T cells cause acute immunopathology and are required for long-term survival in mouse adenovirus type 1-induced encephalomyelitis

Role of mouse adenovirus type 1 E4orf6-induced degradation of protein kinase R in pathogenesis

Protein kinase R (PKR) is an interferon-induced antiviral protein activated by autophosphorylation in response to double strand DNA (dsRNA) and other stimuli. Activated PKR causes translation inhibition and apoptosis, and it contributes to proinflammatory responses, cell growth, and differentiation. Mouse adenovirus type 1 (MAV-1) counteracts PKR by causing its degradation via a viral protein, early region 4 open reading frame 6 (E4orf6). Degradation is dependent on E4orf6 binding to Cullin 2, a component of the MAV-1 E4orf6 ubiquitin ligase. We investigated the importance of E4orf6 for induction of PKR degradation by exploiting the ability to infect the natural host with the adenovirus MAV-1. First, we used a new PKR-deficient mouse strain, PKR-TKO. PKR-TKO mouse embryo fibroblasts (MEFs) produced higher levels of MAV-1 upon infection than did wild-type (WT) MEFs. PKR-TKO mice had significantly reduced survival, and MAV-1 had a lower LD50 than in WT control mice. However, virus loads in brains and spleens, key organs infected by MAV-1, were similar between PKR-TKO and WT mice. Second, we constructed a virus, E4orf6TMC2, that has three amino acid changes in the E4orf6 domain involved in Cullin 2 binding. In cell culture infection, compared to WT virus, E4orf6TMC2 resulted in reduced PKR degradation, but its growth was equivalent to WT virus. However, E4orf6TMC2 was avirulent in three mouse strains, including the PKR-TKO mice. The results indicate that PKR is an essential antiviral protein that protects against MAV-1 infection. We confirmed that the viral E4orf6 protein is a virulence protein important for PKR degradation during virus infection, and our results suggest its function is not limited to PKR degradation.IMPORTANCEProtein kinase R (PKR) is a host protein that is central to many aspects of the cellular stress response. PKR protects against viral infection by inhibiting viral and host protein synthesis. Most animal viruses have developed ways to circumvent PKR effects by at least one of a variety of means, including inducing its degradation. A new mouse strain knocked out for PKR expression has enabled us to show the importance of PKR for protection from mouse adenovirus type 1 infection in the natural host, which is not possible for human adenoviruses. Mouse adenovirus type 1 induces degradation of PKR through an interaction with host protein Cullin 2. We generated a mutant virus that is defective in its ability to interact with Cullin 2 and showed that the virus does not cause pathogenesis in mice. This work provides critical evidence from mouse studies supporting the importance of PKR for adenovirus pathogenesis.

Murine adenoviruses: tools for studying adenovirus pathogenesis in a natural host

Small laboratory animals are powerful models for investigating in vivo viral pathogenesis of a number of viruses. For adenoviruses (AdVs), however, species-specificity poses limitations to studying human adenoviruses (HAdVs) in mice and other small laboratory animals. Thus, this review covers work on naturally occurring mouse AdVs, primarily mouse adenovirus type 1 (MAdV-1), a member of the species Murine mastadenovirus A. Molecular genetics, virus life cycle, cell and tissue tropism, interactions with the host immune response, persistence, and host genetics of susceptibility are described. A brief discussion of MAdV-2 (member of species Murine mastadenovirus B) and MAdV-3 (member of species Murine mastadenovirus C) is included. We report the use of MAdVs in the development of vectors and vaccines.

Mouse adenovirus type 1 infection of adipose tissue

Human adenovirus (HAdV) type 36 seropositivity has been linked to obesity in humans. That link is supported by a small number of studies using HAdV-36 infection of animals that are not natural hosts for HAdVs. In this study, we infected mice with mouse adenovirus type 1 (MAV-1), a mouse pathogen, to determine whether MAV-1 infected adipose tissue and was associated with adipose tissue inflammation and obesity. We detected MAV-1 in adipose tissue during acute MAV-1 infection, but we did not detect virus-induced increases in adipose tissue cytokine expression or histological evidence of adipose tissue inflammation during acute infection. MAV-1 did not persist in adipose tissue at later times, and we did not detect long-term adipose inflammation, increased adipose tissue mass, or body weight in infected mice. Our data indicate that MAV-1 is not associated with obesity in infected mice.

Viral-specific T-cell response in hemorrhagic cystitis after haploidentical donor stem cell transplantation

Viral hemorrhagic cystitis (HC) after hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (HSCT) can be devastating. Standard treatment modalities have not been well established, but immune reconstitution may be necessary for sustained viral clearance. We studied five pediatric patients who developed viral HC after haplo-identical HSCT. All patients developed virus-specific CD4- and CD8-positive T cells, and the emergence of these viral-specific T cells was temporally associated with successful viral clearance.

Contributions of CD8 T cells to the pathogenesis of mouse adenovirus type 1 respiratory infection

CD8 T cells are key components of the immune response to viruses, but their roles in the pathogenesis of adenovirus respiratory infection have not been characterized. We used mouse adenovirus type 1 (MAV-1) to define CD8 T cell contributions to the pathogenesis of adenovirus respiratory infection. CD8 T cell deficiency in β2m^-/- mice had no effect on peak viral replication in lungs, but clearance of virus was delayed in β2m^-/- mice. Virus-induced weight loss and increases in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid total protein, IFN-γ, TNF-α, IL-10, CCL2, and CCL5 concentrations were less in β2m^-/- mice than in controls. CD8 T cell depletion had similar effects on virus clearance, weight loss, and inflammation. Deficiency of IFN-γ or perforin had no effect on viral replication or inflammation, but perforin-deficient mice were partially protected from weight loss. CD8 T cells promote MAV-1-induced pulmonary inflammation via a mechanism that is independent of direct antiviral effects.

A Protective Role for Interleukin-1 Signaling during Mouse Adenovirus Type 1-Induced Encephalitis

Interleukin-1β (IL-1β), an inflammatory cytokine and IL-1 receptor ligand, has diverse activities in the brain. We examined whether IL-1 signaling contributes to the encephalitis observed in mouse adenovirus type 1 (MAV-1) infection, using mice lacking the IL-1 receptor (Il1r1^-/- mice). Il1r1^-/- mice demonstrated reduced survival, greater disruption of the blood-brain barrier (BBB), higher brain viral loads, and higher brain inflammatory cytokine and chemokine levels than control C57BL/6J mice. We also examined infections of mice defective in IL-1β production (Pycard^-/- mice) and mice defective in trafficking of Toll-like receptors to the endosome (Unc93b1^-/- mice). Pycard^-/- and Unc93b1^-/- mice showed lower survival (similar to Il1r1^-/- mice) than control mice but, unlike Il1r1^-/- mice, did not have increased brain viral loads or BBB disruption. Based on the brain cytokine levels, MAV-1-infected Unc93b1^-/- mice had a very different inflammatory profile from infected Il1r1^-/- and Pycard^-/- mice. Histological examination demonstrated pathological findings consistent with encephalitis in control and knockout mice; however, intranuclear viral inclusions were seen only in Il1r1^-/- mice. A time course of infection of control and Il1r1^-/- mice evaluating the kinetics of viral replication and cytokine production revealed differences between the mouse strains primarily at 7 to 8 days after infection, when mice began succumbing to MAV-1 infection. In the absence of IL-1 signaling, we noted an increase in the transcription of type I interferon (IFN)-stimulated genes. Together, these results indicate that IL-1 signaling is important during MAV-1 infection and suggest that, in its absence, increased IFN-β signaling may result in increased neuroinflammation.

IMPORTANCE

The investigation of encephalitis pathogenesis produced by different viruses is needed to characterize virus and host-specific factors that contribute to disease. MAV-1 produces viral encephalitis in its natural host, providing a good model for studying factors involved in encephalitis development. We investigated the role of IL-1 signaling during MAV-1-induced encephalitis. Unexpectedly, the lack of IL-1 signaling increased the mortality and inflammation in mice infected with MAV-1. Also, there was an increase in the transcription of type I IFN-stimulated genes that correlated with the observed increased mortality and inflammation. The findings highlight the complex nature of encephalitis and suggests that IL-1 has a protective effect for the development of MAV-1-induced encephalitis.

Interferon-dependent immunoproteasome activity during mouse adenovirus type 1 infection

The immunoproteasome is an inducible host mechanism that aids in the clearance of damaged proteins. The immunoproteasome also influences immune function by enhancing peptide presentation by MHC class I and promotes inflammation via IκB degradation and activation of NF-κB. We used mouse adenovirus type 1 (MAV-1) to characterize the role of the immunoproteasome in adenovirus pathogenesis. Following intranasal infection of mice, immunoproteasome activity in the heart and lung was significantly increased in an IFN-γ-dependent manner. Absence of the β5i immunoproteasome subunit and pharmacological inhibition of β5i activity had minimal effects on viral replication, virus-induced cellular inflammation, or induction of cytokine expression. Likewise, the establishment of protective immunity following primary infection was not significantly altered by β5i deficiency. Thus, although immunoproteasome activity is robustly induced during acute infection with MAV-1, our data suggest that other mechanisms are capable of compensating for immunoproteasome activity to maintain antiviral immunity and appropriate inflammatory responses.

Defensins Potentiate a Neutralizing Antibody Response to Enteric Viral Infection

α-defensins are abundant antimicrobial peptides with broad, potent antibacterial, antifungal, and antiviral activities in vitro. Although their contribution to host defense against bacteria in vivo has been demonstrated, comparable studies of their antiviral activity in vivo are lacking. Using a mouse model deficient in activated α-defensins in the small intestine, we show that Paneth cell α-defensins protect mice from oral infection by a pathogenic virus, mouse adenovirus 1 (MAdV-1). Survival differences between mouse genotypes are lost upon parenteral MAdV-1 infection, strongly implicating a role for intestinal defenses in attenuating pathogenesis. Although differences in α-defensin expression impact the composition of the ileal commensal bacterial population, depletion studies using broad-spectrum antibiotics revealed no effect of the microbiota on α-defensin-dependent viral pathogenesis. Moreover, despite the sensitivity of MAdV-1 infection to α-defensin neutralization in cell culture, we observed no barrier effect due to Paneth cell α-defensin activation on the kinetics and magnitude of MAdV-1 dissemination to the brain. Rather, a protective neutralizing antibody response was delayed in the absence of α-defensins. This effect was specific to oral viral infection, because antibody responses to parenteral or mucosal ovalbumin exposure were not affected by α-defensin deficiency. Thus, α-defensins play an important role as adjuvants in antiviral immunity in vivo that is distinct from their direct antiviral activity observed in cell culture.

Proinflammatory effects of interferon gamma in mouse adenovirus 1 myocarditis

Adenoviruses are frequent causes of pediatric myocarditis. Little is known about the pathogenesis of adenovirus myocarditis, and the species specificity of human adenoviruses has limited the development of animal models, which is a significant barrier to strategies for prevention or treatment. We have developed a mouse model of myocarditis following mouse adenovirus 1 (MAV-1) infection to study the pathogenic mechanisms of this important cause of pediatric myocarditis. Following intranasal infection of neonatal C57BL/6 mice, we detected viral replication and induction of interferon gamma (IFN-γ) in the hearts of infected mice. MAV-1 caused myocyte necrosis and induced substantial cellular inflammation that was composed predominantly of CD3(+) T lymphocytes. Depletion of IFN-γ during acute infection reduced cardiac inflammation in MAV-1-infected mice without affecting viral replication. We observed decreased contractility during acute infection of neonatal mice, and persistent viral infection in the heart was associated with cardiac remodeling and hypertrophy in adulthood. IFN-γ is a proinflammatory mediator during adenovirus-induced myocarditis, and persistent adenovirus infection may contribute to ongoing cardiac dysfunction.

IMPORTANCE

Studying the pathogenesis of myocarditis caused by different viruses is essential in order to characterize both virus-specific and generalized factors that contribute to disease. Very little is known about the pathogenesis of adenovirus myocarditis, which is a significant impediment to the development of treatment or prevention strategies. We used MAV-1 to establish a mouse model of human adenovirus myocarditis, providing the means to study host and pathogen factors contributing to adenovirus-induced cardiac disease during acute and persistent infection. The MAV-1 model will enable fundamental studies of viral myocarditis, including IFN-γ modulation as a therapeutic strategy.

Disruption of the coxsackievirus and adenovirus receptor-homodimeric interaction triggers lipid microdomain- and dynamin-dependent endocytosis and lysosomal targeting

The coxsackievirus and adenovirus receptor (CAR) serves as a docking factor for some adenovirus (AdV) types and group B coxsackieviruses. Its role in AdV internalization is unclear as studies suggest that its intracellular domain is dispensable for some AdV infection. We previously showed that in motor neurons, AdV induced CAR internalization and co-transport in axons, suggesting that CAR was linked to endocytic and long-range transport machineries. Here, we characterized the mechanisms of CAR endocytosis in neurons and neuronal cells. We found that CAR internalization was lipid microdomain-, actin-, and dynamin-dependent, and subsequently followed by CAR degradation in lysosomes. Moreover, ligands that disrupted the homodimeric CAR interactions in its D1 domains triggered an internalization cascade involving sequences in its intracellular tail.

Intracellular antibody receptor TRIM21 prevents fatal viral infection

Host species have evolved mechanisms that can inhibit pathogen replication even after a cell has been successfully invaded. Here we show that tripartite-motif protein 21 (TRIM21), a ubiquitously expressed E3 ubiquitin ligase that targets viruses inside the cytosol, protects mice against fatal viral infection. Upon infection with mouse adenovirus-1, naive mice lacking TRIM21 succumb to encephalomyelitis within 7 d. In contrast, wild-type mice rapidly up-regulate TRIM21 and control viremia. Trim21 heterozygous mice have a haploinsufficiency phenotype in which reduced TRIM21 expression leads to a viral load that is higher than wild types but lower than knockouts. TRIM21 is a high-affinity antibody receptor that allows antibodies to operate inside an infected cell. In passive transfer experiments at high viral dose, antisera that fully protects wild-type mice fails to protect most Trim21 knockout animals. These results demonstrate that TRIM21 provides potent antiviral protection and forms an important part of the humoral immune response.

Immune evasion, immunopathology and the regulation of the immune system

Costs and benefits of the immune response have attracted considerable attention in the last years among evolutionary biologists. Given the cost of parasitism, natural selection should favor individuals with the most effective immune defenses. Nevertheless, there exists huge variation in the expression of immune effectors among individuals. To explain this apparent paradox, it has been suggested that an over-reactive immune system might be too costly, both in terms of metabolic resources and risks of immune-mediated diseases, setting a limit to the investment into immune defenses. Here, we argue that this view neglects one important aspect of the interaction: the role played by evolving pathogens. We suggest that taking into account the co-evolutionary interactions between the host immune system and the parasitic strategies to overcome the immune response might provide a better picture of the selective pressures that shape the evolution of immune functioning. Integrating parasitic strategies of host exploitation can also contribute to understand the seemingly contradictory results that infection can enhance, but also protect from, autoimmune diseases. In the last decades, the incidence of autoimmune disorders has dramatically increased in wealthy countries of the northern hemisphere with a concomitant decrease of most parasitic infections. Experimental work on model organisms has shown that this pattern may be due to the protective role of certain parasites (i.e., helminths) that rely on the immunosuppression of hosts for their persistence. Interestingly, although parasite-induced immunosuppression can protect against autoimmunity, it can obviously favor the spread of other infections. Therefore, we need to think about the evolution of the immune system using a multidimensional trade-off involving immunoprotection, immunopathology and the parasitic strategies to escape the immune response.

Contribution of a single host genetic locus to mouse adenovirus type 1 infection and encephalitis

Susceptibility to mouse adenovirus type 1 (MAV-1) is mouse strain dependent; susceptible mice die from hemorrhagic encephalomyelitis. The MAV-1 susceptibility quantitative trait locus Msq1 accounts for ~40% of the phenotypic (brain viral load) variance that occurs between resistant BALB/c and susceptible SJL mice after MAV-1 infection. Using an interval-specific congenic mouse strain (C.SJL-Msq1^SJL), in which the SJL-derived allele Msq1^SJL is present in a BALB/c background, we demonstrate that Msq1^SJL controls the development of high brain viral titers in response to MAV-1 infection, yet does not account for the total extent of brain pathology or mortality in SJL mice. C.SJL-Msq1^SJL mice had disruption of the blood-brain barrier and increased brain water content after MAV-1 infection, but these effects occurred later and were not as severe, respectively, as those noted in infected SJL mice. As expected, BALB/c mice showed minimal pathology in these assays. Infection of SJL- and C.SJL-Msq1^SJL-derived primary mouse brain endothelial cells resulted in loss of barrier properties, whereas BALB/c-derived cells retained their barrier properties despite being equally capable of supporting MAV-1 infection. Finally, we provide evidence that organ pathology and inflammatory cell recruitment to the brain following MAV-1 infection were both influenced by Msq1. These results validate Msq1 as an important host factor in MAV-1 infection and refine the major role of the locus in development of MAV-1 encephalitis. They further suggest that additional host factors or gene interactions are involved in the mechanism of pathogenesis in MAV-1-infected SJL mice.

A successful viral infection requires both host and viral factors; identification of host components involved in viral replication and pathogenesis is important for development of therapeutic interventions. A genetic locus (Msq1) controlling mouse adenovirus type 1 (MAV-1) brain infection was previously identified. Genes in Msq1 belong to the same family of genes associated with susceptibility to other encephalitic viruses, HIV-1 and West Nile virus. We constructed an interval-specific congenic mouse strain to examine the contribution of Msq1 to MAV-1 susceptibility and brain morbidity. We compared infected resistant, susceptible, and congenic mice regarding known MAV-1 disease manifestations in the brain (survival, viral loads, blood-brain barrier disruption, edema, mouse brain endothelial cell barrier properties, pathology, and inflammatory cell recruitment) to determine the extent to which Msq1 influences MAV-1 infection outcome. Our results showed that Msq1 is a critical host genetic factor that controls many aspects of MAV-1 infection.

Susceptibility to acute mouse adenovirus type 1 respiratory infection and establishment of protective immunity in neonatal mice

There is an incomplete understanding of the differences between neonatal immune responses that contribute to the increased susceptibility of neonates to some viral infections. We tested the hypothesis that neonates are more susceptible than adults to mouse adenovirus type 1 (MAV-1) respiratory infection and are impaired in the ability to generate a protective immune response against a second infection. Following intranasal infection, lung viral loads were greater in neonates than in adults during the acute phase but the virus was cleared from the lungs of neonates as efficiently as it was from adult lungs. Lung gamma interferon (IFN-γ) responses were blunted and delayed in neonates, and lung viral loads were higher in adult IFN-γ(-/-) mice than in IFN-γ(+/+) controls. However, administration of recombinant IFN-γ to neonates had no effect on lung viral loads. Recruitment of inflammatory cells to the airways was impaired in neonates. CD4 and CD8 T cell responses were similar in the lungs of neonates and adults, although a transient increase in regulatory T cells occurred only in the lungs of infected neonates. Infection of neonates led to protection against reinfection later in life that was associated with increased effector memory CD8 T cells in the lungs. We conclude that neonates are more susceptible than adults to acute MAV-1 respiratory infection but are capable of generating protective immune responses.

The major locus for mouse adenovirus susceptibility maps to genes of the hematopoietic cell surface-expressed LY6 family

Susceptibility to mouse adenovirus type 1 is associated with the major quantitative trait locus Msq1. Msq1 was originally mapped to a 13-Mb region of mouse chromosome (Chr) 15 in crosses between SJL/J and BALB/cJ inbred mice. We have now narrowed Msq1 to a 0.75-Mb interval from 74.68 to 75.43 Mb, defined by two anonymous markers, rs8259436 and D15Spn14, using data from 1396 backcross mice. The critical interval includes 14 Ly6 or Ly6-related genes, including Ly6a (encoding Sca-1/TAP), Ly6e (Sca-2/Tsa1), Ly6g (Gr-1), and gpihbp1 (GPI-anchored high-density lipoprotein-binding protein 1), as well as the gene encoding an aldosterone synthase (Cyp11b2). The Ly6 family members are attractive candidates for virus susceptibility genes because their products are GPI-anchored membrane proteins expressed on lymphoid and myeloid cells, with proposed functions in cell adhesion and cell signaling. To determine interstrain variation in susceptibility and produce additional resources for cloning Msq1, we assayed the susceptibility phenotype of four previously untested inbred mouse strains. Susceptibility of strain 129S6/SvEvTac was subsequently localized to the Ly6 complex region, using polymorphic genetic markers on Chr 15 in a population of 271 (129S6/SvEvTac x BALB/cJ)F(1) x BALB/cJ backcross mice. We identified a major 129S6/SvEvTac susceptibility allele, Msq1(129S6), on Chr 15 in the same region as Msq1(SJL). The results indicate that a major host factor in mouse adenovirus type 1 susceptibility is likely to be a member of the Ly6 gene family.

Mouse adenovirus type 1-induced breakdown of the blood-brain barrier

Infection with mouse adenovirus type 1 (MAV-1) results in fatal acute encephalomyelitis in susceptible mouse strains via infection of brain endothelial cells. Wild-type (wt) MAV-1 causes less brain inflammation than an early region 3 (E3) null virus in C57BL/6 mice. A mouse brain microvascular endothelial cell line infected with wt MAV-1 had higher expression of mRNAs for the proinflammatory chemokines CCL2 and CCL5 than mock- and E3 null virus-infected cells. Primary mouse brain endothelial cells infected with wt virus had elevated levels of CCL2 compared to mock- or E3 null virus-infected cells. Infection of C57BL/6 mice with wt MAV-1 or the E3 null virus caused a dose-dependent breakdown of the blood-brain barrier, primarily due to direct effects of virus infection rather than inflammation. The tight junction proteins claudin-5 and occludin showed reduced surface expression on primary mouse brain endothelial cells following infection with either wt MAV-1 or the E3 null virus. mRNAs and protein for claudin-5, occludin, and zona occludens 2 were also reduced in infected cells. MAV-1 infection caused a loss of transendothelial electrical resistance in primary mouse brain endothelial cells that was not dependent on E3 or on MAV-1-induced CCL2 expression. Taken together, these results demonstrate that MAV-1 infection caused breakdown of the blood-brain barrier accompanied by decreased surface expression of tight junction proteins. Furthermore, while the MAV-1-induced pathogenesis and inflammation were dependent on E3, MAV-1-induced breakdown of the blood-brain barrier and alteration of endothelial cell function were not dependent on E3 or CCL2.

Effects of allergic airway disease on mouse adenovirus type 1 respiratory infection

Virus infection may contribute to asthma pathogenesis. In turn, a Th2-polarized pulmonary environment may increase host susceptibility to infection. We used a cockroach antigen (CRA) model of allergic airway disease to test the hypothesis that Th2 cytokine overproduction increases susceptibility to mouse adenovirus type 1 (MAV-1). CRA sensitization led to upregulated lung expression of IL-4 and IL-13, lung cellular inflammation, and exaggerated airway mucus production. Following intranasal MAV-1 infection, lung cellular inflammation was more pronounced in CRA-sensitized mice than in unsensitized mice at 7 days post-infection but not at a later time point. CRA sensitization did not significantly suppress lung IFN-gamma expression, and lung IFN-gamma expression was upregulated in both CRA-sensitized mice and unsensitized mice over the course of MAV-1 infection. Despite CRA-induced differences in pulmonary inflammation, MAV-1 viral loads in lung and spleen and MAV-1 gene expression in the lung did not differ between CRA-sensitized and unsensitized mice. Our data therefore suggest that MAV-1 pathogenesis is not affected directly or indirectly by the Th2 polarization associated with allergic airway disease.

Mouse adenovirus type 1 infection of macrophages

Mouse adenovirus type 1 (MAV-1) causes acute and persistent infections in mice, with high levels of virus found in the brain, spinal cord and spleen in acute infections. MAV-1 infects endothelial cells throughout the mouse, and monocytes/macrophages have also been implicated as targets of the virus. Here we determined the extent and functional importance of macrophage infection by MAV-1. Bone marrow-derived macrophages expressed MAV-1 mRNAs and proteins upon ex vivo infection. Adherent peritoneal macrophages from infected mice expressed viral mRNAs and produced infectious virus. Infected chemokine (C-C motif) receptor 2 (CCR2) knockout mice, which are defective for macrophage recruitment, did not show differences in survival or MAV-1 load compared to controls. In contrast, macrophage depletion using clodronate-loaded liposomes resulted in increased virus replication in spleens of a MAV-1-resistant mouse strain, BALB/cJ. Thus macrophages serve both as targets of infection and as effectors of the host response.

Novel immunocompetent murine tumor model for evaluation of conditionally replication-competent (oncolytic) murine adenoviral vectors

Oncolytic adenoviral vectors that express immunostimulatory transgenes are currently being evaluated in clinic. Preclinical testing of these vectors has thus far been limited to immunodeficient xenograft tumor models since human adenoviruses do not replicate effectively in murine tumor cells. The effect of the immunostimulatory transgene on overall virus potency can therefore not be readily assessed in these models. Here, a model is described that allows the effective testing of mouse armed oncolytic adenovirus (MAV) vectors in immunocompetent syngeneic tumor models. These studies demonstrate that the MAV vectors have a high level of cytotoxicity in a wide range of murine tumor cells. The murine oncolytic viruses were successfully armed with murine granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor (mGM-CSF) by a novel method which resulted in vectors with a high level of tumor-specific transgene expression. The mGM-CSF-armed MAV vectors showed an improved level of antitumor potency and induced a systemic antitumor immune response that was greater than that induced by unarmed parental vectors in immunocompetent syngeneic tumor models. Thus, the oncolytic MAV-1 system described here provides a murine homolog model for the testing of murine armed oncolytic adenovirus vectors in immunocompetent animals. The model allows evaluation of the impact of virus replication and the host immune response on overall virus potency and enables the generation of translational data that will be important for guiding the clinical development of these viruses.

Passive immunization reduces murine cytomegalovirus-induced brain pathology in newborn mice

Human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) is the most frequent cause of congenital viral infections in humans and frequently leads to long-term central nervous system (CNS) abnormalities that include learning disabilities, microcephaly, and hearing loss. The pathogenesis of the CNS infection has not been fully elucidated and may arise as a result of direct damage of CMV-infected neurons or indirectly secondary to inflammatory response to infection. We used a recently established model of mouse CMV (MCMV) infection in newborn mice to analyze the contribution of humoral immunity to virus clearance from the brain. In brains of MCMV-infected newborn mice treated with immune serum, the titer of infectious virus was reduced below detection limit, whereas in the brains of mice receiving control (nonimmune) serum significant amounts of virus were recovered. Moreover, histopathological and immunohistological analyses revealed significantly less CNS inflammation in mice treated with immune serum. Treatment with MCMV-specific monoclonal antibodies also resulted in the reduction of virus titer in the brain. Recipients of control serum or irrelevant antibodies had more viral foci, marked mononuclear cell infiltrates, and prominent glial nodules in their brains than mice treated with immune serum or MCMV-specific antibodies. In conclusion, our data indicate that virus-specific antibodies have a protective role in the development of CNS pathology in MCMV-infected newborn mice, suggesting that antiviral antibodies may be an important component of protective immunological responses during CMV infection of the developing CNS.

Mouse adenovirus type 1 infection of natural killer cell-deficient mice

Natural killer (NK) cells contribute to the initial nonspecific response to viral infection, and viruses exhibit a range of sensitivities to NK cells in vivo. We investigated the role of NK cells in infection of mice by mouse adenovirus type 1 (MAV-1) using antibody-mediated depletion and knockout mice. MAV-1 causes encephalomyelitis and replicates to highest levels in brains. NK cell-depleted mice infected with MAV-1 showed brain viral loads 8-20 days p.i. that were similar to wild-type control non-depleted mice. Mice genetically deficient for NK cells behaved similarly to wild-type control mice with respect to brain viral loads and survival. We conclude that NK cells are not required to control virus replication in the brains of MAV-1-infected mice.

Recovery of humoral immunity is critical for successful antiviral therapy in disseminated mouse adenovirus type 1 infection

Severe adenovirus infections in transplant recipients undergoing immunosuppressive therapy are of increasing concern. Controversy exists on the contribution of antiviral therapy and the host immune response to recovery from these infections. Here, we established a systemic mouse adenovirus type 1 (MAV-1) infection in cyclophosphamide (CyP)-treated BALB/c mice. CyP was administered at 100 mg per kg of body weight every other day for 2, 3, or 4 weeks, thereby inducing general but reversible leukopenia, with a major suppression of the B-cell numbers and functionality that was more pronounced than that seen with T cells. The outcome of MAV-1 infection was dependent on the duration of CyP therapy, as the mice with the most severe immunosuppression were the most vulnerable to MAV-1-induced hemorrhagic enteritis and mortality. The protective effect of concomitant antiviral therapy with cidofovir depended on the level of immunosuppression. The combination of cidofovir treatment with the withdrawal of immunosuppression was the most successful regimen for increasing survival rates. Survival was clearly correlated with the clearance of virus and increased titers of MAV-1-specific antibodies in sera. In addition, the passive transfer of MAV-1-specific immunoglobulin G into MAV-1-infected SCID BALB/c mice caused a marked delay in mortality, the extent of the delay being dependent on the titer of MAV-1-specific antibodies. Based on the critical role of the humoral immune response in the early defense against disseminated adenovirus infection, the concomitant use of adenovirus-specific immunoglobulins and antiviral therapy should be considered for transplant patients at risk for severe adenovirus infections.

Adenovirus-specific CD4+ T cell clones recognizing endogenous antigen inhibit viral replication in vitro through cognate interaction

Human adenovirus (HAdV) infection is a frequent and potentially severe complication following allogeneic stem cell transplantation in children. Because treatment with antiviral drugs is often ineffective, adoptive transfer of donor-derived HAdV-specific T cells able to control viral replication of HAdV of multiple serotypes may be an option for therapy. In healthy donors, predominantly HAdV-specific T cells expressing CD4 are detected. In this study, a preclinical in vitro model was used to measure the antiviral effect of HAdV-specific CD4+ T cells. CD4+ HAdV-specific T cell clones restricted by HLA class II molecules were generated and most of these clones recognized conserved peptides derived from the hexon protein. These cross-reactive T cell clones were able to control viral replication of multiple serotypes of HAdV in EBV-transformed B cells (B-LCL), melanoma cells (MJS) and primary bronchial epithelial cells through cognate interaction. The HAdV-specific CD4+ T cell clones were able to specifically lyse infected target cells using a perforin-dependent mechanism. Antigenic peptides were also presented to the CD4+ T cell clones when derived from endogenously produced hexon protein. Together, these results show that cross-reactive HAdV-specific CD4+ T cells can control replication of HAdV in vitro and provide a rationale for the use of HAdV-specific T cells in adoptive immunotherapy protocols for control of life-threatening HAdV-infections in immunocompromised patients.

Contributions of E1A to mouse adenovirus type 1 pathogenesis following intranasal inoculation

We investigated the role of mouse adenovirus type 1 (MAV-1) early region 1A (E1A) protein in adenovirus respiratory infection. Intranasal (i.n.) inoculation of mice with wild type (wt) virus induced chemokine and cellular inflammatory responses in the lung. We observed similar responses in mice infected with an E1A-null mutant virus at the same dose, although the magnitude of these responses was lower. Levels of viral hexon gene expression were lower in the lung following infection with E1A-null virus than with wt virus. When input doses were adjusted so that equivalent viral loads were present following infection with varying doses of wt and E1A-null virus, we observed equivalent chemokine upregulation in the lung. Dissemination to the brain occurred following i.n. inoculation with equal doses of wt or E1A-null virus, but viral gene expression and viral loads were lower and the magnitude of chemokine responses was lower in brains of E1A-null virus-infected mice. CD4 and CD8 T cells and neutrophils were recruited to the brains of mice infected with either wt or E1A-null virus. Together, these data suggest that MAV-1 E1A makes important contributions to viral replication in the lung and the brain following i.n. inoculation. However, E1A is not essential for the induction of inflammatory responses in the lung or for viral dissemination out of the lung.

Acute respiratory infection with mouse adenovirus type 1

Studies of the pathogenesis of adenovirus respiratory disease are limited by the strict species-specificity of the adenoviruses. Following intranasal inoculation of adult C57BL/6 mice with mouse adenovirus type 1 (MAV-1), we detected MAV-1 early region 3 (E3) and hexon gene expression in the lungs at 7 days post-infection (dpi). We detected MAV-1 E3 protein in the respiratory epithelium at 7 dpi. We did not detect viral mRNA or protein at 14 dpi, but MAV-1 DNA was detected by PCR at 21 dpi. Chemokine transcript levels increased between 7 and 14 dpi in the lungs of infected mice. MAV-1 infection induced a patchy cellular infiltrate in lungs at 7 and 14 dpi. This is the first report demonstrating the presence of MAV-1 in the respiratory epithelium of infected mice and describing chemokine responses in the lung induced by MAV-1 respiratory infection. MAV-1 infection of mice has the potential to serve as a model for inflammatory changes seen in human adenovirus respiratory disease.

Identification of quantitative trait loci for susceptibility to mouse adenovirus type 1

Adult SJL/J mice are highly susceptible to mouse adenovirus type 1 (MAV-1) infections, whereas other inbred strains, including BALB/cJ, are resistant (K. R. Spindler, L. Fang, M. L. Moore, C. C. Brown, G. N. Hirsch, and A. K. Kajon, J. Virol. 75:12039-12046, 2001). Using congenic mouse strains, we showed that the H-2(s) haplotype of SJL/J mice is not associated with susceptibility to MAV-1. Susceptibility of MAV-1-infected (BALB/cJ x SJL/J)F(1) mice was intermediate between that of SJL/J mice and that of BALB/cJ mice, indicating that susceptibility is a genetically controlled quantitative trait. We mapped genetic loci involved in mouse susceptibility to MAV-1 by analysis of 192 backcross progeny in a genome scan with 65 simple sequence length polymorphic markers. A major quantitative trait locus (QTL) was detected on chromosome 15 (Chr 15) with a highly significant logarithm of odds score of 21. The locus on Chr 15 alone accounts for 40% of the total trait variance between susceptible and resistant strains. QTL modeling of the data indicated that there are a number of other QTLs with small effects that together with the major QTL on Chr 15 account for 54% of the trait variance. Identification of the major QTL is the first step in characterizing host genes involved in susceptibility to MAV-1.

Progressive differentiation and commitment of CD8+ T cells to a poorly cytolytic CD8low phenotype in the presence of IL-4

Exposure to IL-4 during activation of naive murine CD8+ T cells leads to generation of IL-4-producing effector cells with reduced surface CD8, low perforin, granzyme B and granzyme C mRNA, and poor cytolytic function. We show in this study that maximal development of these cells depended on exposure to IL-4 for the first 5 days of activation. Although IL-4 was not required at later times, CD8 T cell clones continued to lose surface CD8 expression with prolonged culture, suggesting commitment to the CD8low phenotype. This state was reversible in early differentiation. When single CD8low cells from 4-day cultures were cultured without IL-4, 65% gave rise to clones that partly or wholly comprised CD8high cells; the proportion of reverted clones was reduced or increased when the cells were cloned in the presence of IL-4 or anti-IL-4 Ab, respectively. CD8 expression positively correlated with perforin and granzyme A, B, and C mRNA, and negatively correlated with IL-4 mRNA levels among these clones. By contrast, most CD8low cells isolated at later time points maintained their phenotype, produced IL-4, and exhibited poor cytolytic function after many weeks in the absence of exogenous IL-4. We conclude that IL-4-dependent down-regulation of CD8 is associated with progressive differentiation and commitment to yield IL-4-producing cells with little cytolytic activity. These data suggest that the CD4-CD8- cells identified in some disease states may be the product of a previously unrecognized pathway of effector differentiation from conventional CD8+ T cells.

Fatal disseminated mouse adenovirus type 1 infection in mice lacking B cells or Bruton's tyrosine kinase

Mouse adenovirus type 1 (MAV-1) infection of B-cell-deficient and Bruton's tyrosine kinase (Btk)-deficient mice resulted in fatal disseminated disease resembling human adenovirus infections in immunocompromised patients. Mice lacking B cells or Btk were highly susceptible to acute MAV-1 infection, in contrast to controls and mice lacking T cells. To our knowledge, this is the first demonstration that mice with an X-linked immunodeficiency phenotype (Btk deficient) are susceptible to virus-induced disease. Mice lacking B cells or Btk on a C57BL/6 background succumbed with encephalomyelitis, hepatitis, and lymphoid necrosis. Mice lacking B cells on a BALB/c background succumbed with enteritis and hepatitis. Survival of acute MAV-1 infection correlated with early T-cell-independent neutralizing antibody and T-cell-independent antiviral immunoglobulin M. Treatment of MAV-1-infected Btk(-/-) mice 4 to 9 days postinfection with antiserum harvested 6 to 9 days postinfection from MAV-1-infected Btk(+/+) mice was therapeutic. Our findings implicate a critical role for B-cell function in preventing disseminated MAV-1 infection, particularly production of early T-cell-independent antiviral immunoglobulin M.