- Lymphocyte Activation/immunology
- Mice
- Mice, Inbred BALB C
- Mice, Inbred C57BL
- Mice, Knockout
- Mice, Transgenic
- Poly I-C/administration & dosage
- RNA, Double-Stranded/administration & dosage
- RNA, Messenger/biosynthesis
- Receptors, Interleukin-15
- Receptors, Interleukin-2/biosynthesis
- Recombinant Proteins/administration & dosage
- Spleen/cytology
- Spleen/immunology
- T-Lymphocytes/immunology
- Up-Regulation/genetics
- Up-Regulation/immunology
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Affiliation(s)
- F Mattei
- Laboratory of Virology, Istituto Superiore di Sanitá, Rome, Italy
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41
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Umemura M, Nishimura H, Hirose K, Matsuguchi T, Yoshikai Y. Overexpression of IL-15 in vivo enhances protection against Mycobacterium bovis bacillus Calmette-Guérin infection via augmentation of NK and T cytotoxic 1 responses. JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY (BALTIMORE, MD. : 1950) 2001; 167:946-56. [PMID: 11441103 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.167.2.946] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
To investigate the immunomodulating effects of IL-15 in vivo on mycobacterial infection, we used IL-15-transgenic (Tg) mice, which were recently constructed with cDNA-encoding secretable isoform of IL-15 precursor protein under the control of a MHC class I promoter. The IL-15-Tg mice exhibited resistance against infection with Mycobacterium bovis bacillus Calmette-Guérin (BCG), as assessed by bacteria growth. IFN-gamma level in serum was significantly higher in IL-15-Tg mice than in non-Tg mice after BCG infection. NK cells were remarkably increased, and Ag-specific T cytotoxic 1 response mediated by CD8+ T cells producing IFN-gamma was significantly augmented in the IL-15-Tg mice following BCG infection. Neutralization of endogenous IFN-gamma by in vivo administration of anti-IFN-gamma mAb deteriorated the clearance of the bacteria. Depletion of of NK cells or CD8+ T cells by in vivo administration of anti-asialo-GM(1) Ab or anti-CD8 mAb hampered the exclusion of bacteria. Thus, overexpression of IL-15 in vivo enhanced protection against BCG infection via augmentation of NK and T cytotoxic 1 responses.
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MESH Headings
- Adjuvants, Immunologic/biosynthesis
- Adjuvants, Immunologic/genetics
- Adjuvants, Immunologic/physiology
- Animals
- Ascitic Fluid/immunology
- Ascitic Fluid/pathology
- CD8-Positive T-Lymphocytes/immunology
- Cells, Cultured
- Cytokines/biosynthesis
- Cytokines/blood
- Cytotoxicity, Immunologic/immunology
- Interferon-gamma/immunology
- Interferon-gamma/metabolism
- Interleukin-15/biosynthesis
- Interleukin-15/genetics
- Interleukin-15/physiology
- Killer Cells, Natural/immunology
- Kinetics
- Lymphocyte Depletion
- Macrophages, Peritoneal/enzymology
- Macrophages, Peritoneal/immunology
- Mice
- Mice, Inbred C57BL
- Mice, Transgenic
- Mycobacterium bovis/growth & development
- Mycobacterium bovis/immunology
- Nitric Oxide Synthase/biosynthesis
- Nitric Oxide Synthase/genetics
- Nitric Oxide Synthase Type II
- RNA, Messenger/biosynthesis
- T-Lymphocytes, Cytotoxic/immunology
- T-Lymphocytes, Cytotoxic/metabolism
- Tuberculosis/genetics
- Tuberculosis/immunology
- Tuberculosis/microbiology
- Tuberculosis/prevention & control
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Affiliation(s)
- M Umemura
- Laboratory of Host Defense, Research Institute for Disease Mechanism and Control, Nagoya University School of Medicine, Nagoya 466-8550, Japan
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42
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Abstract
The last decade has seen the emergence of immunomodulators as promising therapeutic agents in infectious diseases. A diverse array of recombinant, synthetic and natural immunomodulatory preparations for prophylaxis and treatment of various infections are available today. Some of these substances, such as granulocyte colony-stimulating factor (G-CSF), interferons, imiquimod and bacterial-derived preparations are already licensed for use in patients. Others including IL-12, various chemokines, synthetic cytosine phosphate-guanosine (CpG) oligodeoxynucleotides and glucans are being investigated extensively in clinical and preclinical studies. Immunomodulatory regimens offer an attractive approach as an adjunct modality for control of microbial diseases in the era of antibiotic resistance. Practical application of the advances in molecular biology, bioinformatics, genomic mining and high-throughput peptide synthesis should foster future discovery and development of novel immunomodulators contingent upon scientific evidence rather than dictates of discursive empiricism.
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Affiliation(s)
- K N Masihi
- Robet Koch Institute, Nordufer 20, D-13353 Berlin, Germany.
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43
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Ortega E, Algarra I, Serrano MJ, Alvarez de Cienfuegos G, Gaforio JJ. The use of 7-amino-actinomycin D in the analysis of Candida albicans phagocytosis and opsonization. J Immunol Methods 2001; 253:189-93. [PMID: 11384680 DOI: 10.1016/s0022-1759(01)00358-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
We describe the use of 7-amino-actinomycin D (7AAD) to measure phagocytosis and the opsonizing capacity of serum. Heat-inactivated Candida albicans was previously stained with 7AAD and incubated with resident peritoneal macrophages. The samples were analyzed by flow cytometry and phagocytic cells were identified by their bright red fluorescence. This is a rapid, reproducible and reliable one-step procedure and provides a means of evaluating low levels of phagocytosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- E Ortega
- Microbiology Unit, Department of Health Sciences, Faculty of Experimental Sciences, University of Jaén, Paraje Las Lagunillas s/n, 23071 Jaén, Spain
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44
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Dusi S, Donini M, Lissandrini D, Mazzi P, Bianca VD, Rossi F. Mechanisms of expression of NADPH oxidase components in human cultured monocytes: role of cytokines and transcriptional regulators involved. Eur J Immunol 2001; 31:929-38. [PMID: 11241298 DOI: 10.1002/1521-4141(200103)31:3<929::aid-immu929>3.0.co;2-m] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
Human blood monocytes lose their capability to produce microbicidal oxidants during culture. We report that this process is associated with decreased gp91phox, p22phox and p47phox expression, release of PU.1 and CP-1 from gp91phox promoter, and PU.1 from p47phox promoter. However, in presence of IFN-gamma or TNF-alpha, the superoxide anion (O(2)(-)) production, the p47phox, gp91phox and p22phox expression, and the binding of PU.1 and CP-1 to DNA are maintained at the high levels observed in blood monocytes. To clarify the role of PU.1 in the expression of NADPH oxidase components, oligonucleotides competing for PU.1-DNA binding were added to cultured monocytes. These oligonucleotides abrogated the maintenance of gp91phox and p22phox expression by IFN-gamma and TNF-alpha, but did not inhibit the effect of these cytokines on p47phox expression and O(2)(-) production. Our results indicate that in monocytes the IFN-gamma- and TNF-alpha-induced expression of gp91phox and p22phox, but not p47phox, requires the binding of PU.1 to gp91phox promoter. However, the preservation of O(2)(-) production by IFN-gamma and TNF-alpha is unrelated to their effect on gp91phox and p22phox expression.
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Affiliation(s)
- S Dusi
- Department of Pathology, Section of General Pathology, University of Verona, Verona, Italy.
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45
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Perera LP. Interleukin 15: Its Role in Inflammation and Immunity. Inflammation 2001. [DOI: 10.1007/978-94-015-9702-9_4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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46
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Masihi KN. Immunomodulators in infectious diseases: panoply of possibilites. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF IMMUNOPHARMACOLOGY 2000; 22:1083-91. [PMID: 11137615 DOI: 10.1016/s0192-0561(00)00074-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
Abstract
Infections which caused ravages in the past centuries are again resurgent and newly emerging pathogens capable of human diseases continue to surface. Multidrug antibiotic resistance has turned into a major medical problem. Judicious concepts for combating infections in the 21st century have acquired a new poignancy. Immunomodulators of natural, synthetic, and recombinant origin can stimulate host defense mechanisms for the prophylaxis and treatment of diverse viral, bacterial, parasitic and fungal diseases. Some immunomodulator preparations are already licensed for use in patients and numerous others are being extensively investigated in preclinical and clinical studies. Immunomodulators offer a novel adjunct to established antimicrobial therapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- K N Masihi
- Robert Koch Institute, Nordufer 20, D-13353, Berlin, Germany.
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47
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Abstract
Polymorphonuclear leukocyte (PMN) dysfunction has been reported in human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)-infected patients. Interleukin (IL)-15 is a recently discovered cytokine that potentiates antimicrobial functions of normal PMNs. We evaluated the in vitro effect of IL-15 on chemotaxis and fungicidal activity of PMNs from 9 patients with untreated advanced HIV infection, 8 patients with viral suppression after 52 to 130 weeks of highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART), and 12 patients with treatment failure. We also studied oxidative burst and apoptosis of PMNs in 5 patients with untreated advanced HIV infection. Twelve healthy donors were included as controls. Chemotaxis and fungicidal activity of unprimed PMNs was significantly lower in patients with untreated HIV infection compared with controls. After incubation with IL-15, a significant increase in PMN chemotaxis and fungicidal activity was found; moreover, IL-15 induced a significant reduction in the number of apoptotic HIV+ PMNs. IL-15 did not modulate oxidative burst of HIV+ PMNs as measured by chemiluminescence production. The in vitro priming of PMNs with IL-15 determined a complete reversal of defective chemotaxis and killing in all HAART-treated patients with long-term HIV suppression. IL-15 significantly enhanced chemotaxis and fungicidal activity also in patients with HAART failure. In conclusion, IL-15 is an important cytokine in the activation of the functional properties of HIV+ PMNs, by delaying apoptosis and enhancing chemotaxis and fungicidal activity. The potent stimulant effect of IL-15 on PMN function was observed in antiretroviral naive patients as well as in individuals who were receiving HAART, including those with treatment failure.
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48
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Interleukin-15 enhances neutrophil functional activity in patients with human immunodeficiency virus infection. Blood 2000. [DOI: 10.1182/blood.v96.5.1979] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Abstract
Polymorphonuclear leukocyte (PMN) dysfunction has been reported in human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)-infected patients. Interleukin (IL)-15 is a recently discovered cytokine that potentiates antimicrobial functions of normal PMNs. We evaluated the in vitro effect of IL-15 on chemotaxis and fungicidal activity of PMNs from 9 patients with untreated advanced HIV infection, 8 patients with viral suppression after 52 to 130 weeks of highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART), and 12 patients with treatment failure. We also studied oxidative burst and apoptosis of PMNs in 5 patients with untreated advanced HIV infection. Twelve healthy donors were included as controls. Chemotaxis and fungicidal activity of unprimed PMNs was significantly lower in patients with untreated HIV infection compared with controls. After incubation with IL-15, a significant increase in PMN chemotaxis and fungicidal activity was found; moreover, IL-15 induced a significant reduction in the number of apoptotic HIV+ PMNs. IL-15 did not modulate oxidative burst of HIV+ PMNs as measured by chemiluminescence production. The in vitro priming of PMNs with IL-15 determined a complete reversal of defective chemotaxis and killing in all HAART-treated patients with long-term HIV suppression. IL-15 significantly enhanced chemotaxis and fungicidal activity also in patients with HAART failure. In conclusion, IL-15 is an important cytokine in the activation of the functional properties of HIV+ PMNs, by delaying apoptosis and enhancing chemotaxis and fungicidal activity. The potent stimulant effect of IL-15 on PMN function was observed in antiretroviral naive patients as well as in individuals who were receiving HAART, including those with treatment failure.
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49
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Dodd-O JM, Pearse DB. Effect of the NADPH oxidase inhibitor apocynin on ischemia-reperfusion lung injury. Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol 2000; 279:H303-12. [PMID: 10899070 DOI: 10.1152/ajpheart.2000.279.1.h303] [Citation(s) in RCA: 151] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Apocynin (4-hydroxy-3-methoxy-acetophenone) inhibits NADPH oxidase in activated polymorphonuclear (PMN) leukocytes, preventing the generation of reactive oxygen species. To determine if apocynin attenuates ischemia-reperfusion lung injury, we examined the effects of apocynin (0.03, 0.3, and 3 mM) in isolated in situ sheep lungs. In diluent-treated lungs, reperfusion with blood (180 min) after 30 min of ischemia (ventilation 28% O(2), 5% CO(2)) caused leukocyte sequestration in the lung and increased vascular permeability [reflection coefficient for albumin (sigma(alb)) 0.47 +/- 0.10, filtration coefficient (K(f)) 0.14 +/- 0.03 g. min(-1). mmHg(-1). 100 g(-1)] compared with nonreperfused lungs (sigma(alb) 0.77 +/- 0. 03, K(f) 0.03 +/- 0.01 g. min(-1). mmHg(-1). 100 g(-1); P < 0.05). Apocynin attenuated the increased protein permeability at 0.3 and 3 mM (sigma(alb) 0.69 +/- 0.05 and 0.91 +/- 0.03, respectively, P < 0. 05); K(f) was decreased by 3 mM apocynin (0.05 +/- 0.01 g. min(-1). mmHg(-1). 100 g(-1), P < 0.05). Diphenyleneiodonium (DPI, 5 microM), a structurally unrelated inhibitor of NADPH oxidase, worsened injury (K(f) 0.32 +/- 0.07 g. min(-1). mmHg(-1). 100 g(-1), P < 0.05). Neither apocynin nor DPI affected leukocyte sequestration. Apocynin and DPI inhibited whole blood chemiluminescence and isolated PMN leukocyte-induced resazurin reduction, confirming NADPH oxidase inhibition. Apocynin inhibited pulmonary artery hypertension and perfusate concentrations of cyclooxygenase metabolites, including thromboxane B(2). The cyclooxygenase inhibitor indomethacin had no effect on the increased vascular permeability, suggesting that cyclooxygenase inhibition was not the explanation for the apocynin results. Apocynin prevented ischemia-reperfusion lung injury, but the mechanism of protection remains unclear.
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Affiliation(s)
- J M Dodd-O
- Department of Anesthesia and Critical Care and Medicine, The Johns Hopkins Medical Institutions, Baltimore, Maryland 21224, USA
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50
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Maeurer MJ, Trinder P, Hommel G, Walter W, Freitag K, Atkins D, Störkel S. Interleukin-7 or interleukin-15 enhances survival of Mycobacterium tuberculosis-infected mice. Infect Immun 2000; 68:2962-70. [PMID: 10768995 PMCID: PMC97510 DOI: 10.1128/iai.68.5.2962-2970.2000] [Citation(s) in RCA: 75] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Both antigen-presenting cells and immune effector cells are required to effectively eradicate or contain Mycobacterium tuberculosis-infected cells. A variety of cytokines are involved to ensure productive "cross talk" between macrophages and T lymphocytes. For instance, infection of macrophages with mycobacteria leads to effective interleukin-7 (IL-7) and IL-15 secretion, and both cytokines are able to maintain strong cellular immune responses of alpha/beta and gamma/delta T cells. Here we show that either cytokine is able to enhance survival of M. tuberculosis-infected BALB/c mice significantly compared to application of IL-2, IL-4, or phosphate-buffered saline (as a control). Enhanced survival could be achieved only when IL-7 or IL-15 was delivered as a treatment (i.e., 3 weeks postinfection), not when it was administered at the time of infection. Increased survival of M. tuberculosis-infected animals was observed following passive transfer of spleen cells harvested from M. tuberculosis-infected, IL-7- or IL-15-treated animals, but not after transfer of spleen cells obtained from mice which received either cytokine alone. Histological examination revealed that IL-7 and IL-15 failed to significantly impact on the number and composition of granulomas formed or the bacterial load. Our data indicated that administration of IL-7 or IL-15 to M. tuberculosis-treated animals resulted in a qualitatively different cellular immune response in spleen cells as reflected by increased tumor necrosis factor alpha and decreased gamma interferon secretion in response to M. tuberculosis-infected antigen-presenting cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- M J Maeurer
- Department of Medical Microbiology, Johannes Gutenberg University, Mainz, Germany.
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