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Abstract
The existence of coronaviruses has been known for many years. These viruses cause significant disease that primarily seems to affect agricultural species. Human coronavirus disease due to the 2002 outbreak of Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome and the 2012 outbreak of Middle East Respiratory Syndrome made headlines; however, these outbreaks were controlled, and public concern quickly faded. This complacency ended in late 2019 when alarms were raised about a mysterious virus responsible for numerous illnesses and deaths in China. As we now know, this novel disease called Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) was caused by Severe acute respiratory syndrome-related-coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2) and rapidly became a worldwide pandemic. Luckily, decades of research into animal coronaviruses hastened our understanding of the genetics, structure, transmission, and pathogenesis of these viruses. Coronaviruses infect a wide range of wild and domestic animals, with significant economic impact in several agricultural species. Their large genome, low dependency on host cellular proteins, and frequent recombination allow coronaviruses to successfully cross species barriers and adapt to different hosts including humans. The study of the animal diseases provides an understanding of the virus biology and pathogenesis and has assisted in the rapid development of the SARS-CoV-2 vaccines. Here, we briefly review the classification, origin, etiology, transmission mechanisms, pathogenesis, clinical signs, diagnosis, treatment, and prevention strategies, including available vaccines, for coronaviruses that affect domestic, farm, laboratory, and wild animal species. We also briefly describe the coronaviruses that affect humans. Expanding our knowledge of this complex group of viruses will better prepare us to design strategies to prevent and/or minimize the impact of future coronavirus outbreaks.
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Key Words
- bcov, bovine coronavirus
- ccov, canine coronavirus
- cov(s), coronavirus(es)
- covid-19, coronavirus disease 2019
- crcov, canine respiratory coronavirus
- e, coronaviral envelope protein
- ecov, equine coronavirus
- fcov, feline coronavirus
- fipv, feline infectious peritonitis virus
- gfcov, guinea fowl coronavirus
- hcov, human coronavirus
- ibv, infectious bronchitis virus
- m, coronaviral membrane protein
- mers, middle east respiratory syndrome-coronavirus
- mhv, mouse hepatitis virus
- pedv, porcine epidemic diarrhea virus
- pdcov, porcine deltacoronavirus
- phcov, pheasant coronavirus
- phev, porcine hemagglutinating encephalomyelitis virus
- prcov, porcine respiratory coronavirus
- rt-pcr, reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction
- s, coronaviral spike protein
- sads-cov, swine acute diarrhea syndrome-coronavirus
- sars-cov, severe acute respiratory syndrome-coronavirus
- sars-cov-2, severe acute respiratory syndrome–coronavirus–2
- tcov, turkey coronavirus
- tgev, transmissible gastroenteritis virus
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Affiliation(s)
- Alfonso S Gozalo
- Comparative Medicine Branch, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland;,
| | - Tannia S Clark
- Office of Laboratory Animal Medicine, National Human Genome Research Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland
| | - David M Kurtz
- Comparative Medicine Branch, National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, National Institutes of Health, Research Triangle Park, Durham, North Carolina
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Bahoussi AN, Guo YY, Shi RZ, Wang PH, Li YQ, Wu CX, Xing L. Genetic Characteristics of Porcine Hemagglutinating Encephalomyelitis Coronavirus: Identification of Naturally Occurring Mutations Between 1970 and 2015. Front Microbiol 2022; 13:860851. [PMID: 35369458 PMCID: PMC8971845 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2022.860851] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/23/2022] [Accepted: 02/21/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Porcine hemagglutinating encephalomyelitis virus (PHEV) is a Betacoronavirus characterized by neurological symptoms and a worldwide prevalence. Although PHEV is one of the earliest discovered porcine coronaviruses, it remains poorly studied. The full-length genome of the earliest PHEV strain collected in 1970 in the United States (PHEV/67 N/US/1970) was determined in October 2020. Using this virus as a prototype, we comparatively analyzed all available PHEV full-length sequences during 1970–2015. In phylogenetic trees based on PHEV full-length or spike glycoprotein open reading frame genomic sequences, PHEV/67 N/US/1970 was sorted into a clade different from that of viruses isolated in the United States in 2015. Intriguingly, United States and Belgium viruses isolated in 2015 and 2005, respectively, revealed multiple deletion mutation patterns compared to the strain PHEV/67 N/US/1970, leading to a truncated or a non-functional NS2A coding region. In addition, the genomic similarity analysis showed a hypervariability of the spike glycoprotein coding region, which can affect at least eight potential linear B cell epitopes located in the spike glycoprotein. This report indicates that PHEVs in the United States underwent a significant genetic drift, which might influence PHEV surveillance in other countries.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Yan-Yan Guo
- Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Shanxi University, Taiyuan, China
| | - Rui-Zhu Shi
- Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Shanxi University, Taiyuan, China
| | - Pei-Hua Wang
- Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Shanxi University, Taiyuan, China
| | - Ya-Qian Li
- Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Shanxi University, Taiyuan, China
| | - Chang-Xin Wu
- Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Shanxi University, Taiyuan, China
- Shanxi Provincial Key Laboratory of Medical Molecular Cell Biology, Shanxi University, Taiyuan, China
- Shanxi Provincial Key Laboratory for Prevention and Treatment of Major Infectious Diseases, Taiyuan, China
| | - Li Xing
- Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Shanxi University, Taiyuan, China
- Shanxi Provincial Key Laboratory of Medical Molecular Cell Biology, Shanxi University, Taiyuan, China
- Shanxi Provincial Key Laboratory for Prevention and Treatment of Major Infectious Diseases, Taiyuan, China
- *Correspondence: Li Xing,
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Chavda VP, Gajjar N, Shah N, Dave DJ. Darunavir ethanolate: Repurposing an anti-HIV drug in COVID-19 treatment. EUROPEAN JOURNAL OF MEDICINAL CHEMISTRY REPORTS 2021; 3:100013. [PMID: 36575695 PMCID: PMC8532500 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejmcr.2021.100013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/25/2021] [Revised: 10/12/2021] [Accepted: 10/17/2021] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
Antivirals already on the market and expertise gained from the SARS and MERS outbreaks are gaining momentum as the most effective way to combat the coronavirus outbreak. SARS-CoV-2 has caused considerable mortality due to respiratory failure, highlighting the immediate need for successful therapies as well as the long-term need for antivirals to combat potential emergent mutants of coronaviruses. There are constant viral mutations are being observed due to which world is experiencing different waves of SARS-CoV-2. If our understanding of the virology and clinical presentation of COVID-19 grows, so does the pool of possible pharmacological targets. In COVID-19, the difficulties of proper analysis of current pre-clinical/clinical data as well as the creation of new evidence concerning drug repurposing will be crucial. The current manuscript aims to evaluate the repurposing of an anti-HIV drug Darunavir Ethanolate in COVID-19 treatment with in silico study and we discuss the therapeutic progress of Darunavir Etanolate, to prevent SARS-CoV-2 replication, which supports its clinical assessment for COVID-19 therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vivek P. Chavda
- Department of Pharmaceutics and Pharmaceutical Technology, L.M. College of Pharmacy, Ahmedabad, 380058, Gujarat, India,Corresponding author. Department of Pharmaceutics and Pharmaceutical Technology, L.M. College of Pharmacy, Navrangpura, Ahmedabad, Gujarat, India
| | - Normi Gajjar
- PharmD Section, L.M. College of Pharmacy, Ahmedabad, 380058, Gujarat, India
| | - Nirav Shah
- Department of Pharmaceutics, SAL Institute of Pharmacy, Sola, Ahmedabad, 380060, Gujarat, India
| | - Divyang J. Dave
- Department of Pharmaceutics & Pharm. Technology, K. B. Institute of Pharmaceutical Education and Research, Kadi Sarva Vishwavidyalaya, Gandhinagar, 382023, Gujarat, India
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Abstract
Historically part of the coronavirus (CoV) family, torovirus (ToV) was recently classified into the new family Tobaniviridae. While reverse genetics systems have been established for various CoVs, none exist for ToVs. Herein, we developed a reverse genetics system using an infectious full-length cDNA clone of bovine ToV (BToV) in a bacterial artificial chromosome (BAC). Recombinant BToV harboring genetic markers had the same phenotype as wild-type (wt) BToV. To generate two types of recombinant virus, the hemagglutinin-esterase (HE) gene was edited, as cell-adapted wtBToV generally loses full-length HE (HEf), resulting in soluble HE (HEs). First, recombinant viruses with HEf and HA-tagged HEf or HEs genes were rescued. These exhibited no significant differences in their effect on virus growth in HRT18 cells, suggesting that HE is not essential for viral replication in these cells. Thereafter, we generated recombinant virus (rEGFP), wherein HE was replaced by the enhanced green fluorescent protein (EGFP) gene. The rEGFP expressed EGFP in infected cells, but showed significantly lower viral growth compared to wtBToV. Moreover, the rEGFP readily deleted the EGFP gene after one passage. Interestingly, rEGFP variants with two mutations (C1442F and I3562T) in non-structural proteins (NSPs) that emerged during passages exhibited improved EGFP expression, EGFP gene retention, and viral replication. An rEGFP into which both mutations were introduced displayed a similar phenotype to these variants, suggesting that the mutations contributed to EGFP gene acceptance. The current findings provide new insights into BToV, and reverse genetics will help advance the current understanding of this neglected pathogen. Importance ToVs are diarrhea-causing pathogens detected in various species, including humans. Through the development of a BAC-based BToV, we introduced the first reverse genetics system for Tobaniviridae. Utilizing this system, recombinant BToVs with a full-length HE gene were generated. Remarkably, although clinical BToVs generally lose the HE gene after a few passages, some recombinant viruses generated in the current study retained the HE gene for up to 20 passages while accumulating mutations in NSPs, which suggested that these mutations may be involved in HE gene retention. The EGFP gene of recombinant viruses was unstable, but rEGFP into which two NSP mutations were introduced exhibited improved EGFP expression, gene retention, and viral replication. These data suggested the existence of an NSP-based acceptance or retention mechanism for exogenous RNA or HE genes. Recombinant BToVs and reverse genetics are powerful tools for understanding fundamental viral processes, infection pathogenesis, and BToV vaccine development.
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Kornguth SE, Hawley RJ. Autoimmune Processes Involved in Organ System Failure Following Infection with SARS-CoV-2. ADVANCES IN EXPERIMENTAL MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY 2021; 1318:355-368. [PMID: 33973189 DOI: 10.1007/978-3-030-63761-3_21] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
During the COVID-19 pandemic associated with high incidence, transmissibility, and mortality, this chapter focuses on three phases of the disease: initial exposure, initiation of the immune response to the agent, and finally, an inflammatory/autoimmune-like presentation with pulmonary, neurological, and renal failure and disseminated intravascular coagulation which occurs in a small proportion of the patients. The elegant demonstration of the site of interaction between the spike (S) protein of the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), which is the causative agent of COVID-19, and the ACE (angiotensin-converting enzyme) 2 receptor of cells distributed throughout the body has enabled research efforts to develop pharmacological and immune countermeasures to the viral phase of the disease. This chapter rapidly reviews the molecular and structural organization of SARS-CoV-2 and its interaction with ACE2. It is followed by a discussion over the role of the major histocompatibility complex (MHC) in recognition of the virus. The importance of rapid compartmentation of the viral genome into the target cells as opposed to the binding constant of the virus for the ACE receptor is discussed. Host factors affecting the immune response to the virus are examined, and the subsequent inflammatory dysregulation enabling the cytokine storm leading to system organ failure is described. Finally, the similarities of the clinical effects of the murine hepatitis virus-JHM (a coronavirus) on multi-organ systems (liver, brain, clotting cascade) as described by Perlman and colleagues permit insights regarding the role of the interaction between the host and the virus in developing the clinical presentation of the inflammatory/autoimmune disorders that occur in multiple sclerosis, neuromyelitis optica, and more interestingly, during the third phase of COVID-19.
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Affiliation(s)
- Steven E Kornguth
- Department of Neurology, Dell Medical School, University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX, USA.
- Biological Safety and Security, Frederick, MD, USA.
| | - Robert J Hawley
- Biological Safety and Security, Frederick, MD, USA
- Department of Kinesiology and Health Education, University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX, USA
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Ujike M, Taguchi F. Recent Progress in Torovirus Molecular Biology. Viruses 2021; 13:435. [PMID: 33800523 PMCID: PMC7998386 DOI: 10.3390/v13030435] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2021] [Revised: 02/24/2021] [Accepted: 02/24/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Torovirus (ToV) has recently been classified into the new family Tobaniviridae, although it belonged to the Coronavirus (CoV) family historically. ToVs are associated with enteric diseases in animals and humans. In contrast to CoVs, which are recognised as pathogens of veterinary and medical importance, little attention has been paid to ToVs because their infections are usually asymptomatic or not severe; for a long time, only one equine ToV could be propagated in cultured cells. However, bovine ToVs, which predominantly cause diarrhoea in calves, have been detected worldwide, leading to economic losses. Porcine ToVs have also spread globally; although they have not caused serious economic losses, coinfections with other pathogens can exacerbate their symptoms. In addition, frequent inter- or intra-recombination among ToVs can increase pathogenesis or unpredicted host adaptation. These findings have highlighted the importance of ToVs as pathogens and the need for basic ToV research. Here, we review recent progress in the study of ToV molecular biology including reverse genetics, focusing on the similarities and differences between ToVs and CoVs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Makoto Ujike
- Laboratory of Veterinary Infectious Diseases, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Nippon Veterinary and Life Science University, 1-7-1 Kyonan-cho, Musashino, Tokyo 180-8602, Japan;
- Research Center for Animal Life Science, Nippon Veterinary and Life Science University, 1-7-1 Kyonan-cho, Musashino, Tokyo 180-8602, Japan
| | - Fumihiro Taguchi
- Laboratory of Veterinary Infectious Diseases, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Nippon Veterinary and Life Science University, 1-7-1 Kyonan-cho, Musashino, Tokyo 180-8602, Japan;
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Ujike M, Kawachi Y, Matsunaga Y, Etho Y, Asanuma H, Kamitani W, Taguchi F. Characterization of Localization and Export Signals of Bovine Torovirus Nucleocapsid Protein Responsible for Extensive Nuclear and Nucleolar Accumulation and Their Importance for Virus Growth. J Virol 2021; 95:e02111-20. [PMID: 33177195 PMCID: PMC7925113 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.02111-20] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/29/2020] [Accepted: 11/02/2020] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Torovirus (ToV) has recently been classified into the new family Tobaniviridae, although historically, it belonged to the Coronavirus (CoV) family. The nucleocapsid (N) proteins of CoVs are predominantly localized in the cytoplasm, where the viruses replicate, but in some cases the proteins are partially located in the nucleolus. Many studies have investigated the subcellular localization and nucleocytoplasmic trafficking signals of the CoV N proteins, but little is known about ToV N proteins. Here, we studied the subcellular localization of the bovine ToV (BToV) N protein (BToN) and characterized its nucleocytoplasmic trafficking signals. Unlike other CoVs, BToN in infected cells was transported mainly to the nucleolus during early infection but was distributed predominantly in the nucleoplasm rather than in the nucleolus during late infection. Interestingly, a small quantity of BToN was detected in the cytoplasm during infection. Examination of a comprehensive set of substitution or deletion mutants of BToN fused with enhanced green fluorescent protein (EGFP) revealed that clusters of arginine (R) residues comprise nuclear/nucleolar localization signals (NLS/NoLS), and the C-terminal region served as a chromosomal maintenance 1 (CRM1)-independent nuclear export signal (NES). Moreover, recombinant viruses with mutations in the NLS/NoLS, but retaining nuclear accumulation, were successfully rescued and showed slightly reduced growth ability, while the virus that lost the NLS/NoLS-mediated nuclear accumulation of BToN was not rescued. These results indicate that BToN uniquely accumulates mainly in nuclear compartments during infection, regulated by an R-rich NLS/NoLS and a CRM1-independent NES, and that the BToN accumulation in the nuclear compartment driven by NLS/NoLS is important for virus growth.IMPORTANCE ToVs are diarrhea-causing pathogens detected in many species, including humans. BToV has spread worldwide, leading to economic loss, and there is currently no treatment or vaccine available. Positive-stranded RNA viruses, including ToVs, replicate in the cytoplasm, and their structural proteins generally accumulate in the cytoplasm. Interestingly, BToN accumulated predominantly in the nucleus/nucleolus during all infectious processes, with only a small fraction accumulating in the cytoplasm despite being a major structural protein. Furthermore, we identified unique nucleocytoplasmic trafficking signals and demonstrated the importance of NLS/NoLS for virus growth. This study is the first to undertake an in-depth investigation of the subcellular localization and intracellular trafficking signals of BToN. Our findings additionally suggest that the NLS/NoLS-mediated nuclear accumulation of BToN is important for virus replication. An understanding of the unique features of BToV may provide novel insights into the assembly mechanisms of not only ToVs but also other positive-stranded RNA viruses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Makoto Ujike
- Laboratory of Veterinary Infectious Diseases, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Nippon Veterinary and Life Science University, Tokyo, Japan
- Research Center for Animal Life Science, Nippon Veterinary and Life Science University, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Yukako Kawachi
- Laboratory of Veterinary Infectious Diseases, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Nippon Veterinary and Life Science University, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Yui Matsunaga
- Laboratory of Veterinary Infectious Diseases, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Nippon Veterinary and Life Science University, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Yuka Etho
- Laboratory of Veterinary Infectious Diseases, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Nippon Veterinary and Life Science University, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Hideki Asanuma
- Influenza Virus Research Center, National Institute of Infectious Diseases, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Wataru Kamitani
- Department of Infectious Diseases and Host Defense, Gunma University Graduate School of Medicine, Gunma, Japan
| | - Fumihiro Taguchi
- Laboratory of Veterinary Infectious Diseases, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Nippon Veterinary and Life Science University, Tokyo, Japan
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Shukla A, Parmar P, Kapoor G, Goswami D, Jha CK, Patel B, Saraf M. Curse of La Corona: unravelling the scientific and psychological conundrums of the 21st century pandemic. Mol Divers 2021; 26:555-568. [PMID: 33392967 PMCID: PMC7779162 DOI: 10.1007/s11030-020-10167-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/03/2020] [Accepted: 11/28/2020] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
Abstract
Microbes possess a tremendous potential to interact with their surroundings and have continued to shape the future of all life forms existing on earth. Of all the groups of microbes, viruses are the most nefarious creatures which cannot be solely classified as living or non-living but still pose the greatest threats to the biosphere. Viruses are minuscule, diverse and are probably the only entities that exhibit non-mutualistic association with other lifeforms while retaining their ability to infect and hijack any of the existing living being on the planet. The latest global devastation, caused by novel SARS-CoV-2, is unparalleled in the last century. This review encompasses the mysterious origin of this virus by tracking its lineage, which may help to decode the conundrum of SARS-CoV-2 and shed more light on its epidemiology. The implications and the challenge posed by this virus to the scientific community to the medical community and the economy at large are reflected. Also discussed is the paradigm shift brought upon by the COVID-19 pandemic on the human psyche and their behaviour.
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Affiliation(s)
- Arpit Shukla
- Department of Biological Sciences and Biotechnology, Institute of Advanced Research, University of Innovation, Koba Institutional Area, Gandhinagar, Gujarat 382426 India
- Department of Microbiology and Biotechnology, University School of Sciences, Gujarat University, Ahmedabad, Gujarat 380009 India
| | - Paritosh Parmar
- Department of Microbiology and Biotechnology, University School of Sciences, Gujarat University, Ahmedabad, Gujarat 380009 India
| | - Gitanjali Kapoor
- Department of Psychology, University School of Psychology, Philosophy and Education, Gujarat University, Ahmedabad, Gujarat 380009 India
| | - Dweipayan Goswami
- Department of Microbiology and Biotechnology, University School of Sciences, Gujarat University, Ahmedabad, Gujarat 380009 India
| | - Chaitanya Kumar Jha
- Microbiology Department, Gujarat Arts and Science College, Ahmedabad, Gujarat 380006 India
| | - Baldev Patel
- Department of Microbiology and Biotechnology, University School of Sciences, Gujarat University, Ahmedabad, Gujarat 380009 India
| | - Meenu Saraf
- Department of Microbiology and Biotechnology, University School of Sciences, Gujarat University, Ahmedabad, Gujarat 380009 India
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Aydogdu MO, Altun E, Chung E, Ren G, Homer-Vanniasinkam S, Chen B, Edirisinghe M. Surface interactions and viability of coronaviruses. J R Soc Interface 2021; 18:20200798. [PMID: 33402019 PMCID: PMC7879773 DOI: 10.1098/rsif.2020.0798] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/02/2020] [Accepted: 12/07/2020] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
The recently emerged coronavirus pandemic (COVID-19) has become a worldwide threat affecting millions of people, causing respiratory system related problems that can end up with extremely serious consequences. As the infection rate rises significantly and this is followed by a dramatic increase in mortality, the whole world is struggling to accommodate change and is trying to adapt to new conditions. While a significant amount of effort is focused on developing a vaccine in order to make a game-changing anti-COVID-19 breakthrough, novel coronavirus (SARS-CoV-2) is also developing mutations rapidly as it transmits just like any other virus and there is always a substantial chance of the invented antibodies becoming ineffective as a function of time, thus failing to inhibit virus-to-cell binding efficiency as the spiked protein keeps evolving. Hence, controlling the transmission of the virus is crucial. Therefore, this review summarizes the viability of coronaviruses on inanimate surfaces under different conditions while addressing the current state of known chemical disinfectants for deactivation of the coronaviruses. The review attempts to bring together a wide spectrum of surface-virus-cleaning agent interactions to help identify material selection for inanimate surfaces that have frequent human contact and cleaning procedures for effective prevention of COVID-19 transmission.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mehmet Onur Aydogdu
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, University College London (UCL), Torrington Place, London WC1E 7JE, UK
| | - Esra Altun
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, University College London (UCL), Torrington Place, London WC1E 7JE, UK
| | - Etelka Chung
- Science and Technology Research Institute, University of Hertfordshire, Hatfield AL10 9AB, UK
| | - Guogang Ren
- Science and Technology Research Institute, University of Hertfordshire, Hatfield AL10 9AB, UK
| | | | - Biqiong Chen
- School of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Queen's University Belfast, Belfast BT7 1NN, UK
| | - Mohan Edirisinghe
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, University College London (UCL), Torrington Place, London WC1E 7JE, UK
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Sofi MS, Hamid A, Bhat SU. SARS-CoV-2: A critical review of its history, pathogenesis, transmission, diagnosis and treatment. BIOSAFETY AND HEALTH 2020; 2:217-225. [PMID: 33196035 PMCID: PMC7648888 DOI: 10.1016/j.bsheal.2020.11.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/11/2020] [Revised: 11/05/2020] [Accepted: 11/05/2020] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
The outbreak of the deadly virus (novel coronavirus or Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus-2) that emerged in December 2019, remained a controversial subject of intense speculations regarding its origin, became a worldwide health problem resulting in serious coronavirus disease 2019 (acronym COVID-19). The concern regarding this new viral strain "Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus-2" (acronym SARS-CoV-2) and diseases it causes (COVID-19) is well deserved at all levels. The incidence of COVID-19 infection and infectious patients are increasing at a high rate. Coronaviruses (CoVs), enclosed positive-sense RNA viruses, are distinguished by club-like spikes extending from their surface, an exceptionally large genome of RNA, and a special mechanism for replication. Coronaviruses are associated with a broad variety of human and other animal diseases spanning from enteritis in cattle and pigs and upper chicken respiratory disease to extremely lethal human respiratory infections. With World Health Organization (WHO) declaring COVID-19 as pandemic, we deemed it necessary to provide a detailed review of coronaviruses discussing their history, current situation, coronavirus classification, pathogenesis, structure, mode of action, diagnosis and treatment, the effect of environmental factors, risk reduction and guidelines to understand the virus and develop ways to control it.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Sami Ullah Bhat
- Corresponding author: Department of Environmental Science, School of Earth and Environmental Science, University of Kashmir, 190006, India
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Pawar HA, Pawar AH, Pawar SA, Pawar PA. CORONAVIRUS and COVID-19: A Systematic Review and Perspective. CURRENT DRUG THERAPY 2020. [DOI: 10.2174/1574885515999200719142835] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
Coronavirus (CoV) is an enveloped positive-sense RNA virus. Coronavirus disease 2019
(COVID-19) is an acute respiratory disease, induced by a new type of coronavirus, SARS-CoV-2.
COVID-19 has originated in China and spread quickly all over the world. WHO acknowledged the
outbreak of a global pandemic on March 11, 2020. The spread of COVID-19 signified a big threat
to social life, the economy, and public health. As of April 14, 2020, WHO reported a total of
1,812,734 confirmed cases of COVID-19 and 113,675 (6.27 %) deaths throughout the world. Numerous
nations around the globe took assorted measures because of the danger of SARS-CoV-2 and
created wide-ranging preventive approaches. No particular drug or vaccines/antibodies are yet accessible
for the treatment of this unforeseen and lethal illness. The pandemic has brought about
travel limitations and across the country lockdowns in most of the nations. The objective behind
this article was to provide recent updates and well-authenticated information to the scientific community,
health care personnel’s and common public about Coronavirus, their types, characteristic
features, structure and origin, mode of transmission, pathogenesis, clinical symptoms, diagnostic
methods, drug development approach, prevention and treatment of COVID-19.
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Affiliation(s)
- Harshal Ashok Pawar
- Department of Pharmacognosy, Dr. L. H. Hiranandani College of Pharmacy, Ulhasnagar-421003, Maharashtra, India
| | - Anjali Harshal Pawar
- Naturopathiest, Aai Nature Cure, Ram Baug Lane-1, Kalyan (W)-421301, Maharashtra, India
| | - Sandip Ashok Pawar
- Manufacturing Science and Technology, Sandoz - A Division of Novartis, Kalwe, Navi Mumbai-400708, Maharashtra, India
| | - Prashant Ashok Pawar
- Executive-External Manufacturing, Glenmark Pharmaceuticals Pvt. Ltd., Andheri (E), Mumbai-400099, Maharashtra, India
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Wang Y, Grunewald M, Perlman S. Coronaviruses: An Updated Overview of Their Replication and Pathogenesis. Methods Mol Biol 2020; 2203:1-29. [PMID: 32833200 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-0716-0900-2_1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 113] [Impact Index Per Article: 28.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Coronaviruses (CoVs), enveloped positive-sense RNA viruses, are characterized by club-like spikes that project from their surface, an unusually large RNA genome, and a unique replication strategy. CoVs cause a variety of diseases in mammals and birds ranging from enteritis in cows and pigs, and upper respiratory tract and kidney disease in chickens to lethal human respiratory infections. Most recently, the novel coronavirus, SARS-CoV-2, which was first identified in Wuhan, China in December 2019, is the cause of a catastrophic pandemic, COVID-19, with more than 8 million infections diagnosed worldwide by mid-June 2020. Here we provide a brief introduction to CoVs discussing their replication, pathogenicity, and current prevention and treatment strategies. We will also discuss the outbreaks of the highly pathogenic Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus (SARS-CoV) and Middle Eastern Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus (MERS-CoV), which are relevant for understanding COVID-19.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuhang Wang
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA, USA
| | - Matthew Grunewald
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA, USA
| | - Stanley Perlman
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA, USA.
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13
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Sadeghi Dousari A, Taati Moghadam M, Satarzadeh N. COVID-19 (Coronavirus Disease 2019): A New Coronavirus Disease. Infect Drug Resist 2020; 13:2819-2828. [PMID: 32848431 PMCID: PMC7429403 DOI: 10.2147/idr.s259279] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/21/2020] [Accepted: 07/28/2020] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) is a type of viral pneumonia with an uncommon outbreak in Wuhan, China, in December 2019, which is caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV2). SARS-CoV-2 is extremely contagious and has resulted in a fast pandemic of COVID-19. Currently, COVID-19 is on the rise around the world, and it poses a severe threat to public health around the world. This review provides an overview about the COVID-19 virus to increase public awareness and understanding of the virus and its consequences in terms of history, epidemiology, structure, genome, clinical symptoms, diagnosis, prevention, and treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amin Sadeghi Dousari
- Department of Microbiology, School of Medicine, Jiroft University of Medical Sciences, Jiroft, Iran
| | - Majid Taati Moghadam
- Department of Microbiology, School of Medicine, Iran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
- Student Research Committee, Iran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Naghmeh Satarzadeh
- Student Research Committee, Faculty of Pharmacy, Kerman University of Medical Sciences, Kerman, Iran
- Department of Pharmaceutical Biotechnology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Kerman University of Medical Sciences, Kerman, Iran
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14
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Li H, Zhang B, Yue H, Tang C. First detection and genomic characteristics of bovine torovirus in dairy calves in China. Arch Virol 2020; 165:1577-1583. [PMID: 32388597 PMCID: PMC7210800 DOI: 10.1007/s00705-020-04657-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/15/2020] [Accepted: 04/12/2020] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Bovine torovirus (BToV) is a diarrhea-causing pathogen. In this study, 92 diarrheic fecal samples from five farms in four provinces in China were collected and tested for BToV using a RT-PCR assay, and 21.73% samples were found to be BToV positive. Moreover, two complete BToV genome sequences (MN073058 and MN073059) were obtained from the clinical samples, which were 28,297 and 28,301 nucleotides in length, respectively. Sequence analysis showed that the two isolates shared 10 identical amino acid mutations in the S protein compared to the complete S sequences of BToV available in the GenBank database. In addition, seven consecutive amino acid mutations were found from aa 1,486 to 1,492 in the S protein of isolate MN073058. Moreover, the two isolates shared one identical amino acid mutation in the receptor binding sites of the HE protein. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first report on the epidemic and genomic characterization of BToV in China, which is helpful for further understanding the genetic evolution of BToV.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hao Li
- College of Life Science and Technology, Southwest Minzu University, No. 16, South 4th Section 1st Ring Road, Chengdu, 610041, China
| | - Bin Zhang
- College of Life Science and Technology, Southwest Minzu University, No. 16, South 4th Section 1st Ring Road, Chengdu, 610041, China
- Innovation Team of Beef Cattle, Chengdu, Sichuan, China
| | - Hua Yue
- College of Life Science and Technology, Southwest Minzu University, No. 16, South 4th Section 1st Ring Road, Chengdu, 610041, China
| | - Cheng Tang
- College of Life Science and Technology, Southwest Minzu University, No. 16, South 4th Section 1st Ring Road, Chengdu, 610041, China.
- Innovation Team of Beef Cattle, Chengdu, Sichuan, China.
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15
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Liang Y, Wang ML, Chien CS, Yarmishyn AA, Yang YP, Lai WY, Luo YH, Lin YT, Chen YJ, Chang PC, Chiou SH. Highlight of Immune Pathogenic Response and Hematopathologic Effect in SARS-CoV, MERS-CoV, and SARS-Cov-2 Infection. Front Immunol 2020; 11:1022. [PMID: 32574260 PMCID: PMC7236801 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2020.01022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 118] [Impact Index Per Article: 29.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/30/2020] [Accepted: 04/28/2020] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
A sudden outbreak of COVID-19 caused by a novel coronavirus, SARS-CoV-2, in Wuhan, China in December 2019 quickly grew into a global pandemic, putting at risk not only the global healthcare system, but also the world economy. As the disease continues to spread rapidly, the development of prophylactic and therapeutic approaches is urgently required. Although some progress has been made in understanding the viral structure and invasion mechanism of coronaviruses that may cause severe cases of the syndrome, due to the limited understanding of the immune effects caused by SARS-CoV-2, it is difficult for us to prevent patients from developing acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) and pulmonary fibrosis (PF), the major complications of coronavirus infection. Therefore, any potential treatments should focus not only on direct killing of coronaviruses and prevention strategies by vaccine development, but also on keeping in check the acute immune/inflammatory responses, resulting in ARDS and PF. In addition, potential treatments currently under clinical trials focusing on killing coronaviruses or on developing vaccines preventing coronavirus infection largely ignore the host immune response. However, taking care of SARS-CoV-2 infected patients with ARDS and PF is considered to be the major difficulty. Therefore, further understanding of the host immune response to SARS-CoV-2 is extremely important for clinical resolution and saving medication cost. In addition to a breif overview of the structure, infection mechanism, and possible therapeutic approaches, we summarized and compared the hematopathologic effect and immune responses to SARS-CoV, MERS-CoV, and SARS-CoV-2. We also discussed the indirect immune response caused by SARS and direct infection, replication, and destroying of immune cells by MERS-CoV. The molecular mechanisms of SARS-CoV and MERS-CoV infection-induced lymphopenia or cytokine storm may provide some hint toward fight against SARS-CoV-2, the novel coronavirus. This may provide guidance over using immune therapy as a combined treatment to prevent patients developing severe respiratory syndrome and largely reduce complications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yanwen Liang
- Department of Medical Research, Taipei Veterans General Hospital, Taipei, Taiwan
- Department of Life Sciences and Institute of Genomic Sciences, National Yang-Ming University, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Mong-Lien Wang
- Department of Medical Research, Taipei Veterans General Hospital, Taipei, Taiwan
- Institute of Food Safety and Health Risk Assessment, National Yang-Ming University, Taipei, Taiwan
- School of Medicine, National Yang-Ming Medical University, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Chian-Shiu Chien
- Department of Medical Research, Taipei Veterans General Hospital, Taipei, Taiwan
- Institute of Pharmacology, National Yang-Ming University, Taipei, Taiwan
| | | | - Yi-Ping Yang
- Department of Medical Research, Taipei Veterans General Hospital, Taipei, Taiwan
- School of Medicine, National Yang-Ming Medical University, Taipei, Taiwan
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, National Yang-Ming University, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Wei-Yi Lai
- Department of Medical Research, Taipei Veterans General Hospital, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Yung-Hung Luo
- School of Medicine, National Yang-Ming Medical University, Taipei, Taiwan
- Department of Chest Medicine, Taipei Veterans General Hospital, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Yi-Tsung Lin
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, Taipei Veterans General Hospital, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Yann-Jang Chen
- Department of Life Sciences and Institute of Genomic Sciences, National Yang-Ming University, Taipei, Taiwan
- Institute of Clinical Medicine, National Yang-Ming University, Taipei, Taiwan
- Department of Pediatrics, Renai Branch, Taipei City Hospital, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Pei-Ching Chang
- Institute of Microbiology and Immunology, National Yang-Ming University, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Shih-Hwa Chiou
- Department of Medical Research, Taipei Veterans General Hospital, Taipei, Taiwan
- School of Medicine, National Yang-Ming Medical University, Taipei, Taiwan
- Institute of Pharmacology, National Yang-Ming University, Taipei, Taiwan
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, National Yang-Ming University, Taipei, Taiwan
- Genomic Research Center, Academia Sinica, Taipei, Taiwan
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16
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Lundstrom K. Coronavirus Pandemic-Therapy and Vaccines. Biomedicines 2020; 8:E109. [PMID: 32375268 PMCID: PMC7277397 DOI: 10.3390/biomedicines8050109] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2020] [Revised: 04/29/2020] [Accepted: 04/30/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The current coronavirus COVID-19 pandemic, which originated in Wuhan, China, has raised significant social, psychological and economic concerns in addition to direct medical issues. The rapid spread of severe acute respiratory syndrome-coronavirus (SARS-CoV)-2 to almost every country on the globe and the failure to contain the infections have contributed to fear and panic worldwide. The lack of available and efficient antiviral drugs or vaccines has further worsened the situation. For these reasons, it cannot be overstated that an accelerated effort for the development of novel drugs and vaccines is needed. In this context, novel approaches in both gene therapy and vaccine development are essential. Previous experience from SARS- and MERS-coronavirus vaccine and drug development projects have targeted glycoprotein epitopes, monoclonal antibodies, angiotensin receptor blockers and gene silencing technologies, which may be useful for COVID-19 too. Moreover, existing antivirals used for other types of viral infections have been considered as urgent action is necessary. This review aims at providing a background of coronavirus genetics and biology, examples of therapeutic and vaccine strategies taken and potential innovative novel approaches in progress.
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Sriwilaijaroen N, Suzuki Y. Sialoglycovirology of Lectins: Sialyl Glycan Binding of Enveloped and Non-enveloped Viruses. Methods Mol Biol 2020; 2132:483-545. [PMID: 32306355 PMCID: PMC7165297 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-0716-0430-4_47] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/24/2023]
Abstract
On the cell sur "face", sialoglycoconjugates act as receptionists that have an important role in the first step of various cellular processes that bridge communication between the cell and its environment. Loss of Sia production can cause the developmental of defects and lethality in most animals; hence, animal cells are less prone to evolution of resistance to interactions by rapidly evolved Sia-binding viruses. Obligative intracellular viruses mostly have rapid evolution that allows escape from host immunity, leading to an epidemic variant, and that allows emergence of a novel strain, occasionally leading to pandemics that cause health-social-economic problems. Recently, much attention has been given to the mutual recognition systems via sialosugar chains between viruses and their host cells and there has been rapid growth of the research field "sialoglycovirology." In this chapter, the structural diversity of sialoglycoconjugates is overviewed, and enveloped and non-enveloped viruses that bind to Sia are reviewed. Also, interactions of viral lectins-host Sia receptors, which determine viral transmission, host range, and pathogenesis, are presented. The future direction of new therapeutic routes targeting viral lectins, development of easy-to-use detection methods for diagnosis and monitoring changes in virus binding specificity, and challenges in the development of suitable viruses to use in virus-based therapies for genetic disorders and cancer are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nongluk Sriwilaijaroen
- Department of Preclinical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, Thammasat University, Pathumthani, Thailand
- College of Life and Health Sciences, Chubu University, Kasugai, Aichi, Japan
| | - Yasuo Suzuki
- College of Life and Health Sciences, Chubu University, Kasugai, Aichi, Japan.
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18
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Ávila-Pérez G, Diaz-Beneitez E, Cubas-Gaona LL, Nieves-Molina G, Rodríguez JR, Rodríguez JF, Rodríguez D. Activation of the autophagy pathway by Torovirus infection is irrelevant for virus replication. PLoS One 2019; 14:e0219428. [PMID: 31306441 PMCID: PMC6629058 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0219428] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/10/2018] [Accepted: 06/24/2019] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Autophagy is a conserved eukaryotic process that mediates lysosomal degradation of cytoplasmic macromolecules and damaged organelles, also exerting an important role in the elimination of intracellular pathogens. Despite the antiviral role of autophagy, many studies suggest that some positive-stranded RNA viruses exploit this pathway to facilitate their own replication. In this study, we demonstrate that the equine torovirus Berne virus (BEV), the prototype member of the Torovirus genus (Coronaviridae Family, Nidovirales Order), induces autophagy at late times post-infection. Conversion of microtubule associated protein 1B light chain 3 (LC3) from cytosolic (LC3 I) to the membrane associated form (LC3 II), a canonical marker of autophagosome formation, is enhanced in BEV infected cells. However, neither autophagy induction, via starvation, nor pharmacological blockade significantly affect BEV replication. Similarly, BEV infection is not altered in autophagy deficient cells lacking either Beclin 1 or LC3B protein expression. Unexpectedly, the cargo receptor p62, a selective autophagy receptor, aggregates within the region where the BEV main protease (Mpro) localizes. This finding, coupled with observation that BEV replication also induces ER stress at the time when selective autophagy is taking place, suggests that the autophagy pathway is activated in response to the hefty accumulation of virus-encoded polypeptides during the late phase of BEV infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ginés Ávila-Pérez
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Centro Nacional de Biotecnología, CSIC, C/Darwin, Madrid, Spain
| | - Elisabet Diaz-Beneitez
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Centro Nacional de Biotecnología, CSIC, C/Darwin, Madrid, Spain
| | - Liliana L. Cubas-Gaona
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Centro Nacional de Biotecnología, CSIC, C/Darwin, Madrid, Spain
| | - Gliselle Nieves-Molina
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Centro Nacional de Biotecnología, CSIC, C/Darwin, Madrid, Spain
| | | | - José F. Rodríguez
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Centro Nacional de Biotecnología, CSIC, C/Darwin, Madrid, Spain
| | - Dolores Rodríguez
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Centro Nacional de Biotecnología, CSIC, C/Darwin, Madrid, Spain
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19
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Hu ZM, Yang YL, Xu LD, Wang B, Qin P, Huang YW. Porcine Torovirus (PToV)-A Brief Review of Etiology, Diagnostic Assays and Current Epidemiology. Front Vet Sci 2019; 6:120. [PMID: 31058174 PMCID: PMC6482245 DOI: 10.3389/fvets.2019.00120] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/07/2018] [Accepted: 03/29/2019] [Indexed: 01/23/2023] Open
Abstract
Porcine torovirus (PToV) is a potential enteric swine pathogen, found at especially high rates in piglets with diarrhea. It was first reported in the Netherlands in 1998 and has emerged in many countries around the world. Infections are generally asymptomatic and have not directly caused large economic losses, though co-infections with other swine pathogens and intertype recombination may lead to unpredictable outcomes. This review introduces progress in PToV research regarding its discovery, relationship with other Toroviruses, virion morphological characteristics, genetic structure and variation, recent epidemiology, diagnostic methods, and possibilities for future research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhang-Min Hu
- Key Laboratory of Animal Virology of Ministry of Agriculture and Institute of Preventive Veterinary Medicine, College of Animal Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Yong-Le Yang
- Key Laboratory of Animal Virology of Ministry of Agriculture and Institute of Preventive Veterinary Medicine, College of Animal Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Ling-Dong Xu
- Key Laboratory of Animal Virology of Ministry of Agriculture and Institute of Preventive Veterinary Medicine, College of Animal Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Bin Wang
- Key Laboratory of Animal Virology of Ministry of Agriculture and Institute of Preventive Veterinary Medicine, College of Animal Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Pan Qin
- Key Laboratory of Animal Virology of Ministry of Agriculture and Institute of Preventive Veterinary Medicine, College of Animal Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Yao-Wei Huang
- Key Laboratory of Animal Virology of Ministry of Agriculture and Institute of Preventive Veterinary Medicine, College of Animal Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China
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20
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Mora-Díaz JC, Piñeyro PE, Houston E, Zimmerman J, Giménez-Lirola LG. Porcine Hemagglutinating Encephalomyelitis Virus: A Review. Front Vet Sci 2019; 6:53. [PMID: 30873421 PMCID: PMC6402421 DOI: 10.3389/fvets.2019.00053] [Citation(s) in RCA: 71] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/08/2018] [Accepted: 02/07/2019] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
The porcine hemagglutinating encephalomyelitis virus (PHEV) is classified as a member of genus Betacoronavirus, family Coronaviridae, sub-family Cornavirinae, and order Nidovirales. PHEV shares the same genomic organization, replication strategy, and expression of viral proteins as other nidoviruses. PHEV produces vomiting and wasting disease (VWD) and/or encephalomyelitis, being the only known neurotropic coronavirus affecting pigs. First clinical outbreak was reported in 1957 in Ontario, Canada. Although pigs are the only species susceptible to natural PHEV infections, the virus displays neurotropism in mice and Wistar rats. Clinical disease, morbidity, and mortality is age-dependent and generally reported only in piglets under 4 weeks old. The primary site of replication of PHEV in pigs is the respiratory tract, and it can be further spread to the central nervous system through the peripheral nervous system via different pathways. The diagnosis of PHEV can be made using a combination of direct and indirect detection methods. The virus can be isolated from different tissues within the acute phase of the clinical signs using primary and secondary pig-derived cell lines. PHEV agglutinates the erythrocytes of mice, rats, chickens, and several other animals. PCR-based methods are useful to identify and subsequently isolate animals that are actively shedding the virus. The ability to detect antibodies allows producers to know the status of first-litter gilts and evaluate their risk of tier offspring to infection. PHEV is highly prevalent and circulates subclinically in most swine herds worldwide. PHEV-related disease is not clinically relevant in most of the swine-producing countries, most likely because of dams are immune to PHEV which may confer passive immunity to their offspring. However, PHEV should be considered a major source of economic loss because of the high mortality on farms with high gilt replacement rates, specific pathogen-free animals, and gnotobiotic swine herds. Thus, in the absence of current PHEV vaccines, promoting virus circulation on farms with early exposure to gilts and young sows could induce maternal immunity and prevent disease in piglets.
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Affiliation(s)
- Juan Carlos Mora-Díaz
- Department of Veterinary Diagnostic and Production Animal Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, Iowa State University, Ames, IA, United States
| | - Pablo Enrique Piñeyro
- Department of Veterinary Diagnostic and Production Animal Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, Iowa State University, Ames, IA, United States
| | - Elizabeth Houston
- Department of Veterinary Diagnostic and Production Animal Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, Iowa State University, Ames, IA, United States
| | - Jeffrey Zimmerman
- Department of Veterinary Diagnostic and Production Animal Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, Iowa State University, Ames, IA, United States
| | - Luis Gabriel Giménez-Lirola
- Department of Veterinary Diagnostic and Production Animal Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, Iowa State University, Ames, IA, United States
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21
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Huang C, Liu WJ, Xu W, Jin T, Zhao Y, Song J, Shi Y, Ji W, Jia H, Zhou Y, Wen H, Zhao H, Liu H, Li H, Wang Q, Wu Y, Wang L, Liu D, Liu G, Yu H, Holmes EC, Lu L, Gao GF. A Bat-Derived Putative Cross-Family Recombinant Coronavirus with a Reovirus Gene. PLoS Pathog 2016; 12:e1005883. [PMID: 27676249 PMCID: PMC5038965 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1005883] [Citation(s) in RCA: 76] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/01/2016] [Accepted: 08/19/2016] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
The emergence of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus (SARS-CoV) in 2002 and Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus (MERS-CoV) in 2012 has generated enormous interest in the biodiversity, genomics and cross-species transmission potential of coronaviruses, especially those from bats, the second most speciose order of mammals. Herein, we identified a novel coronavirus, provisionally designated Rousettus bat coronavirus GCCDC1 (Ro-BatCoV GCCDC1), in the rectal swab samples of Rousettus leschenaulti bats by using pan-coronavirus RT-PCR and next-generation sequencing. Although the virus is similar to Rousettus bat coronavirus HKU9 (Ro-BatCoV HKU9) in genome characteristics, it is sufficiently distinct to be classified as a new species according to the criteria defined by the International Committee of Taxonomy of Viruses (ICTV). More striking was that Ro-BatCoV GCCDC1 contained a unique gene integrated into the 3'-end of the genome that has no homologs in any known coronavirus, but which sequence and phylogeny analyses indicated most likely originated from the p10 gene of a bat orthoreovirus. Subgenomic mRNA and cellular-level observations demonstrated that the p10 gene is functional and induces the formation of cell syncytia. Therefore, here we report a putative heterologous inter-family recombination event between a single-stranded, positive-sense RNA virus and a double-stranded segmented RNA virus, providing insights into the fundamental mechanisms of viral evolution.
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Affiliation(s)
- Canping Huang
- National Institute for Viral Disease Control and Prevention, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention (China CDC), Beijing, China
| | - William J. Liu
- National Institute for Viral Disease Control and Prevention, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention (China CDC), Beijing, China
- College of Laboratory Medicine and Life Sciences, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, China
| | - Wen Xu
- Yunnan Provincial Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Kunming Yunnan, China
| | - Tao Jin
- China National Genebank-Shenzhen, BGI-Shenzhen, Shenzhen, China
| | - Yingze Zhao
- National Institute for Viral Disease Control and Prevention, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention (China CDC), Beijing, China
| | - Jingdong Song
- National Institute for Viral Disease Control and Prevention, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention (China CDC), Beijing, China
| | - Yi Shi
- CAS Key Laboratory of Pathogenic Microbiology and Immunology, Institute of Microbiology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Wei Ji
- National Institute for Viral Disease Control and Prevention, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention (China CDC), Beijing, China
| | - Hao Jia
- National Institute for Viral Disease Control and Prevention, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention (China CDC), Beijing, China
- College of Laboratory Medicine and Life Sciences, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, China
| | - Yongming Zhou
- Yunnan Provincial Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Kunming Yunnan, China
| | - Honghua Wen
- Center for Disease Control and Prevention of Mengla County, Mengla Yunnan, China
| | - Honglan Zhao
- National Institute for Viral Disease Control and Prevention, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention (China CDC), Beijing, China
| | - Huaxing Liu
- Center for Disease Control and Prevention of Mengla County, Mengla Yunnan, China
| | - Hong Li
- Yunnan Provincial Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Kunming Yunnan, China
| | - Qihui Wang
- CAS Key Laboratory of Microbial and Metabolic Engineering, Institute of Microbiology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Ying Wu
- CAS Key Laboratory of Pathogenic Microbiology and Immunology, Institute of Microbiology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Liang Wang
- CAS Key Laboratory of Pathogenic Microbiology and Immunology, Institute of Microbiology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Di Liu
- CAS Key Laboratory of Pathogenic Microbiology and Immunology, Institute of Microbiology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
- Network Information Center, Institute of Microbiology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Guang Liu
- China National Genebank-Shenzhen, BGI-Shenzhen, Shenzhen, China
| | - Hongjie Yu
- Division of Infectious Disease, Key Laboratory of Surveillance and Early-warning on Infectious Disease, Chinese Centre for Disease Control and Prevention, Beijing, China
| | - Edward C. Holmes
- Marie Bashir Institute of Infectious Diseases and Biosecurity, Charles Perkins Centre, School of Biological Sciences and Sydney Medical School, The University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Lin Lu
- Yunnan Provincial Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Kunming Yunnan, China
| | - George F. Gao
- National Institute for Viral Disease Control and Prevention, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention (China CDC), Beijing, China
- College of Laboratory Medicine and Life Sciences, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, China
- CAS Key Laboratory of Pathogenic Microbiology and Immunology, Institute of Microbiology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
- Laboratory of Protein Engineering and Vaccines, Tianjin Institute of Industrial Biotechnology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Tianjin, China
- Research Network of Immunity and Health (RNIH), Beijing Institutes of Life Science, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
- Office of Director-General, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention (China CDC), Beijing, China
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22
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Coronavirus receptor switch explained from the stereochemistry of protein-carbohydrate interactions and a single mutation. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2016; 113:E3111-9. [PMID: 27185912 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1519881113] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Hemagglutinin-esterases (HEs) are bimodular envelope proteins of orthomyxoviruses, toroviruses, and coronaviruses with a carbohydrate-binding "lectin" domain appended to a receptor-destroying sialate-O-acetylesterase ("esterase"). In concert, these domains facilitate dynamic virion attachment to cell-surface sialoglycans. Most HEs (type I) target 9-O-acetylated sialic acids (9-O-Ac-Sias), but one group of coronaviruses switched to using 4-O-Ac-Sias instead (type II). This specificity shift required quasisynchronous adaptations in the Sia-binding sites of both lectin and esterase domains. Previously, a partially disordered crystal structure of a type II HE revealed how the shift in lectin ligand specificity was achieved. How the switch in esterase substrate specificity was realized remained unresolved, however. Here, we present a complete structure of a type II HE with a receptor analog in the catalytic site and identify the mutations underlying the 9-O- to 4-O-Ac-Sia substrate switch. We show that (i) common principles pertaining to the stereochemistry of protein-carbohydrate interactions were at the core of the transition in lectin ligand and esterase substrate specificity; (ii) in consequence, the switch in O-Ac-Sia specificity could be readily accomplished via convergent intramolecular coevolution with only modest architectural changes in lectin and esterase domains; and (iii) a single, inconspicuous Ala-to-Ser substitution in the catalytic site was key to the emergence of the type II HEs. Our findings provide fundamental insights into how proteins "see" sugars and how this affects protein and virus evolution.
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Fehr AR, Perlman S. Coronaviruses: an overview of their replication and pathogenesis. METHODS IN MOLECULAR BIOLOGY (CLIFTON, N.J.) 2015. [PMID: 25720466 DOI: 10.1007/978‐1‐4939‐2438‐7_1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Coronaviruses (CoVs), enveloped positive-sense RNA viruses, are characterized by club-like spikes that project from their surface, an unusually large RNA genome, and a unique replication strategy. Coronaviruses cause a variety of diseases in mammals and birds ranging from enteritis in cows and pigs and upper respiratory disease in chickens to potentially lethal human respiratory infections. Here we provide a brief introduction to coronaviruses discussing their replication and pathogenicity, and current prevention and treatment strategies. We also discuss the outbreaks of the highly pathogenic Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus (SARS-CoV) and the recently identified Middle Eastern Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus (MERS-CoV).
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Affiliation(s)
- Anthony R Fehr
- Department of Microbiology, University of Iowa Carver College of Medicine, Iowa City, IA, 52242, USA
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24
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Abstract
Coronaviruses (CoVs), enveloped positive-sense RNA viruses, are characterized by club-like spikes that project from their surface, an unusually large RNA genome, and a unique replication strategy. Coronaviruses cause a variety of diseases in mammals and birds ranging from enteritis in cows and pigs and upper respiratory disease in chickens to potentially lethal human respiratory infections. Here we provide a brief introduction to coronaviruses discussing their replication and pathogenicity, and current prevention and treatment strategies. We also discuss the outbreaks of the highly pathogenic Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus (SARS-CoV) and the recently identified Middle Eastern Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus (MERS-CoV).
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Affiliation(s)
- Helena Jane Maier
- grid.63622.330000000403887540The Pirbright Institute, Compton, United Kingdom
| | - Erica Bickerton
- grid.63622.330000000403887540The Pirbright Institute, Compton, United Kingdom
| | - Paul Britton
- grid.63622.330000000403887540The Pirbright Institute, Compton, United Kingdom
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Zhou L, Wei H, Zhou Y, Xu Z, Zhu L, Horne J. Molecular epidemiology of Porcine torovirus (PToV) in Sichuan Province, China: 2011-2013. Virol J 2014; 11:106. [PMID: 24903213 PMCID: PMC4064267 DOI: 10.1186/1743-422x-11-106] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/05/2014] [Accepted: 05/30/2014] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Porcine torovirus (PToV) is a member of the genus Torovirus which is responsible for gastrointestinal disease in both human beings and animals with particular prevalence in youth. Torovirus infections are generally asymptomatic, however, their presence may worsen disease consequences in concurrent infections with other enteric pathogens. METHODS A total of 872 diarrheic fecal samples from pigs of different ages were collected from 12 districts of Sichuan Province in the southwest of China. RT-PCR was done with PToV S gene specific primers to detect the presence of PToV positive samples. M gene specific primers were used with the PToV positive samples and the genes were sequenced. A phylogenetic tree was constructed based on the M gene nucleotide sequences from the 19 selected novel Sichuan strains and 21 PToV and BToV M gene sequences from GenBank. RESULTS A total of 331 (37.96%, 331/872) samples were found to be positive for PToV and the highest prevalence was observed in piglets aged from 1 to 3 weeks old. Through phylogenetic inference the 40 PToV M gene containing sequences were placed into two genotypes (I & II). The 19 novel Sichuan strains of genotype I showed strong correlations to two Korean gene sequences (GU-07-56-11 and GU-07-56-22). Amino-acid sequence analysis of the 40 PToV M gene strains revealed that the M gene protein was highly conserved. CONCLUSIONS This study uncovered the presence of PToV in Sichuan Province, and demonstrated the need for continuous surveillance PToV of epidemiology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lu Zhou
- Animal Biotechnology Center, College of Veterinary Medicine, Ya’an, China
| | - Haoche Wei
- Animal Biotechnology Center, College of Veterinary Medicine, Ya’an, China
- Faculty of Bio and Biochemistry, University of Bath, Bath spa, England
| | - Yuancheng Zhou
- Animal Biotechnology Center, College of Veterinary Medicine, Ya’an, China
| | - Zhiwen Xu
- Animal Biotechnology Center, College of Veterinary Medicine, Ya’an, China
- Key Laboratory of Animal Disease and Human Health, College of Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Ya’an, China
| | - Ling Zhu
- Animal Biotechnology Center, College of Veterinary Medicine, Ya’an, China
- Key Laboratory of Animal Disease and Human Health, College of Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Ya’an, China
| | - Jim Horne
- Faculty of Bio and Biochemistry, University of Bath, Bath spa, England
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26
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Lineage specific antigenic differences in porcine torovirus hemagglutinin-esterase (PToV-HE) protein. Vet Res 2013; 44:126. [PMID: 24364900 PMCID: PMC3878402 DOI: 10.1186/1297-9716-44-126] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/21/2013] [Accepted: 12/13/2013] [Indexed: 01/31/2023] Open
Abstract
Hemagglutinin-esterases (HE) are viral envelope proteins present in some members from the toro-, corona- and orthomyxovirus families, all related with enteric and/or respiratory tract infections. HE proteins mediate reversible binding to sialic acid receptor determinants, very abundant glycan residues in the enteric and respiratory tracts. The role of the HE protein during the torovirus infection cycle remains unknown, although it is believed to be important in the natural infection process. The phylogenetic analysis of HE coding sequences from porcine torovirus (PToV) field strains revealed the existence of two distinct HE lineages. In a previous study, PToV virus strains with HE proteins from the two lineages were found coexisting in a pig herd, and they were even obtained from the same animal at two consecutive sampling time points. In this work, we report antigenic differences between the two HE lineages, and discuss the possible implications that the coexistence of viruses belonging to both lineages might have on the spread and sustainment of PToV infection in the farms.
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27
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Cong Y, Zarlenga DS, Richt JA, Wang X, Wang Y, Suo S, Wang J, Ren Y, Ren X. Evolution and homologous recombination of the hemagglutinin-esterase gene sequences from porcine torovirus. Virus Genes 2013; 47:66-74. [PMID: 23749172 PMCID: PMC7088831 DOI: 10.1007/s11262-013-0926-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/22/2013] [Accepted: 05/25/2013] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
The objective of the present study was to gain new insights into the evolution, homologous recombination, and selection pressures imposed on the porcine torovirus (PToV), by examining the changes in the hemagglutinin-esterase (HE) gene. The most recent common ancestor of PToV was estimated to have emerged 62 years ago based upon HE gene sequence data obtained from PToV isolates originating from Spain, South Korea, Netherlands, Hungary, and Italy and using the HE gene of Bovine torovirus isolates Niigata1 (AB661456) and Niigata3 (AB661458) as outgroups. The HE gene sequence data segregated all the PToV isolates into two well-supported monophyletic groups; however, various isolates from Spain, Italy, and South Korea did not segregate geographically suggesting very recent translocation of the viruses to these localities. Evidence of recombination was observed between two South Korean isolates that partitioned into two distinct subclades. Data further suggest that most of the nucleotides in the HE gene are under negative selection; however, changes within codon 237 showed an evidence of positive selection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yingying Cong
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Northeast Agricultural University, 59 Mucai Street, Xiangfang District, Harbin, 150030 China
| | - Dante S. Zarlenga
- Animal Parasitic Diseases Laboratory, Agricultural Research Service, Beltsville, MD USA
| | - Juergen A. Richt
- Department of Diagnostic Medicine/Pathobiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS USA
| | - Xin Wang
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Northeast Agricultural University, 59 Mucai Street, Xiangfang District, Harbin, 150030 China
| | - Yang Wang
- College of Life Science, Northeast Agricultural University, 59 Mucai Street, Xiangfang District, Harbin, 150030 China
| | - Siqingaowa Suo
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Northeast Agricultural University, 59 Mucai Street, Xiangfang District, Harbin, 150030 China
| | - Jingfei Wang
- Centre for Animal Infectious Disease Diagnosis and Technical Services and State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Biotechnology, Harbin Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Harbin, 150030 China
| | - Yudong Ren
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Northeast Agricultural University, 59 Mucai Street, Xiangfang District, Harbin, 150030 China
| | - Xiaofeng Ren
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Northeast Agricultural University, 59 Mucai Street, Xiangfang District, Harbin, 150030 China
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28
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Abstract
Sialic acid linked to glycoproteins and gangliosides is used by many viruses as a receptor for cell entry. These viruses include important human and animal pathogens, such as influenza, parainfluenza, mumps, corona, noro, rota, and DNA tumor viruses. Attachment to sialic acid is mediated by receptor binding proteins that are constituents of viral envelopes or exposed at the surface of non-enveloped viruses. Some of these viruses are also equipped with a neuraminidase or a sialyl-O-acetyl-esterase. These receptor-destroying enzymes promote virus release from infected cells and neutralize sialic acid-containing soluble proteins interfering with cell surface binding of the virus. Variations in the receptor specificity are important determinants for host range, tissue tropism, pathogenicity, and transmissibility of these viruses.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Philippe Delannoy
- Lille University of Science and Technology, Villeneuve d'Ascq Cedex, France
| | - Mark von Itzstein
- Institute for Glycomics, Griffith University, Southport, Queensland Australia
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29
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Zirkel F, Roth H, Kurth A, Drosten C, Ziebuhr J, Junglen S. Identification and characterization of genetically divergent members of the newly established family Mesoniviridae. J Virol 2013; 87:6346-58. [PMID: 23536661 PMCID: PMC3648093 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.00416-13] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/12/2013] [Accepted: 03/18/2013] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
The recently established family Mesoniviridae (order Nidovirales) contains a single species represented by two closely related viruses, Cavally virus (CavV) and Nam Dinh virus (NDiV), which were isolated from mosquitoes collected in Côte d'Ivoire and Vietnam, respectively. They represent the first nidoviruses to be discovered in insects. Here, we report the molecular characterization of four novel mesoniviruses, Hana virus, Méno virus, Nsé virus, and Moumo virus, all of which were identified in a geographical region in Côte d'Ivoire with high CavV prevalence. The viruses were found with prevalences between 0.5 and 2.8%, and genome sequence analyses and phylogenetic studies suggest that they represent at least three novel species. Electron microscopy revealed prominent club-shaped surface projections protruding from spherical, enveloped virions of about 120 nm. Northern blot data show that the four mesoniviruses analyzed in this study produce two major 3'-coterminal subgenomic mRNAs containing two types of 5' leader sequences resulting from the use of different pairs of leader and body transcription-regulating sequences that are conserved among mesoniviruses. Protein sequencing, mass spectroscopy, and Western blot data show that mesonivirus particles contain eight major structural protein species, including the putative nucleocapsid protein (25 kDa), differentially glycosylated forms of the putative membrane protein (20, 19, 18, and 17 kDa), and the putative spike (S) protein (77 kDa), which is proteolytically cleaved at a conserved site to produce S protein subunits of 23 and 57 kDa. The data provide fundamental new insight into common and distinguishing biological properties of members of this newly identified virus family.
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Affiliation(s)
- Florian Zirkel
- Institute of Virology, University of Bonn Medical Center, Bonn, Germany
| | - Hanna Roth
- Institute of Virology, University of Bonn Medical Center, Bonn, Germany
| | - Andreas Kurth
- Center for Biological Safety, Robert Koch Institute, Berlin, Germany
| | - Christian Drosten
- Institute of Virology, University of Bonn Medical Center, Bonn, Germany
| | - John Ziebuhr
- Institute of Medical Virology, Justus Liebig University, Giessen, Germany
| | - Sandra Junglen
- Institute of Virology, University of Bonn Medical Center, Bonn, Germany
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30
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Abstract
Sialic acids are a diverse family of monosaccharides widely expressed on all cell surfaces of vertebrates and so-called "higher" invertebrates, and on certain bacteria that interact with vertebrates. This overview surveys examples of biological roles of sialic acids in immunity, with emphasis on an evolutionary perspective. Given the breadth of the subject, the treatment of individual topics is brief. Subjects discussed include biophysical effects regulation of factor H; modulation of leukocyte trafficking via selectins; Siglecs in immune cell activation; sialic acids as ligands for microbes; impact of microbial and endogenous sialidases on immune cell responses; pathogen molecular mimicry of host sialic acids; Siglec recognition of sialylated pathogens; bacteriophage recognition of microbial sialic acids; polysialic acid modulation of immune cells; sialic acids as pathogen decoys or biological masks; modulation of immunity by sialic acid O-acetylation; sialic acids as antigens and xeno-autoantigens; antisialoglycan antibodies in reproductive incompatibility; and sialic-acid-based blood groups.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ajit Varki
- Glycobiology Research and Training Center, Department of Medicine, University of California at San Diego, La Jolla, 92093-0687, USA.
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31
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The murine coronavirus hemagglutinin-esterase receptor-binding site: a major shift in ligand specificity through modest changes in architecture. PLoS Pathog 2012; 8:e1002492. [PMID: 22291594 PMCID: PMC3266934 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1002492] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/12/2011] [Accepted: 12/05/2011] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
The hemagglutinin-esterases (HEs), envelope glycoproteins of corona-, toro- and orthomyxoviruses, mediate reversible virion attachment to O-acetylated sialic acids (O-Ac-Sias). They do so through concerted action of distinct receptor-binding (“lectin”) and receptor-destroying sialate O-acetylesterase (”esterase”) domains. Most HEs target 9-O-acetylated Sias. In one lineage of murine coronaviruses, however, HE esterase substrate and lectin ligand specificity changed dramatically as these viruses evolved to use 4-O-acetylated Sias instead. Here we present the crystal structure of the lectin domain of mouse hepatitis virus (MHV) strain S HE, resolved both in its native state and in complex with a receptor analogue. The data show that the shift from 9-O- to 4-O-Ac-Sia receptor usage primarily entailed a change in ligand binding topology and, surprisingly, only modest changes in receptor-binding site architecture. Our findings illustrate the ease with which viruses can change receptor-binding specificity with potential consequences for host-, organ and/or cell tropism, and for pathogenesis. Glycans cover the surface of every living cell. In vertebrates, these sugar trees commonly terminate with sialic acid (Sia) and, in consequence, Sias have become the attachment factors of choice for a multitude of pathogens: protozoa, bacteria and viruses alike. To ensure selectivity, viruses evolved to target distinct Sia species. Whether a particular type of Sia serves as receptor may depend -amongst others- on the absence or presence of specific Sia modifications. For example, most group A betacoronaviruses attach to 9-O-acetylated Sias. However, some murine coronaviruses have switched to using 4-O-acetylated Sias instead. In chemical/molecular terms this represents a momentous shift in receptor usage. We now have crystallized the hemagglutinin-esterase protein (HE) of a murine coronavirus and have solved the structure of its sugar-binding domain. Our findings reveal in exquisite detail the interactions between Sia binding site and cognate receptor. The data allow a reconstruction of how, during coronavirus evolution, the switch in receptor usage may have come about.
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32
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Cohen M, Varki A. The sialome--far more than the sum of its parts. OMICS-A JOURNAL OF INTEGRATIVE BIOLOGY 2010; 14:455-64. [PMID: 20726801 DOI: 10.1089/omi.2009.0148] [Citation(s) in RCA: 166] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
The glycome is defined as the glycan repertoire of cells, tissues, and organisms, as found under specified conditions. The vastly diverse glycome is generated by a nontemplate driven biosynthesis, which is indirectly encoded in the genome, and very dynamic. Due to this overwhelming diversity, glycomic analysis must be approached at different hierarchical levels of complexity. In this review five such levels of complexity and the experimental approaches used for analysis at each level are discussed for a subclass of the glycome: the sialome. The sialome, in analogy to the canopy of a forest, covers the cell membrane with diverse array of complex sialylated structures. Sialome complexity includes modification of sialic acid core structure (the leaves and flowers), the linkage to the underlying sugar (the stems), the identity, and arrangement of the underlying glycans (the branches), the structural attributes of the underlying glycans (the trees), and finally, the spatial organization of the sialoglycans in relation to components of the intact cell surface (the forest). Understanding the full complexity of the sialome thus requires combined analyses at multiple levels, that is, the sialome is far more than the sum of its parts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Miriam Cohen
- Glycobiology Research and Training Center, Department of Medicine, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, California, USA.
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33
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Shin DJ, Park SI, Jeong YJ, Hosmillo M, Kim HH, Kim HJ, Kwon HJ, Kang MI, Park SJ, Cho KO. Detection and molecular characterization of porcine toroviruses in Korea. Arch Virol 2010; 155:417-22. [PMID: 20127374 PMCID: PMC7087203 DOI: 10.1007/s00705-010-0595-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/02/2009] [Accepted: 12/12/2009] [Indexed: 11/04/2022]
Abstract
This study examined the prevalence and genetic diversity of the porcine torovirus (PToV) in Korea. Of 295 samples, 19 (6.4%) samples tested positive for PToVs by RT-PCR. A low nucleotide sequence identity of the partial S gene was detected among the Korean PToVs (73.5%) and between the Korean and European PToVs (74.0%). Phylogenetic analysis of the spike and nucleocapsid genes showed that the Korean PToVs form distinct branches with clusters corresponding to the farm of origin, which were separate from the other known foreign PToVs. These findings suggest that genetically diverse Korean PToV strains cause sporadic infections in Korea.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dong-Jun Shin
- Biotherapy Human Resources Center, College of Veterinary Medicine, Chonnam National University, Gwangju, South Korea
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34
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Structural basis for ligand and substrate recognition by torovirus hemagglutinin esterases. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2009; 106:15897-902. [PMID: 19721004 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.0904266106] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Hemagglutinin esterases (HEs), closely related envelope glycoproteins in influenza C and corona- and toroviruses, mediate reversible attachment to O-acetylated sialic acids (Sias). They do so by acting both as lectins and as receptor-destroying enzymes, functions exerted by separate protein domains. HE divergence was accompanied by changes in quaternary structure and in receptor and substrate specificity. The selective forces underlying HE diversity and the molecular basis for Sia specificity are poorly understood. Here we present crystal structures of porcine and bovine torovirus HEs in complex with receptor analogs. Torovirus HEs form homodimers with sialate-O-acetylesterase domains almost identical to corresponding domains in orthomyxo- and coronavirus HEs, but with unique lectin sites. Structure-guided biochemical analysis of the esterase domains revealed that a functionally, but not structurally conserved arginine-Sia carboxylate interaction is critical for the binding and positioning of glycosidically bound Sias in the catalytic pocket. Although essential for efficient de-O-acetylation of Sias, this interaction is not required for catalysis nor does it affect substrate specificity. In fact, the distinct preference of the porcine torovirus enzyme for 9-mono- over 7,9-di-O-acetylated Sias can be explained from a single-residue difference with HEs of more promiscuous specificity. Apparently, esterase and lectin pockets coevolved; also the porcine torovirus HE receptor-binding site seems to have been designed to use 9-mono- and exclude di-O-acetylated Sias, possibly as an adaptation to replication in swine. Our findings shed light on HE evolution and provide fundamental insight into mechanisms of substrate binding, substrate recognition, and receptor selection in this important class of virion proteins.
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35
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Ariaans MP, van de Haar PM, Hensen EJ, Vervelde L. Infectious Bronchitis Virus induces acute interferon-gamma production through polyclonal stimulation of chicken leukocytes. Virology 2008; 385:68-73. [PMID: 19070879 PMCID: PMC7103388 DOI: 10.1016/j.virol.2008.11.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/11/2008] [Revised: 09/29/2008] [Accepted: 11/10/2008] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
Abstract
Infectious Bronchitis Virus, a member of the Coronaviridae, is a respiratory pathogen in poultry. We found that in vitro stimulation with IBV resulted in ChIFN-gamma production in splenocytes of both infected birds and uninfected birds. The non-specific stimulation did not occur when other avian viruses or other coronaviruses were used or when mammalian cells were stimulated with IBV. Inactivation of IBV reduced ChIFN-gamma production, but ChIFN-gamma remained elevated compared to unstimulated cells. An increase in ChIFN-gamma mRNA was detected in splenocytes from IBV-infected and uninfected chickens as early as 1 h after stimulation with IBV. These results indicate that IBV acts as a polyclonal stimulus, inducing a rapid production of IFN-gamma even without previous exposure to the virus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mark P Ariaans
- Department of Infectious Diseases and Immunology, Utrecht University, The Netherlands
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36
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Zeng Q, Langereis MA, van Vliet ALW, Huizinga EG, de Groot RJ. Structure of coronavirus hemagglutinin-esterase offers insight into corona and influenza virus evolution. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2008; 105:9065-9. [PMID: 18550812 PMCID: PMC2449365 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.0800502105] [Citation(s) in RCA: 185] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/18/2008] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
The hemagglutinin-esterases (HEs) are a family of viral envelope glycoproteins that mediate reversible attachment to O-acetylated sialic acids by acting both as lectins and as receptor-destroying enzymes (RDEs). Related HEs occur in influenza C, toro-, and coronaviruses, apparently as a result of relatively recent lateral gene transfer events. Here, we report the crystal structure of a coronavirus (CoV) HE in complex with its receptor. We show that CoV HE arose from an influenza C-like HE fusion protein (HEF). In the process, HE was transformed from a trimer into a dimer, whereas remnants of the fusion domain were adapted to establish novel monomer-monomer contacts. Whereas the structural design of the RDE-acetylesterase domain remained unaltered, the HE receptor-binding domain underwent remodeling to such extent that the ligand is now bound in opposite orientation. This is surprising, because the architecture of the HEF site was preserved in influenza A HA over a much larger evolutionary distance, a switch in receptor specificity and extensive antigenic variation notwithstanding. Apparently, HA and HEF are under more stringent selective constraints than HE, limiting their exploration of alternative binding-site topologies. We attribute the plasticity of the CoV HE receptor-binding site to evolutionary flexibility conferred by functional redundancy between HE and its companion spike protein S. Our findings offer unique insights into the structural and functional consequences of independent protein evolution after interviral gene exchange and open potential avenues to broad-spectrum antiviral drug design.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qinghong Zeng
- *Crystal and Structural Chemistry, Bijvoet Center for Biomolecular Research, Faculty of Sciences, and
| | - Martijn A. Langereis
- Virology Division, Department of Infectious Diseases and Immunology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Utrecht University, 3584 CL, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Arno L. W. van Vliet
- Virology Division, Department of Infectious Diseases and Immunology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Utrecht University, 3584 CL, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Eric G. Huizinga
- *Crystal and Structural Chemistry, Bijvoet Center for Biomolecular Research, Faculty of Sciences, and
| | - Raoul J. de Groot
- Virology Division, Department of Infectious Diseases and Immunology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Utrecht University, 3584 CL, Utrecht, The Netherlands
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37
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Park SJ, Oh EH, Park SI, Kim HH, Jeong YJ, Lim GK, Hyun BH, Cho KO. Molecular epidemiology of bovine toroviruses circulating in South Korea. Vet Microbiol 2008; 126:364-71. [PMID: 17719729 PMCID: PMC7117412 DOI: 10.1016/j.vetmic.2007.07.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/07/2007] [Revised: 07/16/2007] [Accepted: 07/17/2007] [Indexed: 10/31/2022]
Abstract
The prevalence of the bovine torovirus (BToV) and its genetic characterization have been reported in North America, Europe and Japan. Therefore, this study examined the prevalence and genetic diversity of the BToV in a total of 645 diarrheic fecal samples from 629 Korean native beef calf herds using RT-PCR and nested PCR with the primer pairs specific to a part of the BToV membrane (M) gene. Overall, 19 (2.9%) out of 645 diarrheic samples from 19 herds (6.9%) tested positive for BToVs by either RT-PCR or nested PCR. A comparison of the nucleotide (nt) and amino acid (aa) sequences of a part of the BToV M gene (409bp) among the BToVs showed the Korean BToVs to have comparatively higher sequence homology to the Japanese and Dutch BToVs than to the American and Italian BToVs. Generally, the Korean BToV strains clustered with the Japanese and Dutch BToV strains. However, the American and Italian BToV strains clustered on a separate major branch, suggesting that these are more distantly related to other known BToV strains. These results suggest that the BToV infections are sporadic in diarrheic calves in South Korea, and the Korean BToV strains are more closely related to the Japanese and Dutch BToVs than to the American and Italian BToVs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Su-Jin Park
- Biotherapy Human Resources Center, College of Veterinary Medicine, Chonnam National University, Gwangju 500-757, South Korea
| | - Eun-Hee Oh
- Biotherapy Human Resources Center, College of Veterinary Medicine, Chonnam National University, Gwangju 500-757, South Korea
| | - Sang-Ik Park
- Biotherapy Human Resources Center, College of Veterinary Medicine, Chonnam National University, Gwangju 500-757, South Korea
| | - Ha-Hyun Kim
- Biotherapy Human Resources Center, College of Veterinary Medicine, Chonnam National University, Gwangju 500-757, South Korea
| | - Young-Ju Jeong
- Biotherapy Human Resources Center, College of Veterinary Medicine, Chonnam National University, Gwangju 500-757, South Korea
| | - Guem-Ki Lim
- Biotherapy Human Resources Center, College of Veterinary Medicine, Chonnam National University, Gwangju 500-757, South Korea
| | - Bang-Hun Hyun
- National Veterinary Research and Quarantine Services, Gyonggi-do 430-824, South Korea
| | - Kyoung-Oh Cho
- Biotherapy Human Resources Center, College of Veterinary Medicine, Chonnam National University, Gwangju 500-757, South Korea
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38
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Abstract
Coronaviruses are large, enveloped RNA viruses of both medical and veterinary importance. Interest in this viral family has intensified in the past few years as a result of the identification of a newly emerged coronavirus as the causative agent of severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS). At the molecular level, coronaviruses employ a variety of unusual strategies to accomplish a complex program of gene expression. Coronavirus replication entails ribosome frameshifting during genome translation, the synthesis of both genomic and multiple subgenomic RNA species, and the assembly of progeny virions by a pathway that is unique among enveloped RNA viruses. Progress in the investigation of these processes has been enhanced by the development of reverse genetic systems, an advance that was heretofore obstructed by the enormous size of the coronavirus genome. This review summarizes both classical and contemporary discoveries in the study of the molecular biology of these infectious agents, with particular emphasis on the nature and recognition of viral receptors, viral RNA synthesis, and the molecular interactions governing virion assembly.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paul S Masters
- Wadsworth Center, New York State Department of Health, Albany, 12201, USA
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39
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Lissenberg A, Vrolijk MM, van Vliet ALW, Langereis MA, de Groot-Mijnes JDF, Rottier PJM, de Groot RJ. Luxury at a cost? Recombinant mouse hepatitis viruses expressing the accessory hemagglutinin esterase protein display reduced fitness in vitro. J Virol 2006; 79:15054-63. [PMID: 16306576 PMCID: PMC1316008 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.79.24.15054-15063.2005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Group 2 coronaviruses encode an accessory envelope glycoprotein species, the hemagglutinin esterase (HE), which possesses sialate-O-acetylesterase activity and which, presumably, promotes virus spread and entry in vivo by facilitating reversible virion attachment to O-acetylated sialic acids. While HE may provide a strong selective advantage during natural infection, many laboratory strains of mouse hepatitis virus (MHV) fail to produce the protein. Apparently, their HE genes were inactivated during cell culture adaptation. For this report, we have studied the molecular basis of this phenomenon. By using targeted RNA recombination, we generated isogenic recombinant MHVs which differ exclusively in their expression of HE and produce either the wild-type protein (HE+), an enzymatically inactive HE protein (HE0), or no HE at all. HE expression or the lack thereof did not lead to gross differences in in vitro growth properties. Yet the expression of HE was rapidly lost during serial cell culture passaging. Competition experiments with mixed infections revealed that this was not due to the enzymatic activity: MHVs expressing HE+ or HE0 propagated with equal efficiencies. During the propagation of recombinant MHV-HE+, two types of spontaneous mutants accumulated. One produced an anchorless HE, while the other had a Gly-to-Trp substitution at the predicted C-terminal residue of the HE signal peptide. Neither mutant incorporated HE into virion particles, suggesting that wild-type HE reduces the in vitro propagation efficiency, either at the assembly stage or at a postassembly level. Our findings demonstrate that the expression of "luxury" proteins may come at a fitness penalty. Apparently, under natural conditions the costs of maintaining HE are outweighed by the benefits.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Lissenberg
- Virology Division, Department of Infectious Diseases and Immunology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Utrecht University, Yalelaan 1, 3584 CL Utrecht, The Netherlands
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Kazi L, Lissenberg A, Watson R, de Groot RJ, Weiss SR. Expression of hemagglutinin esterase protein from recombinant mouse hepatitis virus enhances neurovirulence. J Virol 2006; 79:15064-73. [PMID: 16306577 PMCID: PMC1316009 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.79.24.15064-15073.2005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Murine hepatitis virus (MHV) infection provides a model system for the study of hepatitis, acute encephalitis, and chronic demyelinating disease. The spike glycoprotein, S, which mediates receptor binding and membrane fusion, plays a critical role in MHV pathogenesis. However, viral proteins other than S also contribute to pathogenicity. The JHM strain of MHV is highly neurovirulent and expresses a second spike glycoprotein, the hemagglutinin esterase (HE), which is not produced by MHV-A59, a hepatotropic but only mildly neurovirulent strain. To investigate a possible role for HE in MHV-induced neurovirulence, isogenic recombinant MHV-A59 viruses were generated that produced either (i) the wild-type protein, (ii) an enzymatically inactive HE protein, or (iii) no HE at all (A. Lissenberg, M. M. Vrolijk, A. L. W. van Vliet, M. A. Langereis, J. D. F. de Groot-Mijnes, P. J. M. Rottier, and R. J. de Groot, J. Virol. 79:15054-15063, 2005 [accompanying paper]). A second, mirror set of recombinant viruses was constructed in which, in addition, the MHV-A59 S gene had been replaced with that from MHV-JHM. The expression of HE in combination with A59 S did not affect the tropism, pathogenicity, or spread of the virus in vivo. However, in combination with JHM S, the expression of HE, regardless of whether it retained esterase activity or not, resulted in increased viral spread within the central nervous system and in increased neurovirulence. Our findings suggest that the properties of S receptor utilization and/or fusogenicity mainly determine organ and host cell tropism but that HE enhances the efficiency of infection and promotes viral dissemination, at least in some tissues, presumably by serving as a second receptor-binding protein.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lubna Kazi
- Department of Microbiology, University of Pennsylvania School of Medicine, 36th Street and Hamilton Walk, Philadelphia, PA 19104-6076, USA
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Gorbalenya AE, Enjuanes L, Ziebuhr J, Snijder EJ. Nidovirales: evolving the largest RNA virus genome. Virus Res 2006; 117:17-37. [PMID: 16503362 PMCID: PMC7114179 DOI: 10.1016/j.virusres.2006.01.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 635] [Impact Index Per Article: 35.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/29/2005] [Revised: 01/13/2006] [Accepted: 01/18/2006] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
This review focuses on the monophyletic group of animal RNA viruses united in the order Nidovirales. The order includes the distantly related coronaviruses, toroviruses, and roniviruses, which possess the largest known RNA genomes (from 26 to 32 kb) and will therefore be called ‘large’ nidoviruses in this review. They are compared with their arterivirus cousins, which also belong to the Nidovirales despite having a much smaller genome (13–16 kb). Common and unique features that have been identified for either large or all nidoviruses are outlined. These include the nidovirus genetic plan and genome diversity, the composition of the replicase machinery and virus particles, virus-specific accessory genes, the mechanisms of RNA and protein synthesis, and the origin and evolution of nidoviruses with small and large genomes. Nidoviruses employ single-stranded, polycistronic RNA genomes of positive polarity that direct the synthesis of the subunits of the replicative complex, including the RNA-dependent RNA polymerase and helicase. Replicase gene expression is under the principal control of a ribosomal frameshifting signal and a chymotrypsin-like protease, which is assisted by one or more papain-like proteases. A nested set of subgenomic RNAs is synthesized to express the 3′-proximal ORFs that encode most conserved structural proteins and, in some large nidoviruses, also diverse accessory proteins that may promote virus adaptation to specific hosts. The replicase machinery includes a set of RNA-processing enzymes some of which are unique for either all or large nidoviruses. The acquisition of these enzymes may have improved the low fidelity of RNA replication to allow genome expansion and give rise to the ancestors of small and, subsequently, large nidoviruses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexander E Gorbalenya
- Molecular Virology Laboratory, Department of Medical Microbiology, Leiden University Medical Center, LUMC E4-P, P.O. Box 9600, 2300 RC Leiden, The Netherlands.
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Abstract
Virus attachment to host cells is mediated by dedicated virion proteins, which specifically recognize one or, at most, a limited number of cell surface molecules. Receptor binding often involves protein-protein interactions, but carbohydrates may serve as receptor determinants as well. In fact, many different viruses use members of the sialic acid family either as their main receptor or as an initial attachment factor. Sialic acids (Sias) are 9-carbon negatively-charged monosaccharides commonly occurring as terminal residues of glycoconjugates. They come in a large variety and are differentially expressed in cells and tissues. By targeting specific Sia subtypes, viruses achieve host cell selectivity, but only to a certain extent. The Sia of choice might still be abundantly present on non-cell associated molecules, on non-target cells (including cells already infected) and even on virus particles themselves. This poses a hazard, as high-affinity virion binding to any of such "false'' receptors would result in loss of infectivity. Some enveloped RNA viruses deal with this problem by encoding virion-associated receptor-destroying enzymes (RDEs). These enzymes make the attachment to Sia reversible, thus providing the virus with an escape ticket. RDEs occur in two types: neuraminidases and sialate-O-acetylesterases. The latter, originally discovered in influenza C virus, are also found in certain nidoviruses, namely in group 2 coronaviruses and in toroviruses, as well as in infectious salmon anemia virus, an orthomyxovirus of teleosts. Here, the structure, function and evolution of viral sialate-O-acetylesterases is reviewed with main focus on the hemagglutinin-esterases of nidoviruses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Raoul J de Groot
- Virology Section, Department of Infectious Diseases and Immunology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Utrecht University, The Netherlands.
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Abstract
This chapter describes the interactions between the different structural components of the viruses and discusses their relevance for the process of virion formation. Two key factors determine the efficiency of the assembly process: intracellular transport and molecular interactions. Many viruses have evolved elaborate strategies to ensure the swift and accurate delivery of the virion components to the cellular compartment(s) where they must meet and form (sub) structures. Assembly of viruses starts in the nucleus by the encapsidation of viral DNA, using cytoplasmically synthesized capsid proteins; nucleocapsids then migrate to the cytosol, by budding at the inner nuclear membrane followed by deenvelopment, to pick up the tegument proteins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cornelis A M de Haan
- Virology Division, Department of Infectious Diseases and Immunology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Utrecht University, 3584 CL Utrecht, The Netherlands
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Abstract
Bovine torovirus (BoTV) is a pleomorphic virus with a spike-bearing envelope and a linear, non-segmented, positive-sense single-stranded RNA genome. This kidney-shaped virus is associated with diarrhea in calves and apparently has a worldwide distribution. This review provides details of the history and taxonomy of BoTV since its discovery in 1979. Information about virion morphology and architecture, antigenic and biological properties, viral genome, protein composition, thermal and chemical stability, and pH and proteolytic enzymes resistance is also summarized. A major focus of this review is to postulate a possible epidemiological cycle for BoTV, based on epidemiological data obtained in our studies and other published data, and progressing from the newborn calf to the adult animal. The distribution, host range, pathogenesis, disease and clinical signs (under experimental and natural exposure), pathology, diagnosis, prevention, treatment and control of BoTV infections are also described. In addition, a discussion of the zoonotic implications of torovirus-like particles detected in patients with gastroenteritis that resemble and cross-react with BoTV is presented. Hopefully, the findings described here will alert others to the existence of BoTV in cattle and its contribution to the diarrheal disease complex. This review also highlights the need for continual vigilance for potential zoonotic viruses belonging to the order Nidovirales, such as the SARS coronavirus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Armando E Hoet
- Facultad de Ciencias Veterinarias, La Universidad del Zulia, Maracaibo, Venezuela.
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Draker R, Roper RL, Petric M, Tellier R. The complete sequence of the bovine torovirus genome. Virus Res 2005; 115:56-68. [PMID: 16137782 PMCID: PMC7114287 DOI: 10.1016/j.virusres.2005.07.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/16/2005] [Revised: 07/05/2005] [Accepted: 07/12/2005] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Viruses in the family Coronaviridae have elicited new interest, with the outbreaks caused by SARS-HCoV in 2003 and the recent discovery of a new human coronavirus, HCoV-NL63. The genus Torovirus, within the family Coronaviridae, is less well characterized, in part because toroviruses cannot yet be grown in cell culture (except for the Berne virus). In this study, we determined the sequence of the complete genome of Breda-1 (BoTV-1), a bovine torovirus. This is the first complete torovirus genome sequence to be reported. BoTV-1 RNA was amplified using long RT-PCR and the amplicons sequenced. The genome has a length of 28.475 kb and consisted mainly of the replicase gene (∼20.2 kb) which contains two large overlapping ORFs, ORF1a and ORF1b, encoding polyproteins pp1a and pp1b, respectively. Sequence analysis identified conserved domains within the predicted sequences of pp1a and pp1b. Sequence alignments and protein secondary structure prediction data suggest the presence of a 3C-like serine protease domain with similarity to the arterivirus 3C-like serine protease and a single papain-like cysteine protease domain with similarity to the picornavirus leader protease. The ADRP (APPR-1″) domain – unique to the Coronaviridae – was also located in BoTV pp1a. In addition, several hydrophobic domains were identified that are typical of a nidovirus replicase. Within the pp1b sequence the polymerase and helicase domains were identified, as well as sequences predicted to be involved in ribosomal frameshifting, including the conserved slippery sequence UUUAAAC and two potential pseudoknot structures.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ryan Draker
- Department of Laboratory Medicine and Pathobiology, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ont., Canada
| | - Rachel L. Roper
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Brody School of Medicine, East Carolina University, NC, USA
| | - Martin Petric
- British Columbia Center for Disease Control, Vancouver, BC, Canada
| | - Raymond Tellier
- Department of Laboratory Medicine and Pathobiology, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ont., Canada
- Division of Microbiology, The Hospital for Sick Children, 555 University Avenue, Toronto, Ont., Canada M5G 1X8
- Corresponding author. Tel.: +1 416 813 6592; fax: +1 416 813 6257.
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Coronaviridae: a review of coronaviruses and toroviruses. CORONAVIRUSES WITH SPECIAL EMPHASIS ON FIRST INSIGHTS CONCERNING SARS 2005. [PMCID: PMC7123520 DOI: 10.1007/3-7643-7339-3_1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/22/2023]
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Smits SL, Gerwig GJ, van Vliet ALW, Lissenberg A, Briza P, Kamerling JP, Vlasak R, de Groot RJ. Nidovirus sialate-O-acetylesterases: evolution and substrate specificity of coronaviral and toroviral receptor-destroying enzymes. J Biol Chem 2004; 280:6933-41. [PMID: 15507445 PMCID: PMC8062793 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m409683200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 70] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Many viruses achieve reversible attachment to sialic acid (Sia) by encoding envelope glycoproteins with receptor-binding and receptor-destroying activities. Toroviruses and group 2 coronaviruses bind to O-acetylated Sias, presumably via their spike proteins (S), whereas other glycoproteins, the hemagglutinin-esterases (HE), destroy Sia receptors by de-O-acetylation. Here, we present a comprehensive study of these enzymes. Sialate-9-O-acetylesterases specific for 5-N-acetyl-9-O-acetylneuraminic acid, described for bovine and human coronaviruses, also occur in equine coronaviruses and in porcine toroviruses. Bovine toroviruses, however, express novel sialate-9-O-acetylesterases, which prefer the di-O-acetylated substrate 5-N-acetyl-7(8),9-di-O-acetylneuraminic acid. Whereas most rodent coronaviruses express sialate-4-O-acetylesterases, the HE of murine coronavirus DVIM cleaves 9-O-acetylated Sias. Under the premise that HE specificity reflects receptor usage, we propose that two types of Sias serve as initial attachment factors for coronaviruses in mice. There are striking parallels between orthomyxo- and nidovirus biology. Reminiscent of antigenic shifts in orthomyxoviruses, rodent coronaviruses exchanged S and HE sequences through recombination to extents not appreciated before. As for orthomyxovirus reassortants, the fitness of nidovirus recombinant offspring probably depends both on antigenic properties and on compatibility of receptor-binding and receptor-destroying activities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Saskia L Smits
- Virology Division, Department of Infectious Diseases and Immunology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Utrecht University, 3584 CL Utrecht, The Netherlands
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Hellebø A, Vilas U, Falk K, Vlasak R. Infectious salmon anemia virus specifically binds to and hydrolyzes 4-O-acetylated sialic acids. J Virol 2004; 78:3055-62. [PMID: 14990724 PMCID: PMC353765 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.78.6.3055-3062.2004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 75] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Infectious salmon anemia virus (ISAV) is the causative agent of infections in farmed Atlantic salmon. ISAV presumably represents a new genus within the Orthomyxoviridae. ISAV has been shown earlier to exhibit a receptor-destroying activity, which was defined as an acetylesterase with unknown specificity. We have analyzed the substrate specificity of the ISAV esterase in detail. Purified ISAV hydrolyzed free 5-N-acetyl-4-O-acetyl neuraminic acid. In addition, the purified 9-O-acetylated sialic acid derivative was also hydrolyzed, but at lower rates. When we used a glycosidically bound substrate, ISAV was unable to hydrolyze 9-O-acetylated sialic acid, which represents the major substrate for the influenza C virus esterase. ISAV completely de-O-acetylated glycoprotein-bound 5-N-acetyl-4-O-acetyl neuraminic acid. Thus, the enzymatic activity of the hemagglutinin-esterase of ISAV is comparable to that of the sialate-4-O-esterases of murine coronaviruses and related group 2 coronaviruses. In addition, we found that ISAV specifically binds to glycoproteins containing 4-O-acetylated sialic acids. Both the ISAV esterase and recombinant rat coronavirus esterase specific for 4-O-acetylated sialic acids hydrolyzed ISAV receptors on horse and rabbit erythrocytes, indicating that this sialic acid represents a receptor determinant for ISAV.
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Affiliation(s)
- Audny Hellebø
- Fish Health Section, National Veterinary Institute, N-0033 Oslo, Norway
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Abstract
Viral O-acetylesterases were first identified in several viruses, including influenza C viruses and coronaviruses. These enzymes are capable of removing cellular receptors from the surface of target cells. Hence they are also known as "receptor destroying" enzymes. We have cloned and expressed several recombinant viral O-acetylesterases. These enzymes were secreted from Sf9 insect cells as chimeric proteins fused to eGFP. A purification scheme to isolate the recombinant O-acetylesterase of influenza C virus was developed. The recombinant enzymes derived from influenza C viruses specifically hydrolyze 9-O-acetylated sialic acids, while that of sialodacryoadenitis virus, a rat coronavirus related to mouse hepatitis virus, is specific for 4-O-acetylated sialic acid. The recombinant esterases were shown to specifically de-O-acetylate sialic acids on glycoconjugates. We have also expressed esterase knockout proteins of the influenza C virus hemagglutinin-esterase. The recombinant viral proteins can be used to unambiguously identify O-acetylated acids in a variety of assays.
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Smits SL, Lavazza A, Matiz K, Horzinek MC, Koopmans MP, de Groot RJ. Phylogenetic and evolutionary relationships among torovirus field variants: evidence for multiple intertypic recombination events. J Virol 2003; 77:9567-77. [PMID: 12915570 PMCID: PMC187415 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.77.17.9567-9577.2003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 71] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/24/2003] [Accepted: 05/27/2003] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Toroviruses (family Coronaviridae, order Nidovirales) are enveloped, positive-stranded RNA viruses that have been implicated in enteric disease in cattle and possibly in humans. Despite their potential veterinary and clinical relevance, little is known about torovirus epidemiology and molecular genetics. Here, we present the first study into the diversity among toroviruses currently present in European swine and cattle herds. Comparative sequence analysis was performed focusing on the genes for the structural proteins S, M, HE, and N, with fecal specimens serving as sources of viral RNA. Sequence data published for animal and human torovirus variants were included. Four genotypes, displaying 30 to 40% divergence, were readily distinguished, exemplified by bovine torovirus (BToV) Breda, porcine torovirus (PToV) Markelo, equine torovirus Berne, and the putative human torovirus. The ungulate toroviruses apparently display host species preference. In phylogenetic analyses, all PToV variants clustered, while the recent European BToVs mostly resembled the New World BToV variant Breda, identified 19 years ago. However, we found ample evidence for recurring intertypic recombination. All newly characterized BToV variants seem to have arisen from a genetic exchange, during which the 3' end of the HE gene, the N gene, and the 3' nontranslated region of a Breda virus-like parent had been swapped for those of PToV. Moreover, some PToV and BToV variants carried chimeric HE genes, which apparently resulted from recombination events involving hitherto unknown toroviruses. From these observations, the existence of two additional torovirus genotypes can be inferred. Toroviruses may be even more promiscuous than their closest relatives, the coronaviruses and arteriviruses.
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Affiliation(s)
- S L Smits
- Virology Division, Department of Infectious Diseases and Immunology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands
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