Lymphatic and Immune Cell Cross-Talk Regulates Cardiac Recovery After Experimental Myocardial Infarction

Identification and validation of m7G-related genes related to macrophage immunity in acute myocardial infarction through comprehensive bioinformatics analysis

BACKGROUND

Acute myocardial infarction (AMI) is a fatal disease related to immune cell activation; however, the pathological molecular mechanisms associated with AMI and immunity remain unclear. This study aims to explore m7G-related hub genes associated with immune cell characteristics in AMI through the bioinformatics method.

METHODS

Transcriptome sequencing data downloaded from GSE59867 (GPL6244) were used to screen m7G-related differentially expressed genes (DEGs) between AMI and non-AMI controls. Abnormal immune cell characteristics was analyzed by single-sample gene set enrichment analysis (ssGSEA) algorithm. Hub genes were screened from m7G-related DEGs by the support vector machine recursive feature elimination (SVM-RFE) algorithm and random forest tree model. The association of hub genes with immune cell types was analyzed by GSEA and Spearman correlation analysis. A mouse AMI model and hypoxia-stimulated macrophage model were established to verified the function of CYFIP1 on macropahges.

RESULTS

We identified significant differences in 21 types of immune cells and 13 m7G-related DEGs between AMI and non-AMI controls. m7G-related DEGs were enriched in nucleoside nuclear catabolism, RNA modification and translation regulation, the HIF-1 signaling pathway, etc. 111 AMI samples were divided into three clusters based on the cluster analysis of m7G-related DEG expression profiles, and immune cell types were significantly different in the three clusters. Four hub genes including CYFIP1, EIF4E2, IFIT5, and NCBP3 were screened and positively or negatively correlated with AMI. ROC curve verified the efficiency of the 4 hub genes in the diagnosis prediction models of AMI. CYFIP1 had the best prediction efficiency of than other 3 hub genes. GESA enrichment and Spearman correlation analysis found that hub genes were associated with inflammation and immune, especially CYFIP1 had a strong statistical relationship with macrophages, Monocyte, etc. By experiments, we found that CYFIP1 was upregulated in AMI patients and animal models, and knockdown of CYFIP1 inhibited hypoxia-mediated macrophage inflammatory response.

CONCLUSION

m7G-related hub genes are associated with immune cell characteristics in AMI, among which CYFIP1 may play a key role in the regulatory network of macrophage immune response.

Contributions of Noncardiac Organ-Heart Immune Crosstalk and Somatic Mosaicism to Heart Failure: Current Knowledge and Perspectives

Heart failure is the final outcome of most cardiovascular diseases and shares risk factors with other cardiovascular pathologies. Among these, inflammation plays a central role in disease progression and myocardial remodeling. Over the past 2 decades, numerous studies have explored immune-related mechanisms in cardiovascular disease, highlighting the importance of immune cross-talk between the heart and extra-cardiac organs, including bone marrow, spleen, liver, gut, and adipose tissue. This review examines how immune interactions among these organs contribute to heart failure pathogenesis, with a focus on clonal hematopoiesis, an age-related alteration of hematopoietic stem cells that fosters pathological bone marrow-heart communication. Additionally, we explore recent advances in the understanding of clonal hematopoiesis and its role in heart failure, emphasizing its implications for prognosis and potential therapeutic interventions. By integrating insights from immunology, metabolism, and aging, we provide a comprehensive perspective on the immunologic determinants of heart failure, paving the way for precision medicine approaches aimed at mitigating cardiovascular risk.

Transcriptional signatures of endothelial cells shape immune responses in cardiopulmonary health and disease

The cardiopulmonary vasculature and its associated endothelial cells (ECs) play an essential role in sustaining life by ensuring the delivery of oxygen and nutrients. Beyond these foundational functions, ECs serve as key regulators of immune responses. Recent advances in single-cell RNA sequencing have revealed that the cardiopulmonary vasculature is composed of diverse EC subpopulations, some of which exhibit specialized immunomodulatory properties. Evidence for immunomodulation includes distinct expression profiles associated with antigen presentation, cytokine secretion, immune cell recruitment, translocation, and clearance - functions critical for maintaining homeostasis in the heart and lungs. In cardiopulmonary diseases, ECs undergo substantial transcriptional reprogramming, leading to a shift from homeostasis to an activated state marked by heightened immunomodulatory activity. This transformation has highlighted the critical role for ECs in disease pathogenesis and their potential as future therapy targets. This Review emphasizes the diverse functions of ECs in the heart and lungs, particularly adaptive and maladaptive immunoregulatory roles in cardiopulmonary health and disease.

Network pharmacology and bioinformatics analysis reveals: NXC improves cardiac lymphangiogenesis through miR-126-3p/SPRED1 regulating the VEGF-C axis to ameliorate post-myocardial infarction heart failure

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Cardiac lymphangiogenesis disorder serves as a vital pathological mechanism in post-myocardial infarction heart failure (MI-HF). Nuanxin Capsule (NXC) has been applied in the treatment of MI-HF for more than 20 years and has shown clinical effectiveness in improving cardiac function in MI-HF patients. Nevertheless, the exact mechanisms through which NXC treats MI-HF are still unknown.

AIM OF THE STUDY

In this research, our aim was to investigate the influence of NXC on cardiac lymphangiogenesis and its mechanism in the treatment of MI-HF.

METHODS

The MI-HF mouse model was constructed by ligating the coronary artery. The protective impacts of NXC on cardiac function and fibrosis were appraised through echocardiography, Masson staining, and Western blotting. Cardiac lymphangiogenesis and inflammation were evaluated by RT-qPCR, immunohistochemistry, and Western blotting. UPLC-MS/MS, network pharmacology, and bioinformatics techniques were utilized to investigate the relevant targets and underlying mechanism of NXC in MI-HF. The regulatory effects of NXC on the miR-126-3p/SPRED1 and VEGF-C pathways were analyzed by RT-qPCR, Western blotting, and Dual-luciferase assay. Finally, AAV9-anti-miR-126-3p was injected into MI-HF mice via the tail vein to determine the molecular mechanism of NXC.

RESULTS

Our research results demonstrated that NXC notably improved cardiac function in MI-HF mice, facilitated the formation of cardiac lymphatic vessels, reduced the expression of inflammatory factors, and alleviated myocardial fibrosis. Network pharmacology and bioinformatics analyses further revealed that NXC exerted its cardioprotective effects by promoting cardiac lymphangiogenesis through the modulation of the VEGF-C pathway by miR-126-3p/SPRED1. Dual-luciferase test further confirmed that miR-126-3p has binding to SPRED1.The administration of anti-miR-126-3p effectively negated the cardioprotective effects of NXC in MI-HF mice, as well as its ability to promote lymphangiogenesis, reduce inflammation, and relieve myocardial fibrosis.

CONCLUSION

The findings of this research indicate that NXC can stimulate the VEGF-C pathway via miR-126-3p/SPRED1 to promote cardiac lymphangiogenesis, thus treating MI-HF. Additionally, the study initially revealed that miR-126-3p affects lymphangiogenesis in MI-HF by regulating the VEGF-C pathway. These results offer valuable insights for the development of cardiovascular drugs targeting MI-HF by leveraging the potential of NXC to enhance cardiac lymphangiogenesis.

LNPs-mediated VEGF-C mRNA delivery promotes heart repair and attenuates inflammation by stimulating lymphangiogenesis post-myocardial infarction

Myocardial infarction (MI) initiates a strong inflammatory response, leading to adverse ventricular remodeling. The reconstruction of functional lymphatic networks is indispensable for relieving myocardial edema and regulating post-infarction inflammation. However, conventional protein-based therapies and viral delivery systems aimed at promoting lymphangiogenesis in the heart have shown limited therapeutic efficacy due to their inherent limitations. In this study, a lipid nanoparticle (LNP) platform encapsulating VEGF-C mRNA was developed as a novel approach to regulate gene expression and stimulate sustained lymphatic neogenesis after MI. Intramyocardial delivery of VEGF-C mRNA-loaded LNPs significantly promoted lymphangiogenesis, reduced the infiltration of inflammatory cells, and inhibited pro-inflammatory and fibrosis-associated signaling pathways. This ultimately resulted in a substantial reduction in the fibrotic area and improved functional recovery. Our findings demonstrated that VEGF-C mRNA@LNPs repair myocardial ischemic injury by facilitating immune modulation through lymphatic neogenesis, offering a promising new therapeutic strategy with strong translational potential for treating myocardial infarction.

sVEGFR3 alleviates myocardial ischemia/reperfusion injury through regulating mitochondrial homeostasis and immune cell infiltration

Recent studies have suggested that sVEGFR3 is involved in cardiac diseases by regulating lymphangiogenesis; however, results are inconsistent. The aim of this study was to investigate the function and mechanism of sVEGFR3 in myocardial ischemia/reperfusion injury (MI/RI). sVEGFR3 effects were evaluated in vivo in mice subjected to MI/RI, and in vitro using HL-1 cells exposed to oxygen-glucose deprivation/reperfusion. Echocardiography, TTC-Evans blue staining, ELISA, electron microscopy, immunofluorescence, western blotting, and flow cytometry were used to investigate whether sVEGFR3 attenuates I/R injury. Transcriptome sequencing was used to investigate the downstream mechanism of sVEGFR3. Results showed that, in vivo, sVEGFR3 pretreatment reduced cardiac dysfunction, infarct area, and myocardial injury indicators by reducing ROS production, AIF expression, and apoptosis. In vitro, sVEGFR3 restored mitochondrial homeostasis by stabilizing the mitochondrial membrane potential (MMP) and preventing the opening of mitochondrial permeability transition pores (mPTP). And sVEGFR3 inhibits mitochondrial apoptosis through the Ras/MEK/ERK pathway. Furthermore, I/R injury increased the proportion of M1 macrophages and CD4 + T cells in myocardial tissue, as well as serum IFN-γ and TNF-α levels, whereas sVEGFR3 treatment attenuated these effects. sVEGFR3 attenuates MI/RI by regulating mitochondrial homeostasis and immune cell infiltration, and reduces intrinsic ROS-mediated mitochondrial apoptosis via the Ras/MEK/ERK pathway.

Exercise-Induced Cardiac Lymphatic Remodeling Mitigates Inflammation in the Aging Heart

The lymphatic vasculature plays essential roles in fluid balance, immunity, and lipid transport. Chronic, low-grade inflammation in peripheral tissues develops when lymphatic structure or function is impaired, as observed during aging. While aging has been associated with a broad range of heart pathophysiology, its effect on cardiac lymphatic vasculature has not been characterized. Here, we analyzed cardiac lymphatics in aged 20-month-old mice versus young 2-month-old mice. Aged hearts showed reduced lymphatic vascular density, more dilated vessels, and increased inflammation and fibrosis in peri-lymphatic zones. As exercise has shown benefits in several different models of age-related heart disease, we further investigated the effects of aerobic training on cardiac lymphatics. Eight weeks of voluntary wheel running attenuated age-associated adverse remodeling of the cardiac lymphatics, including reversing their dilation, increasing lymph vessel density and branching, and reducing perilymphatic inflammation and fibrosis. Intravital lymphangiography demonstrated improved cardiac lymphatic flow after exercise training. Our findings illustrate that aging leads to cardiac lymphatic dysfunction, and that exercise can improve lymphatic health in aged animals.

Tissue-Engineered Therapeutics for Lymphatic Regeneration: Solutions for Myocardial Infarction and Secondary Lymphedema

The lymphatic system, which regulates inflammation and fluid homeostasis, is damaged in various diseases including myocardial infarction (MI) and breast-cancer-related lymphedema (BCRL). Mounting evidence suggests that restoring tissue fluid drainage and clearing excess immune cells by regenerating damaged lymphatic vessels can aid in cardiac repair and lymphedema amelioration. Current treatments primarily address symptoms rather than underlying causes due to a lack of regenerative therapies, highlighting the importance of the lymphatic system as a promising novel therapeutic target. Here cutting-edge research on engineered lymphatic tissues, growth factor therapies, and cell-based approaches designed to enhance lymphangiogenesis and restore lymphatic function is explored. Special focus is placed on how therapies with potential for immediate lymphatic reconstruction, originally designed for treating BCRL, can be applied to MI to augment cardiac repair and reduce heart failure risk. The integration of these novel treatments can significantly improve patient outcomes by promoting lymphatic repair, preventing pathological remodeling, and offering new avenues for managing lymphatic-associated diseases.

Dihydrotanshinone I improves cardiac function by promoting lymphangiogenesis after myocardial ischemia-reperfusion injury

Dihydrotanshinone I (DHT) is an active ingredient derived from Salvia miltiorrhiza. Previous studies have demonstrated that DHT can improve cardiac function in rats with myocardial ischemia-reperfusion injury (IR). However, the mechanism by which DHT improves myocardial injury in rats still requires further research. Lymphangiogenesis can reduce myocardial edema, inflammation, and fibrosis after myocardial infarction in rats, and improve cardiac function. In this study, the changes in cardiac functions, collagen fiber deposition in the infarcted area and the level of relevant indicators of lymphangiogenesis were examined by echocardiography, Masson's trichrome staining, immunohistochemistry and Western blot, respectively. Human lymphatic endothelial cells (HLECs) were transfected with siVE-cadherin and siVEGFR-3, and the effects of DHT on HLEC cell viability, migration and tube formation were detected through CCK8, TUNEL, transwell, wound healing and tube formation assay. We found that in myocardial IR rats treated with DHT, the levels of LYVE-1, PROX1, VEGF-C, VEGFR-3, IGF-1, podoplanin and IGF-1R, which are associated with lymphangiogenesis, were increased, as well as the level of VE-cadherin, which maintains endothelial cell function. DHT reduced the levels of inflammatory factors and myocardial cell apoptosis, thereby improving cardiac function after I/R. To explore the mechanism of DHT promoting lymphangiogenesis, H2O2 and OGD/R injury models of HLECs were constructed to simulate the microenvironment of myocardial IR in vitro. The results proved that DHT could reduce the damage and apoptosis of HLECs. On the other hand, DHT enhanced the expression of VEGFR-3 and VE-cadherin in HLECs, promoted cell migration and tube formation. The effects of DHT on the tube formation and migration of HLECs were significantly decreased after knocking down VEGFR-3 or VE-cadherin. Our research proposed that DHT could improve the heart function after IR through the enhancement of lymphangiogenesis and contributed to the development of the treatment methods for myocardial IR.

Competitive signaling and cellular communications in myocardial infarction response

Cell communication and competition pathways are malleable to Myocardial Infarction (MI). Key signals, transcriptive regulators, and metabolites associated with apoptotic responses such as Myc, mTOR, and p53 are important players in the myocardium. The individual state of cardiomyocytes, fibroblasts, and macrophages in the heart tissue are adaptable in times of stress. The overlapping communication pathways of Wnt/β-catenin, Notch, and c-Kit exhibit the involvement of important factors in cell competition in the myocardium. Depending on the effects of these pathways on genetic expression and signal amplification, the proliferative capacities of the previously stated cells that make up the myocardium, amplify or diminish. This creates a distinct classification of "fit" and "unfit" cells. Beyond straightforward traits, the intricate metabolite interactions between neighboring cells unveil a complex battle. Strategic manipulation of these pathways holds translational promise for rapid cardiac recovery post-trauma.

Leukocyte-lymphatic intersections during cardiac inflammation

Advances in genetic, pharmacologic, and sequencing technology have led to new insight into the role of lymphatics in health and disease. This includes fundamental aspects of the crosstalk between immune cells with cardiac lymphatics. At the interface between leukocytes and lymphatic endothelial cells, myeloid populations are sources of lymphatic growth factors during inflammation. Lymphatic endothelial cells also secrete signals that activate leukocytes, including to antigen presenting cells. Taken together, a view of the lymphatic vasculature as a supplemental cardiac immune hub is emerging. Herein, we discuss reciprocal cell and molecular crosstalk between leukocytes and lymphatics in the myocardium, with implications for health and cardiac inflammation.

Macrophage-derived VEGF-C reduces cardiac inflammation and prevents heart dysfunction in CVB3-induced viral myocarditis via remodeling cardiac lymphatic vessels

BACKGROUND

Cardiac lymphatic vessels are important channels for cardiac fluid circulation and immune regulation. In myocardial infarction and chronic heart failure, promoting cardiac lymphangiogenesis is beneficial in reducing cardiac edema and inflammation. However, the specific involvement of cardiac lymphangiogenesis in viral myocarditis (VMC) has not been studied. Despite the recognized participation of macrophages in lymphangiogenesis, the contribution of macrophages to cardiac lymphangiogenesis in VMC is still unclear.

METHODS

The male Balb/c mice with VMC were grouped according to the time to explore changes in inflammation, cardiac function and lymphangiogenesis. Adeno-associated virus (AAV) was used to determine the effect of cardiac lymphangiogenesis in VMC. Macrophage depletion and VEGF-CC156S treatment were used to investigate the connection between macrophages and cardiac lymphangiogenesis.

RESULTS

Cardiac inflammation and lymphatic vessel density were both upregulated, peaking on day 7 following CVB3 infection. After treatment with AAV-sVEGFR3, lymphangiogenesis was inhibited, leading to worsened cardiac dysfunction and aggravated inflammation. However, these effects were reversed by AAV-VEGF-C treatment. Furthermore, macrophages infiltrated the inflamed myocardium and secreted VEGF-C. In vitro, VEGF-C was upregulated when RAW264.7 cells were co-cultured with CVB3. Macrophage depletion in mice with VMC inhibited lymphangiogenesis, while supplementation with VEGF-CC156S depressed it.

CONCLUSION

Collectively, these results indicate that activation of the VEGF-C/VEGFR3 axis exerts a protective effect in CVB3-induced VMC by resolving inflammation and alleviating cardiac dysfunction through increased lymphatic vasculature density, with macrophage-derived VEGF-C partially contributing to this effect.

Myocardial fibrosis from the perspective of the extracellular matrix: Mechanisms to clinical impact

Fibrosis is defined by the excessive accumulation of extracellular matrix (ECM) and constitutes a central pathophysiological process that underlies tissue dysfunction, across organs, in multiple chronic diseases and during aging. Myocardial fibrosis is a key contributor to dysfunction and failure in numerous diseases of the heart and is a strong predictor of poor clinical outcome and mortality. The excess structural and matricellular ECM proteins deposited by cardiac fibroblasts, is found between cardiomyocytes (interstitial fibrosis), in focal areas where cardiomyocytes have died (replacement fibrosis), and around vessels (perivascular fibrosis). Although myocardial fibrosis has important clinical prognostic value, access to cardiac tissue biopsies for histological evaluation is limited. Despite challenges with sensitivity and specificity, cardiac magnetic resonance imaging (CMR) is the most applicable diagnostic tool in the clinic, and the scientific community is currently actively searching for blood biomarkers reflecting myocardial fibrosis, to complement the imaging techniques. The lack of mechanistic insights into specific pro- and anti-fibrotic molecular pathways has hampered the development of effective treatments to prevent or reverse myocardial fibrosis. Development and implementation of anti-fibrotic therapies is expected to improve patient outcomes and is an urgent medical need. Here, we discuss the importance of the ECM in the heart, the central role of fibrosis in heart disease, and mechanistic pathways likely to impact clinical practice with regards to diagnostics of myocardial fibrosis, risk stratification of patients, and anti-fibrotic therapy.

EphrinB2-mediated CDK5/ISL1 pathway enhances cardiac lymphangiogenesis and alleviates ischemic injury by resolving post-MI inflammation

EphrinB2 (erythropoietin-producing hepatoma interactor B2) is a key Eph/ephrin family member, promoting angiogenesis, vasculogenesis, and lymphangiogenesis during embryonic development. However, the role of EphrinB2 in cardiac lymphangiogenesis following myocardial infarction (MI) and the potential molecular mechanism remains to be demonstrated. This study revealed that EphrinB2 prevented ischemic heart post-MI from remodeling and dysfunction by activating the cardiac lymphangiogenesis signaling pathway. Deletion of EphrinB2 impaired cardiac lymphangiogenesis and aggravated adverse cardiac remodeling and ventricular dysfunction post-MI. At the same time, overexpression of EphrinB2 stimulated cardiac lymphangiogenesis which facilitated cardiac infiltrating macrophage drainage and reduced inflammation in the ischemic heart. The beneficial effects of EphrinB2 on improving clearance of inflammatory response and cardiac function were abolished in Lyve1 knockout mice. Mechanistically, EphrinB2 accelerated cell cycling and lymphatic endothelial cell proliferation and migration by activating CDK5 and CDK5-dependent ISL1 nuclear translocation. EphrinB2 enhanced the transcriptional activity of ISL1 at the VEGFR3 (FLT4) promoter, and VEGFR3 inhibitor MAZ51 significantly diminished the EphrinB2-mediated lymphangiogenesis and deteriorated the ischemic cardiac function. We uncovered a novel mechanism of EphrinB2-driven cardiac lymphangiogenesis in improving myocardial remodeling and function after MI.

Differential vegfc expression dictates lymphatic response during zebrafish heart development and regeneration

Vascular endothelial growth factor C (Vegfc) is crucial for lymphatic and blood vessel development, yet its cellular sources and specific functions in heart development remain unclear. To address this, we created a vegfc reporter and an inducible overexpression line in zebrafish. We found vegfc expression in large coronary arteries, circulating thrombocytes, cardiac adipocytes, and outflow tract smooth muscle cells. Notably, although coronary lymphangiogenesis aligns with Vegfc-expressing arteries in juveniles, it occurs only after coronary artery formation. Vegfc overexpression induced ectopic lymphatics on the ventricular surface prior to arterial formation, indicating that Vegfc abundance, rather than arterial presence, drives lymphatic development. However, this overexpression did not affect coronary artery coverage, suggesting a specific role for Vegfc in lymphatic, rather than arterial, development. Thrombocytes emerged as the initial Vegfc source during inflammation following heart injuries, transitioning to endocardial and myocardial expression during regeneration. Lower Vegfc levels in an amputation model corresponded with a lack of lymphatic expansion. Importantly, Vegfc overexpression enhanced lymphatic expansion and promoted scar resolution without affecting cardiomyocyte proliferation, highlighting its role in regulating lymphangiogenesis and promoting heart regeneration.

Disease-Specific Alteration of Cardiac Lymphatics: A Review from Animal Disease Models to Clinics

For many years, the significance of cardiac lymphatic vessels was largely overlooked in clinical practice, with little consideration given to their role in the pathophysiology or treatment of cardiac diseases. However, recent research has brought renewed attention to these vessels, progressively illuminating their function and importance within the realm of cardiovascular science. Experimental studies, particularly those utilizing animal models of cardiac disease, have demonstrated a clear relationship between cardiac lymphatic vessels and both the pathogenesis and progression of these conditions. These findings have prompted a growing interest in potential therapeutic applications that specifically target the cardiac lymphatic system. Conversely, while clinical investigations into cardiac lymphatics remain limited, recent studies have begun to explore their identification through specific surface markers, as well as the expression dynamics of lymphangiogenic factors. These studies have increasingly highlighted associations of lymphatic dysfunction with inflammation and fibrosis, both of which negatively impact cardiac function and remodeling across various pathological states. Despite these advances, comprehensive reviews of the current knowledge regarding the cardiac lymphatic vasculature, particularly within specific disease contexts, remain scarce. This review aims to address this gap by providing a detailed synthesis of existing reports, encompassing both animal model research and studies on human clinical specimens, with a special focus on the role of cardiac lymphatic vessels in different disease states.

Cardiac Lymphatics and Therapeutic Prospects in Cardiovascular Disease: New Perspectives and Hopes

The lymphatic system is the same reticular fluid system as the circulatory system found throughout the body in vascularized tissues. Lymphatic vessels are low-pressure, blind-ended tubular structures that play a crucial role in maintaining tissue fluid homeostasis, immune cell transport, and lipid absorption. The heart also has an extensive lymphatic network, and as research on cardiac lymphatics has progressed in recent years, more and more studies have found that cardiac lymphangiogenesis may ameliorate certain cardiovascular diseases, and therefore stimulation of cardiac lymphangiogenesis may be an important tool in the future treatment of cardiovascular diseases. This article briefly reviews the development and function of cardiac lymphatic vessels, the interaction of cardiac lymphatic vessels with cardiovascular diseases (including atrial fibrillation, coronary atherosclerosis, and heart failure), and finally discusses the therapeutic potential of targeted cardiac lymphatic therapy for cardiovascular diseases.

Platelet extracellular vesicles preserve lymphatic endothelial cell integrity and enhance lymphatic vessel function

Lymphatic vessels are essential for preventing the accumulation of harmful components within peripheral tissues, including the artery wall. Various endogenous mechanisms maintain adequate lymphatic function throughout life, with platelets being essential for preserving lymphatic vessel integrity. However, since lymph lacks platelets, their impact on the lymphatic system has long been viewed as restricted to areas where lymphatics intersect with blood vessels. Nevertheless, platelets can also exert long range effects through the release of extracellular vesicles (EVs) upon activation. We observed that platelet EVs (PEVs) are present in lymph, a compartment to which they could transfer regulatory effects of platelets. Here, we report that PEVs in lymph exhibit a distinct signature enabling them to interact with lymphatic endothelial cells (LECs). In vitro experiments show that the internalization of PEVs by LECs maintains their functional integrity. Treatment with PEVs improves lymphatic contraction capacity in atherosclerosis-prone mice. We suggest that boosting lymphatic pumping with exogenous PEVs offers a novel therapeutic approach for chronic inflammatory diseases characterized by defective lymphatics.

Exploring the causal relationship between immune cell and all-cause heart failure: a Mendelian randomization study

Background and objectives

Heart failure (HF) is a disease with numerous genetic and environmental factors that affect it. The results of previous studies indicated that immune phenotypes are associated with HF, but there have been inconclusive studies regarding a causal relationship. Therefore, Mendelian randomization (MR) analyses were undertaken to confirm the causal connections between immune phenotypes and HF, providing genetic evidence supporting the association of immune cell factors with HF risk.

Methods

We selected instrumental variables that met the criteria based on data from the results of genome-wide association studies (GWAS) of immune phenotype and all-cause HF. An evaluation of the causal association between 731 immune cell factors and HF risk was carried out using the inverse variance weighted (IVW), MR-Egger regression (MR-Egger), and weighted median (WM) analysis methods. To determine the horizontal pleiotropy, heterogeneity, and stability of the genetic variants, the MR-Egger intercept test, Cochran's Q test, MR-PRESSO, and leave-one-out sensitivity analysis were performed.

Results

MR principal method (IVW) analysis showed that a total of 38 immune cell-related factors were significantly causally associated with HF. Further analyses combining three methods (IVW, MR-Egger and WME) showed that six exposure factors significantly associated with heart failure, as shown below. The effect of Dendritic cell Absolute Count, CD62l- CD86+ myeloid Dendritic cell Absolute Count, CD62l- CD86+ myeloid Dendritic cell% Dendritic cell, CD39+ CD8+ T cell% CD8+ T cell, CD3 on Central Memory CD4+ T cell on heart failure was positive. Whereas, a reverse effect was observed for CD14+ CD16+ monocyte% monocyte.

Conclusion

We investigated the causal relationship between immune phenotypes and all-cause HF. According to the results, Dendritic cell Absolute Count, CD62l- CD86+ myeloid Dendritic cell Absolute Count, CD62l- CD86+ myeloid Dendritic cell% Dendritic cell, CD39+ CD8+ T cell% CD8+ T cell, CD3 on Central Memory CD4+ T cell aggravate HF, and the risk of HF is decreased by CD14+ CD16+ monocyte% monocyte. These phenotypes may serve as new biomarkers, providing new therapeutic insights for the prevention and treatment of all-cause HF.

Targeting lymphatic function in cardiovascular-kidney-metabolic syndrome: preclinical methods to analyze lymphatic function and therapeutic opportunities

The lymphatic vascular system spans nearly every organ in the body and serves as an important network that maintains fluid, metabolite, and immune cell homeostasis. Recently, there has been a growing interest in the role of lymphatic biology in chronic disorders outside the realm of lymphatic abnormalities, lymphedema, or oncology, such as cardiovascular-kidney-metabolic syndrome (CKM). We propose that enhancing lymphatic function pharmacologically may be a novel and effective way to improve quality of life in patients with CKM syndrome by engaging multiple pathologies at once throughout the body. Several promising therapeutic targets that enhance lymphatic function have already been reported and may have clinical benefit. However, much remains unclear of the discreet ways the lymphatic vasculature interacts with CKM pathogenesis, and translation of these therapeutic targets to clinical development is challenging. Thus, the field must improve characterization of lymphatic function in preclinical mouse models of CKM syndrome to better understand molecular mechanisms of disease and uncover effective therapies.

Myocardial Inflammation in Heart Failure With Reduced and Preserved Ejection Fraction

Heart failure (HF) is characterized by a progressive decline in cardiac function and represents one of the largest health burdens worldwide. Clinically, 2 major types of HF are distinguished based on the left ventricular ejection fraction (EF): HF with reduced EF and HF with preserved EF. While both types share several risk factors and features of adverse cardiac remodeling, unique hallmarks beyond ejection fraction that distinguish these etiologies also exist. These differences may explain the fact that approved therapies for HF with reduced EF are largely ineffective in patients suffering from HF with preserved EF. Improving our understanding of the distinct cellular and molecular mechanisms is crucial for the development of better treatment strategies. This article reviews the knowledge of the immunologic mechanisms underlying HF with reduced and preserved EF and discusses how the different immune profiles elicited may identify attractive therapeutic targets for these conditions. We review the literature on the reported mechanisms of adverse cardiac remodeling in HF with reduced and preserved EF, as well as the immune mechanisms involved. We discuss how the knowledge gained from preclinical models of the complex syndrome of HF as well as from clinical data obtained from patients may translate to a better understanding of HF and result in specific treatments for these conditions in humans.

Role of the Lymphatics in Cardiac Disease

Cardiovascular diseases remain the largest cause of death worldwide with recent evidence increasingly attributing the development and progression of these diseases to an exacerbated inflammatory response. As a result, significant research is now focused on modifying the immune environment to prevent the disease progression. This in turn has highlighted the lymphatic system in the pathophysiology of cardiovascular diseases owing, in part, to its established function in immune cell surveillance and trafficking. In this review, we highlight the role of the cardiac lymphatic system and its potential as an immunomodulatory therapeutic target in selected cardiovascular diseases.

Vascular Endothelial Growth Factor (VEGF) and Its Role in the Cardiovascular System

Cardiovascular diseases remain the leading cause of death worldwide, with ischemic heart disease (IHD) as the most common. Ischemia-induced angiogenesis is a process in which vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) plays a crucial role. To conduct research in the field of VEGF's association in cardiovascular diseases, it is vital to understand its role in the physiological and pathological processes in the heart. VEGF-based therapies have demonstrated a promising role in preclinical studies. However, their potential in human therapies is currently under discussion. Furthermore, VEGF is considered a potential biomarker for collateral circulation assessment and heart failure (HF) mortality. Additionally, as VEGF is involved in angiogenesis, there is a need to elucidate the impact of VEGF-targeted therapies in terms of cardiovascular side effects.

Single-Cell RNA Sequencing Identifies Response of Renal Lymphatic Endothelial Cells to Acute Kidney Injury

SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT

The renal lymphatic vasculature and the lymphatic endothelial cells that make up this network play important immunomodulatory roles during inflammation. How lymphatics respond to AKI may affect AKI outcomes. The authors used single-cell RNA sequencing to characterize mouse renal lymphatic endothelial cells in quiescent and cisplatin-injured kidneys. Lymphatic endothelial cell gene expression changes were confirmed in ischemia-reperfusion injury and in cultured lymphatic endothelial cells, validating renal lymphatic endothelial cells single-cell RNA sequencing data. This study is the first to describe renal lymphatic endothelial cell heterogeneity and uncovers molecular pathways demonstrating lymphatic endothelial cells regulate the local immune response to AKI. These findings provide insights into previously unidentified molecular pathways for lymphatic endothelial cells and roles that may serve as potential therapeutic targets in limiting the progression of AKI.

BACKGROUND

The inflammatory response to AKI likely dictates future kidney health. Lymphatic vessels are responsible for maintaining tissue homeostasis through transport and immunomodulatory roles. Owing to the relative sparsity of lymphatic endothelial cells in the kidney, past sequencing efforts have not characterized these cells and their response to AKI.

METHODS

Here, we characterized murine renal lymphatic endothelial cell subpopulations by single-cell RNA sequencing and investigated their changes in cisplatin AKI 72 hours postinjury. Data were processed using the Seurat package. We validated our findings by quantitative PCR in lymphatic endothelial cells isolated from both cisplatin-injured and ischemia-reperfusion injury, by immunofluorescence, and confirmation in in vitro human lymphatic endothelial cells.

RESULTS

We have identified renal lymphatic endothelial cells and their lymphatic vascular roles that have yet to be characterized in previous studies. We report unique gene changes mapped across control and cisplatin-injured conditions. After AKI, renal lymphatic endothelial cells alter genes involved in endothelial cell apoptosis and vasculogenic processes as well as immunoregulatory signaling and metabolism. Differences between injury models were also identified with renal lymphatic endothelial cells further demonstrating changed gene expression between cisplatin and ischemia-reperfusion injury models, indicating the renal lymphatic endothelial cell response is both specific to where they lie in the lymphatic vasculature and the kidney injury type.

CONCLUSIONS

In this study, we uncover lymphatic vessel structural features of captured populations and injury-induced genetic changes. We further determine that lymphatic endothelial cell gene expression is altered between injury models. How lymphatic endothelial cells respond to AKI may therefore be key in regulating future kidney disease progression.

Intrinsic and Extrinsic Contributors to the Cardiac Benefits of Exercise

Among its many cardiovascular benefits, exercise training improves heart function and protects the heart against age-related decline, pathological stress, and injury. Here, we focus on cardiac benefits with an emphasis on more recent updates to our understanding. While the cardiomyocyte continues to play a central role as both a target and effector of exercise's benefits, there is a growing recognition of the important roles of other, noncardiomyocyte lineages and pathways, including some that lie outside the heart itself. We review what is known about mediators of exercise's benefits-both those intrinsic to the heart (at the level of cardiomyocytes, fibroblasts, or vascular cells) and those that are systemic (including metabolism, inflammation, the microbiome, and aging)-highlighting what is known about the molecular mechanisms responsible.

Profibrotic VEGFR3-Dependent Lymphatic Vessel Growth in Autoimmune Valvular Carditis

BACKGROUND

Rheumatic heart disease is the major cause of valvular heart disease in developing nations. Endothelial cells (ECs) are considered crucial contributors to rheumatic heart disease, but greater insight into their roles in disease progression is needed.

METHODS

We used a Cdh5-driven EC lineage-tracing approach to identify and track ECs in the K/B.g7 model of autoimmune valvular carditis. Single-cell RNA sequencing was used to characterize the EC populations in control and inflamed mitral valves. Immunostaining and conventional histology were used to evaluate lineage tracing and validate single-cell RNA-sequencing findings. The effects of VEGFR3 (vascular endothelial growth factor receptor 3) and VEGF-C (vascular endothelial growth factor C) inhibitors were tested in vivo. The functional impact of mitral valve disease in the K/B.g7 mouse was evaluated using echocardiography. Finally, to translate our findings, we analyzed valves from human patients with rheumatic heart disease undergoing mitral valve replacements.

RESULTS

Lineage tracing in K/B.g7 mice revealed new capillary lymphatic vessels arising from valve surface ECs during the progression of disease in K/B.g7 mice. Unsupervised clustering of mitral valve single-cell RNA-sequencing data revealed novel lymphatic valve ECs that express a transcriptional profile distinct from other valve EC populations including the recently identified PROX1 (Prospero homeobox protein 1)+ lymphatic valve ECs. During disease progression, these newly identified lymphatic valve ECs expand and upregulate a profibrotic transcriptional profile. Inhibiting VEGFR3 through multiple approaches prevented expansion of this mitral valve lymphatic network. Echocardiography demonstrated that K/B.g7 mice have left ventricular dysfunction and mitral valve stenosis. Valve lymphatic density increased with age in K/B.g7 mice and correlated with worsened ventricular dysfunction. Importantly, human rheumatic valves contained similar lymphatics in greater numbers than nonrheumatic controls.

CONCLUSIONS

These studies reveal a novel mode of inflammation-associated, VEGFR3-dependent postnatal lymphangiogenesis in murine autoimmune valvular carditis, with similarities to human rheumatic heart disease.

Mechanisms of Myocardial Edema Development in CVD Pathophysiology

Myocardial edema is the excess accumulation of fluid in the myocardial interstitium or cardiac cells that develops due to changes in capillary permeability, loss of glycocalyx charge, imbalance in lymphatic drainage, or a combination of these factors. Today it is believed that this condition is not only a complication of cardiovascular diseases, but in itself causes aggravation of the disease and increases the risks of adverse outcomes. The study of molecular, genetic, and mechanical changes in the myocardium during edema may contribute to the development of new approaches to the diagnosis and treatment of this condition. This review was conducted to describe the main mechanisms of myocardial edema development at the molecular and cellular levels and to identify promising targets for the regulation of this condition based on articles cited in Pubmed up to January 2024.

Analysis of the Model of Atherosclerosis Formation in Pig Hearts as a Result of Impaired Activity of DNA Repair Enzymes

Excessive consumption of food rich in saturated fatty acids and carbohydrates can lead to metabolic disturbances and cardiovascular disease. Hyperlipidemia is a significant risk factor for acute cardiac events due to its association with oxidative stress. This leads to arterial wall remodeling, including an increase in the thickness of the intima media complex (IMT), and endothelial dysfunction leading to plaque formation. The decreased nitric oxide synthesis and accumulation of lipids in the wall result in a reduction in the vasodilating potential of the vessel. This study aimed to establish a clear relationship between markers of endothelial dysfunction and the activity of repair enzymes in cardiac tissue from a pig model of early atherosclerosis. The study was conducted on 28 female Polish Landrace pigs, weighing 40 kg (approximately 3.5 months old), which were divided into three groups. The control group (n = 11) was fed a standard, commercial, balanced diet (BDG) for 12 months. The second group (n = 9) was fed an unbalanced, high-calorie Western-type diet (UDG). The third group (n = 8) was fed a Western-type diet for nine months and then switched to a standard, balanced diet (regression group, RG). Control examinations, including blood and urine sampling, were conducted every three months under identical conditions with food restriction for 12 h and water restriction for four hours before general anesthesia. The study analyzed markers of oxidative stress formed during lipid peroxidation processes, including etheno DNA adducts, ADMA, and NEFA. These markers play a crucial role in reactive oxygen species analysis in ischemia-reperfusion and atherosclerosis in mammalian tissue. Essential genes involved in oxidative-stress-induced DNA demethylation like OGG1 (8-oxoguanine DNA glycosylase), MPG (N-Methylpurine DNA Glycosylase), TDG (Thymine-DNA glycosylase), APEX (apurinic/apirymidinic endodeoxyribonuclease 1), PTGS2 (prostaglandin-endoperoxide synthase 2), and ALOX (Arachidonate Lipoxygenase) were measured using the Real-Time RT-PCR method. The data suggest that high oxidative stress, as indicated by TBARS levels, is associated with high levels of DNA repair enzymes and depends on the expression of genes involved in the repair pathway. In all analyzed groups of heart tissue homogenates, the highest enzyme activity and gene expression values were observed for the OGG1 protein recognizing the modified 8oxoG. Conclusion: With the long-term use of an unbalanced diet, the levels of all DNA repair genes are increased, especially (significantly) Apex, Alox, and Ptgs, which strongly supports the hypothesis that an unbalanced diet induces oxidative stress that deregulates DNA repair mechanisms and may contribute to genome instability and tissue damage.

Cardiac and intestinal tissue conduct developmental and reparative processes in response to lymphangiocrine signaling

Lymphatic vessels conduct a diverse range of activities to sustain the integrity of surrounding tissue. Besides facilitating the movement of lymph and its associated factors, lymphatic vessels are capable of producing tissue-specific responses to changes within their microenvironment. Lymphatic endothelial cells (LECs) secrete paracrine signals that bind to neighboring cell-receptors, commencing an intracellular signaling cascade that preludes modifications to the organ tissue's structure and function. While the lymphangiocrine factors and the molecular and cellular mechanisms themselves are specific to the organ tissue, the crosstalk action between LECs and adjacent cells has been highlighted as a commonality in augmenting tissue regeneration within animal models of cardiac and intestinal disease. Lymphangiocrine secretions have been owed for subsequent improvements in organ function by optimizing the clearance of excess tissue fluid and immune cells and stimulating favorable tissue growth, whereas perturbations in lymphatic performance bring about the opposite. Newly published landmark studies have filled gaps in our understanding of cardiac and intestinal maintenance by revealing key players for lymphangiocrine processes. Here, we will expand upon those findings and review the nature of lymphangiocrine factors in the heart and intestine, emphasizing its involvement within an interconnected network that supports daily homeostasis and self-renewal following injury.

Post-Acute Myocardial Infarction Heart Failure Core Genes and Relevant Signaling Pathways

ABSTRACT

There is increasing concern about heart failure after myocardial infarction and the current clinical treatment measures for ventricular remodeling. Herein, we present the results of differential gene analysis, pathway enrichment analysis, and characteristic gene screening. Our study identifies 4 core genes ( KLRC2 , SNORD105 , SNORD45B , and RNU5A-1 ) associated with post-acute myocardial infarction (AMI) heart failure. The authors discuss the significance of the identified core genes, their potential implications in immune dysfunction and heart failure, and their relevance to disease regulatory genes. The study concludes by emphasizing the importance of clinical relevance in molecular research and suggests potential therapeutic targets for post-AMI heart failure.

Role of Lymphangiogenesis in Cardiac Repair and Regeneration

This article highlights the importance of the structure and function of cardiac lymphatics in cardiovascular diseases and the therapeutic potential of cardiac lymphangiogenesis. Specifically, we explore the innate lymphangiogenic response to damaged cardiac tissue or cardiac injury, derive key findings from regenerative models demonstrating how robust lymphangiogenic responses can be supported to improve cardiac function, and introduce an approach to imaging the structure and function of cardiac lymphatics.

Identification of Key Immune-Related Genes in the Treatment of Heart Failure After Myocardial Infarction with Empagliflozin Based on RNA-Seq

Purpose

Heart failure is a serious complication after acute myocardial infarction (AMI). It is crucial to investigate the mechanism of action of empagliflozin in the treatment of heart failure.

Methods

A total of 20 wild type (WT) male C57BL6/J mice were used to establish a model of heart failure after myocardial infarction and randomly divided into 2 groups: treatment group and control group. The treatment group was treated with empagliflozin, and the control group was treated with placebo. After 8 weeks of treatment, mouse heart tissues were collected for next generation sequencing. Bioinformatics methods were used to screen the key genes. Finally, the correlation between clinical data and gene expression was analyzed. Quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR) was used to verify the expression of key genes.

Results

A mouse model of heart failure was successfully constructed. By DEG analysis, a total of 740 DEGs in the treatment group vs the control group were obtained. Dendritic cells, granulocytes, follicular B, plasma cell, cDC1, cDC2, pDC and neutrophils were 8 different immune cells identified by immunoinfiltration analysis. Through WGCNA, the turquoise module with the highest correlation with the above differential immune cells was selected. One hundred and forty-two immune-related DEGs were obtained by taking intersection of the DEGs and the genes of the turquoise module. Col17a1 and Gria4 were finally screened out as key immune-related genes via PPI analysis and machine learning. Col17a1 was significantly up-regulated, while Gria4 was significantly down-regulated in the treatment group. At the same time, the expression level of Col17a1 was significantly correlated with left ventricular ejection fraction (LVEF), left ventricular fraction shortening (LVFS) and left ventricular internal dimension systole (LVIDs).

Conclusion

Col17a1 and Gria4 are key immune-related genes of empagliflozin in the treatment of heart failure after myocardial infarction. This study provides a scientific basis for elucidating the mechanism of action of empagliflozin in treating heart failure after myocardial infarction.

Three-dimensional spatial quantitative analysis of cardiac lymphatics in the mouse heart

OBJECTIVE

Three-dimensional (3D) microscopy and image data analysis are necessary for studying the morphology of cardiac lymphatic vessels (LyVs) and their association with other cell types. We aimed to develop a methodology for 3D multiplexed lightsheet microscopy and highly sensitive and quantitative image analysis to identify pathological remodeling in the 3D morphology of LyVs in young adult mouse hearts with familial hypertrophic cardiomyopathy (HCM).

METHODS

We developed a 3D lightsheet microscopy workflow providing a quick turn-around (as few as 5-6 days), multiplex fluorescence detection, and preservation of LyV structure and epitope markers. Hearts from non-transgenic and transgenic (TG) HCM mice were arrested in diastole, retrograde perfused, immunolabeled, optically cleared, and imaged. We built an image-processing pipeline to quantify LyV morphological parameters at the chamber and branch levels.

RESULTS

Chamber-specific pathological alterations of LyVs were identified, and significant changes were seen in the right atrium (RA). TG hearts had a higher volume percent of ER-TR7+ fibroblasts and reticular fibers. In the RA, we found associations between ER-TR7+ volume percent and both LyV segment density and median diameter.

CONCLUSIONS

This workflow and study enabled multi-scale analysis of pathological changes in cardiac LyVs of young adult mice, inviting ideas for research on LyVs in cardiac disease.

hESC-Derived Epicardial Cells Promote Repair of Infarcted Hearts in Mouse and Swine

Myocardial infarction (MI) causes excessive damage to the myocardium, including the epicardium. However, whether pluripotent stem cell-derived epicardial cells (EPs) can be a therapeutic approach for infarcted hearts remains unclear. Here, the authors report that intramyocardial injection of human embryonic stem cell-derived EPs (hEPs) at the acute phase of MI ameliorates functional worsening and scar formation in mouse hearts, concomitantly with enhanced cardiomyocyte survival, angiogenesis, and lymphangiogenesis. Mechanistically, hEPs suppress MI-induced infiltration and cytokine-release of inflammatory cells and promote reparative macrophage polarization. These effects are blocked by a type I interferon (IFN-I) receptor agonist RO8191. Moreover, intelectin 1 (ITLN1), abundantly secreted by hEPs, interacts with IFN-β and mimics the effects of hEP-conditioned medium in suppression of IFN-β-stimulated responses in macrophages and promotion of reparative macrophage polarization, whereas ITLN1 downregulation in hEPs cancels beneficial effects of hEPs in anti-inflammation, IFN-I response inhibition, and cardiac repair. Further, similar beneficial effects of hEPs are observed in a clinically relevant porcine model of reperfused MI, with no increases in the risk of hepatic, renal, and cardiac toxicity. Collectively, this study reveals hEPs as an inflammatory modulator in promoting infarct healing via a paracrine mechanism and provides a new therapeutic approach for infarcted hearts.

Mechanisms regulating vascular and lymphatic regeneration in the heart after myocardial infarction

Myocardial infarction, caused by a thrombus or coronary vascular occlusion, leads to irreversible ischaemic injury. Advances in early reperfusion strategies have significantly reduced short-term mortality after myocardial infarction. However, survivors have an increased risk of developing heart failure, which confers a high risk of death at 1 year. The capacity of the injured neonatal mammalian heart to regenerate has stimulated extensive research into whether recapitulation of developmental regeneration programmes may be beneficial in adult cardiovascular disease. Restoration of functional blood and lymphatic vascular networks in the infarct and border regions via neovascularisation and lymphangiogenesis, respectively, is a key requirement to facilitate myocardial regeneration. An improved understanding of the endogenous mechanisms regulating coronary vascular and lymphatic expansion and function in development and in adult patients after myocardial infarction may inform future therapeutic strategies and improve translation from pre-clinical studies. In this review, we explore the underpinning research and key findings in the field of cardiovascular regeneration, with a focus on neovascularisation and lymphangiogenesis, and discuss the outcomes of therapeutic strategies employed to date. © 2023 The Authors. The Journal of Pathology published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd on behalf of The Pathological Society of Great Britain and Ireland.

CCR2 inhibitor strengthens the adiponectin effects against myocardial injury after infarction

Little evidence demonstrated the effects of nitric oxide (NO) hydrogel with adipocytes in vivo. We aimed to investigate the effects of adiponectin (ADPN) and CCR2 antagonist on cardiac functions and macrophage phenotypes after myocardial infarction (MI) using chitosan caged nitric oxide donor (CSNO) patch with adipocytes. 3T3-L1 cell line was induced to adipocytes and ADPN expression was knocked down. CSNO was synthesized and patch was constructed. MI model was constructed and patch was placed on the infarcted area. ADPN knockdown adipocytes or control was incubated with CSNO patch, and CCR2 antagonist was also used to investigate the ADPN effects on myocardial injury after infarction. On day 7 after operation, cardiac functions of the mice using CSNO with adipocytes or ADPN knockdown adipocytes improved more than in mice only using CSNO for treatment. Lymphangiogenesis increased much more in the MI mice using CSNO with adipocytes. After treating with CCR2 antagonist, Connexin43+ CD206+ cells and ZO-1+ CD206+ cells increased, suggesting that CCR2 antagonist promoted M2 polarization after MI. Besides, CCR2 antagonist promoted ADPN expression in adipocytes and cardiomyocytes. ELISA was also used and CKMB expression was much lower than other groups at 3 days after operation. On day 7 after operation, the VEGF and TGFβ expressions were high in the adipocytes CSNO group, illustrating that higher ADPN led to better treatment. In all, CCR2 antagonist enhanced the ADPN effects on macrophage M2 polarization and cardiac functions. The combination used in border zone and infarcted areas may help improve patients' prognosis in surgery, such as CABG.

Ezh2 emerges as an epigenetic checkpoint regulator during monocyte differentiation limiting cardiac dysfunction post-MI

Epigenetic regulation of histone H3K27 methylation has recently emerged as a key step during alternative immunoregulatory M2-like macrophage polarization; known to impact cardiac repair after Myocardial Infarction (MI). We hypothesized that EZH2, responsible for H3K27 methylation, could act as an epigenetic checkpoint regulator during this process. We demonstrate for the first time an ectopic EZH2, and putative, cytoplasmic inactive localization of the epigenetic enzyme, during monocyte differentiation into M2 macrophages in vitro as well as in immunomodulatory cardiac macrophages in vivo in the post-MI acute inflammatory phase. Moreover, we show that pharmacological EZH2 inhibition, with GSK-343, resolves H3K27 methylation of bivalent gene promoters, thus enhancing their expression to promote human monocyte repair functions. In line with this protective effect, GSK-343 treatment accelerated cardiac inflammatory resolution preventing infarct expansion and subsequent cardiac dysfunction in female mice post-MI in vivo. In conclusion, our study reveals that pharmacological epigenetic modulation of cardiac-infiltrating immune cells may hold promise to limit adverse cardiac remodeling after MI.

The Role of the Piezo1 Mechanosensitive Channel in Heart Failure

Mechanotransduction (MT) is inseparable from the pathobiology of heart failure (HF). However, the effects of mechanical forces on HF remain unclear. This review briefly describes how Piezo1 functions in HF-affected cells, including endothelial cells (ECs), cardiac fibroblasts (CFs), cardiomyocytes (CMs), and immune cells. Piezo1 is a mechanosensitive ion channel that has been extensively studied in recent years. Piezo1 responds to different mechanical forces and converts them into intracellular signals. The pathways that modulate the Piezo1 switch have also been briefly described. Experimental drugs that specifically activate Piezo1-like proteins, such as Yoda1, Jedi1, and Jedi2, are available for clinical studies to treat Piezo1-related diseases. The only mechanosensitive ion-channel-specific inhibitor available is GsMTx4, which can turn off Piezo1 by modulating the local membrane tension. Ultrasound waves can modulate Piezo1 switching in vitro with the assistance of microbubbles. This review provides new possible targets for heart failure therapy by exploring the cellular functions of Piezo1 that are involved in the progression of the disease. Modulation of Piezo1 activity may, therefore, effectively delay the progression of heart failure.

Cardiac resident macrophages: key regulatory mediators in the aftermath of myocardial infarction

Acute myocardial infarction (MI) is a prevalent and highly fatal global disease. Despite significant reduction in mortality rates with standard treatment regimens, the risk of heart failure (HF) remains high, necessitating innovative approaches to protect cardiac function and prevent HF progression. Cardiac resident macrophages (cMacs) have emerged as key regulators of the pathophysiology following MI. cMacs are a heterogeneous population composed of subsets with different lineage origins and gene expression profiles. Several critical aspects of post-MI pathophysiology have been shown to be regulated by cMacs, including recruitment of peripheral immune cells, clearance and replacement of damaged myocardial cells. Furthermore, cMacs play a crucial role in regulating cardiac fibrosis, risk of arrhythmia, energy metabolism, as well as vascular and lymphatic remodeling. Given the multifaceted roles of cMacs in post-MI pathophysiology, targeting cMacs represents a promising therapeutic strategy. Finally, we discuss novel treatment strategies, including using nanocarriers to deliver drugs to cMacs or using cell therapies to introduce exogenous protective cMacs into the heart.

Research progress in the cardiac lymphatic system and myocardial repair after myocardial infarction

The lymphatic system of the heart plays an important role in the repair process after myocardial injury and may regulate normal tissue homeostasis and natural regeneration via maintaining fluid homeostasis and controlling the inflammatory response. The lymphatic system in the heart is activated after myocardial injury and is involved in the scarring process of the heart. Recent studies on the lymphatic system and myocardial repair of the heart have developed rapidly, and the mechanisms for lymphangiogenesis and lymphatic endothelial cell secretion have been elucidated by different animal models. A deep understanding of the structural, molecular, and functional characteristics of the lymphatic system of the heart can help develop therapies that target the lymphatic system in the heart. Summarizing the progress in studies on targets related to myocardial repair and the cardiac lymphatic system is helpful to provide potential new targets and strategies for myocardial repair therapy after myocardial infarction.

Tenascin-C in Tissue Repair after Myocardial Infarction in Humans

Adverse ventricular remodeling after myocardial infarction (MI) is progressive ventricular dilatation associated with heart failure for weeks or months and is currently regarded as the most critical sequela of MI. It is explained by inadequate tissue repair due to dysregulated inflammation during the acute stage; however, its pathophysiology remains unclear. Tenascin-C (TNC), an original member of the matricellular protein family, is highly up-regulated in the acute stage after MI, and a high peak in its serum level predicts an increased risk of adverse ventricular remodeling in the chronic stage. Experimental TNC-deficient or -overexpressing mouse models have suggested the diverse functions of TNC, particularly its pro-inflammatory effects on macrophages. The present study investigated the roles of TNC during human myocardial repair. We initially categorized the healing process into four phases: inflammatory, granulation, fibrogenic, and scar phases. We then immunohistochemically examined human autopsy samples at the different stages after MI and performed detailed mapping of TNC in human myocardial repair with a focus on lymphangiogenesis, the role of which has recently been attracting increasing attention as a mechanism to resolve inflammation. The direct effects of TNC on human lymphatic endothelial cells were also assessed by RNA sequencing. The results obtained support the potential roles of TNC in the regulation of macrophages, sprouting angiogenesis, the recruitment of myofibroblasts, and the early formation of collagen fibrils during the inflammatory phase to the early granulation phase of human MI. Lymphangiogenesis was observed after the expression of TNC was down-regulated. In vitro results revealed that TNC modestly down-regulated genes related to nuclear division, cell division, and cell migration in lymphatic endothelial cells, suggesting its inhibitory effects on lymphatic endothelial cells. The present results indicate that TNC induces prolonged over-inflammation by suppressing lymphangiogenesis, which may be one of the mechanisms underlying adverse post-infarct remodeling.

Single-cell RNA sequencing identifies response of renal lymphatic endothelial cells to acute kidney injury

The inflammatory response to acute kidney injury (AKI) likely dictates future renal health. Lymphatic vessels are responsible for maintaining tissue homeostasis through transport and immunomodulatory roles. Due to the relative sparsity of lymphatic endothelial cells (LECs) in the kidney, past sequencing efforts have not characterized these cells and their response to AKI. Here we characterized murine renal LEC subpopulations by single-cell RNA sequencing and investigated their changes in cisplatin AKI. We validated our findings by qPCR in LECs isolated from both cisplatin-injured and ischemia reperfusion injury, by immunofluorescence, and confirmation in in vitro human LECs. We have identified renal LECs and their lymphatic vascular roles that have yet to be characterized in previous studies. We report unique gene changes mapped across control and cisplatin injured conditions. Following AKI, renal LECs alter genes involved endothelial cell apoptosis and vasculogenic processes as well as immunoregulatory signaling and metabolism. Differences between injury models are also identified with renal LECs further demonstrating changed gene expression between cisplatin and ischemia reperfusion injury models, indicating the renal LEC response is both specific to where they lie in the lymphatic vasculature and the renal injury type. How LECs respond to AKI may therefore be key in regulating future kidney disease progression.

Differential regulation of lymphatic junctional morphology and the potential effects on cardiovascular diseases

The lymphatic vasculature provides an essential route to drain fluid, macromolecules, and immune cells from the interstitium as lymph, returning it to the bloodstream where the thoracic duct meets the subclavian vein. To ensure functional lymphatic drainage, the lymphatic system contains a complex network of vessels which has differential regulation of unique cell-cell junctions. The lymphatic endothelial cells lining initial lymphatic vessels form permeable "button-like" junctions which allow substances to enter the vessel. Collecting lymphatic vessels form less permeable "zipper-like" junctions which retain lymph within the vessel and prevent leakage. Therefore, sections of the lymphatic bed are differentially permeable, regulated in part by its junctional morphology. In this review, we will discuss our current understanding of regulating lymphatic junctional morphology, highlighting how it relates to lymphatic permeability during development and disease. We will also discuss the effect of alterations in lymphatic permeability on efficient lymphatic flux in health and how it may affect cardiovascular diseases, with a focus on atherosclerosis.

The Lymphatic Vasculature in Cardiac Development and Ischemic Heart Disease

In recent years, the lymphatic system has received increasing attention due to the fast-growing number of findings about its diverse novel functional roles in health and disease. It is well documented that the lymphatic vasculature plays major roles in the maintenance of tissue-fluid balance, the immune response, and in lipid absorption. However, recent studies have identified an additional growing number of novel and sometimes unexpected functional roles of the lymphatic vasculature in normal and pathological conditions in different organs. Among those, cardiac lymphatics have been shown to play important roles in heart development, ischemic cardiac disease, and cardiac disorders. In this review, we will discuss some of those novel functional roles of cardiac lymphatics, as well as the therapeutic potential of targeting lymphatics for the treatment of cardiovascular diseases.

Single-nucleus RNA sequencing in ischemic cardiomyopathy reveals common transcriptional profile underlying end-stage heart failure

Ischemic cardiomyopathy (ICM) is the leading cause of heart failure worldwide, yet the cellular and molecular signature of this disease is largely unclear. Using single-nucleus RNA sequencing (snRNA-seq) and integrated computational analyses, we profile the transcriptomes of over 99,000 human cardiac nuclei from the non-infarct region of the left ventricle of 7 ICM transplant recipients and 8 non-failing (NF) controls. We find the cellular composition of the ischemic heart is significantly altered, with decreased cardiomyocytes and increased proportions of lymphatic, angiogenic, and arterial endothelial cells in patients with ICM. We show that there is increased LAMININ signaling from endothelial cells to other cell types in ICM compared with NF. Finally, we find that the transcriptional changes that occur in ICM are similar to those in hypertrophic and dilated cardiomyopathies and that the mining of these combined datasets can identify druggable genes that could be used to target end-stage heart failure.

Targeting immunoregulation for cardiac regeneration

Inducing endogenous cardiomyocyte proliferation and heart regeneration is a promising strategy to treat ischemic heart failure. The immune response has recently been considered critical in cardiac regeneration. Thus, targeting the immune response is a potent strategy to improve cardiac regeneration and repair after myocardial infarction. Here we reviewed the characteristics of the relationship between the postinjury immune response and heart regenerative capacity and summarized the latest studies focusing on inflammation and heart regeneration to identify potent targets of the immune response and strategies in the immune response to promote cardiac regeneration.

Current Status of Lymphangiogenesis: Molecular Mechanism, Immune Tolerance, and Application Prospect

The lymphatic system is a channel for fluid transport and cell migration, but it has always been controversial in promoting and suppressing cancer. VEGFC/VEGFR3 signaling has long been recognized as a major molecular driver of lymphangiogenesis. However, many studies have shown that the neural network of lymphatic signaling is complex. Lymphatic vessels have been found to play an essential role in the immune regulation of tumor metastasis and cardiac repair. This review describes the effects of lipid metabolism, extracellular vesicles, and flow shear forces on lymphangiogenesis. Moreover, the pro-tumor immune tolerance function of lymphatic vessels is discussed, and the tasks of meningeal lymphatic vessels and cardiac lymphatic vessels in diseases are further discussed. Finally, the value of conversion therapy targeting the lymphatic system is introduced from the perspective of immunotherapy and pro-lymphatic biomaterials for lymphangiogenesis.

The Effect of Lymphangiogenesis in Transplant Arteriosclerosis

BACKGROUND

Transplant arteriosclerosis is a major complication in long-term survivors of heart transplantation. Increased lymph flow from donor heart to host lymph nodes has been reported to play a role in transplant arteriosclerosis, but how lymphangiogenesis affects this process is unknown.

METHODS

Vascular allografts were transplanted among various combinations of mice, including wild-type, Lyve1-CreERT2;R26-tdTomato, CAG-Cre-tdTomato, severe combined immune deficiency, Ccr2KO, Foxn1KO, and lghm/lghdKO mice. Whole-mount staining and 3-dimensional reconstruction identified lymphatic vessels within the grafted arteries. Lineage tracing strategies delineated the cellular origin of lymphatic endothelial cells. Adeno-associated viral vectors and a selective inhibitor were used to regulate lymphangiogenesis.

RESULTS

Lymphangiogenesis within allograft vessels began at the anastomotic sites and extended from preexisting lymphatic vessels in the host. Tertiary lymphatic organs were identified in transplanted arteries at the anastomotic site and lymphatic vessels expressing CCL21 (chemokine [C-C motif] ligand 21) were associated with these immune structures. Fibroblasts in the vascular allografts released VEGF-C (vascular endothelial growth factor C), which stimulated lymphangiogenesis into the grafts. Inhibition of VEGF-C signaling inhibited lymphangiogenesis, neointima formation, and adventitial fibrosis of vascular allografts. These studies identified VEGF-C released from fibroblasts as a signal stimulating lymphangiogenesis extending from the host into the vascular allografts.

CONCLUSIONS

Formation of lymphatic vessels plays a key role in the immune response to vascular transplantation. The inhibition of lymphangiogenesis may be a novel approach to prevent transplant arteriosclerosis.

Three-dimensional spatial quantitative analysis of cardiac lymphatics in the mouse heart

Objective

3D microscopy and image data analysis are necessary for studying the morphology of cardiac lymphatic vessels (LyVs) and association with other cell types. We aimed to develop a methodology for 3D multiplexed lightsheet microscopy and highly sensitive and quantitative image analysis to identify pathological remodeling in the 3D morphology of LyVs in young adult mouse hearts with familial hypertrophic cardiomyopathy (HCM).

Methods

We developed a 3D lightsheet microscopy workflow providing a quick turn-around (as few as 5-6 days), multiplex fluorescence detection, and preservation of LyV structure and epitope markers. Hearts from non-transgenic (NTG) and transgenic (TG) HCM mice were arrested in diastole, retrograde perfused, immunolabeled, optically cleared, and imaged. We built an image processing pipeline to quantify LyV morphological parameters at the chamber and branch levels.

Results

Chamber-specific pathological alterations of LyVs were identified, but most significantly in the right atrium (RA). TG hearts had a higher volume fraction of ER-TR7 + fibroblasts and reticular fibers. In the RA, we found associations between ER-TR7 + volume fraction and both LyV segment density and median diameter.

Conclusions

This workflow and study enabled multi-scale analysis of pathological changes in cardiac LyVs of young adult mice, inviting ideas for research on LyVs in cardiac disease.